Niobium: Niobium, Also Known As Columbium, Is A Chemical Element With The

7/22/2020 Niobium - Wikipedia
Niobium
Niobium, also known as columbium, is a chemical element with the
symbol Nb (formerly Cb) and atomic number 41. Niobium is a light grey, Niobium, 41Nb
crystalline, and ductile transition metal. Pure niobium has a hardness similar
to that of pure titanium,[2] and it has similar ductility to iron. Niobium
oxidizes in the earth's atmosphere very slowly, hence its application in jewelry
as a hypoallergenic alternative to nickel. Niobium is often found in the
minerals pyrochlore and columbite, hence the former name "columbium". Its
name comes from Greek mythology, specifically Niobe, who was the daughter
of Tantalus, the namesake of tantalum. The name reflects the great similarity
between the two elements in their physical and chemical properties, making Niobium
them difficult to distinguish.[3]
Pronunciation /naɪˈoʊbiəm/ (ny-OH-bee-əm)
The English chemist Charles Hatchett reported a new element similar to Appearance gray metallic, bluish when
tantalum in 1801 and named it columbium. In 1809, the English chemist oxidized
William Hyde Wollaston wrongly concluded that tantalum and columbium
were identical. The German chemist Heinrich Rose determined in 1846 that Standard atomic 92.906 37(1)[1]
tantalum ores contain a second element, which he named niobium. In 1864 weight Ar, std(Nb)
and 1865, a series of scientific findings clarified that niobium and columbium Niobium in the periodic table
were the same element (as distinguished from tantalum), and for a century
both names were used interchangeably. Niobium was officially adopted as the H H V
LB BCNOFN ↑
name of the element in 1949, but the name columbium remains in current use SM ASPSCA Nb
PCS TVCMIrCNCZGGASBK ↓
in metallurgy in the United States. RSY ZNMTRRPSCInTATIoX
CBLCPNPSEGTDHETYLHTTROIrPGMTLBPAR Ta
FRATPUNPACBCEFMNLRDSBHMDRCNFMLTO
zirconium ← niobium → molybdenum
It was not until the early 20th century that niobium was first used
commercially. Brazil is the leading producer of niobium and ferroniobium, an Atomic number (Z) 41
alloy of 60–70% niobium with iron. Niobium is used mostly in alloys, the
Group group 5
largest part in special steel such as that used in gas pipelines. Although these
alloys contain a maximum of 0.1%, the small percentage of niobium enhances Period period 5
the strength of the steel. The temperature stability of niobium-containing Block d-block
superalloys is important for its use in jet and rocket engines.
Element category Transition metal
Niobium is used in various superconducting materials. These Electron [Kr] 4d4 5s1
superconducting alloys, also containing titanium and tin, are widely used in configuration
the superconducting magnets of MRI scanners. Other applications of niobium
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 12, 1
include welding, nuclear industries, electronics, optics, numismatics, and
jewelry. In the last two applications, the low toxicity and iridescence produced Physical properties
by anodization are highly desired properties. Niobium is considered a Phase at STP solid
technology-critical element.
Melting point 2750 K (2477 °C, 4491 °F)
Boiling point 5017 K (4744 °C, 8571 °F)
Contents Density (near r.t.) 8.57 g/cm3

Heat of fusion 30 kJ/mol
History
Naming the element Heat of 689.9 kJ/mol
vaporization
Characteristics
Physical Molar heat 24.60 J/(mol·K)
Chemical capacity
Isotopes Vapor pressure

Occurrence P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
Production at T (K) 2942 3207 3524 3910 4393 5013

Compounds
Atomic properties
Oxides and sulfides
Halides Oxidation states −3, −1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5
Nitrides and carbides (a mildly acidic oxide)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium 1/15
Applications Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.6

Steel production Ionization 1st: 652.1 kJ/mol
Superalloys energies 2nd: 1380 kJ/mol
Niobium-based alloys
3rd: 2416 kJ/mol
Superconducting magnets
Other superconductors Atomic radius empirical: 146 pm
Other uses Covalent radius 164±6 pm
Electroceramics
Hypoallergenic applications: medicine and jewelry
Numismatics Spectral lines of niobium
Other
Other properties
Precautions Natural primordial
References occurrence
External links Crystal structure body-centered cubic (bcc)
History
Speed of sound 3480 m/s (at 20 °C)
Niobium was identified by English chemist Charles thin rod
Hatchett in 1801.[4][5][6] He found a new element in a
mineral sample that had been sent to England from Thermal 7.3 µm/(m·K)
Connecticut, United States in 1734 by John Winthrop expansion
F.R.S. (grandson of John Winthrop the Younger) and Thermal 53.7 W/(m·K)
named the mineral columbite and the new element conductivity
columbium after Columbia, the poetical name for the
Electrical 152 nΩ·m (at 0 °C)
Charles Hatchett United States.[7][8][9] The columbium discovered by
Hatchett was probably a mixture of the new element with resistivity
identified the
element tantalum.[7] Magnetic ordering paramagnetic
columbium
Young's modulus 105 GPa
within a mineral Subsequently, there was considerable confusion[10] over
discovered in the difference between columbium (niobium) and the Shear modulus 38 GPa
Connecticut, US. closely related tantalum. In 1809, English chemist Bulk modulus 170 GPa
William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived
Poisson ratio 0.40
from both columbium—columbite, with a density
5.918 g/cm3, and tantalum—tantalite, with a density over Mohs hardness 6.0
8 g/cm3, and concluded that the two oxides, despite the Vickers hardness 870–1320 MPa
significant difference in density, were identical; thus he
Brinell hardness 735–2450 MPa
kept the name tantalum.[10] This conclusion was
disputed in 1846 by German chemist Heinrich Rose, who CAS Number 7440-03-1
argued that there were two different elements in the History
tantalite sample, and named them after children of
Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe) and pelopium (from Naming after Niobe in Greek mythology,
Pelops).[11][12] This confusion arose from the minimal daughter of Tantalus (tantalum)
Picture of a observed differences between tantalum and niobium. The Discovery Charles Hatchett (1801)
Hellenistic claimed new elements pelopium, ilmenium, and
First isolation Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand
sculpture dianium[13] were in fact identical to niobium or mixtures
(1864)
representing of niobium and tantalum.[14]
Niobe by Giorgio Recognized as a Heinrich Rose (1844)
Sommer The differences between tantalum and niobium were distinct element
unequivocally demonstrated in 1864 by Christian by
Wilhelm Blomstrand[14] and Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire
Main isotopes of niobium
Deville, as well as Louis J. Troost, who determined the formulas of some of
the compounds in 1865[14][15] and finally by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Iso- Abun- Half-life Decay Pro-
Galissard de Marignac[16] in 1866, who all proved that there were only two tope dance (t1/2) mode duct
elements. Articles on ilmenium continued to appear until 1871.[17]
90Nb syn 15 h β+ 90Zr
De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864, when he reduced 91Nb 91Zr
syn 680 y ε
niobium chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen.[18] Although de
Marignac was able to produce tantalum-free niobium on a larger scale by 91mNb syn 61 d IT 91Nb
1866, it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was used in
incandescent lamp filaments, the first commercial application.[15] This use 92Nb trace 3.47×107 y ε 92Zr
quickly became obsolete through the replacement of niobium with tungsten,

γ –
which has a higher melting point. That niobium improves the strength of steel
was first discovered in the 1920s, and this application remains its ε 92Zr
predominant use.[15] In 1961, the American physicist Eugene Kunzler and 92m1Nb syn 10 d
coworkers at Bell Labs discovered that niobium-tin continues to exhibit γ –
superconductivity in the presence of strong electric currents and magnetic 93Nb 100% stable
fields,[19] making it the first material to support the high currents and fields
necessary for useful high-power magnets and electrical power machinery. 93mNb syn 16 y IT 93Nb
This discovery enabled – two decades later – the production of long multi-
strand cables wound into coils to create large, powerful electromagnets for β− 94Mo
94Nb 20.3×103 y
rotating machinery, particle accelerators, and particle detectors.[20][21] trace
γ –
β− 95Mo
Naming the element 95Nb syn 35 d
γ –
Columbium (symbol "Cb")[22] was the name originally bestowed by Hatchett
95mNb 95Nb
upon his discovery of the metal in 1801.[5] The name reflected that the type syn 4 d IT
specimen of the ore came from America (Columbia).[23] This name remained 96Nb syn 24 h β− 96Mo
in use in American journals—the last paper published by American Chemical
Society with columbium in its title dates from 1953[24]—while niobium was
used in Europe. To end this confusion, the name niobium was chosen for element 41 at the 15th Conference of the Union of
Chemistry in Amsterdam in 1949.[25] A year later this name was officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) after 100 years of controversy, despite the chronological precedence of the name columbium.[25]
This was a compromise of sorts;[25] the IUPAC accepted tungsten instead of wolfram in deference to North American usage; and
niobium instead of columbium in deference to European usage. While many US chemical societies and government
organizations typically use the official IUPAC name, some metallurgists and metal societies still use the original American name,
"columbium".[26][27][28][29]
Characteristics
Physical
Niobium is a lustrous, grey, ductile, paramagnetic metal in group 5 of the periodic table (see table), with an electron
configuration in the outermost shells atypical for group 5. (This can be observed in the neighborhood of ruthenium (44),
rhodium (45), and palladium (46).)
Although it is thought to have a body-centered cubic crystal structure from absolute zero
to its melting point, high-resolution measurements of the thermal expansion along the Z Element No. of electrons/shell
three crystallographic axes reveal anisotropies which are inconsistent with a cubic 23 vanadium 2, 8, 11, 2
structure.[30] Therefore, further research and discovery in this area is expected. 41 niobium 2, 8, 18, 12, 1
Niobium becomes a superconductor at cryogenic temperatures. At atmospheric 73 tantalum 2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2
pressure, it has the highest critical temperature of the elemental superconductors at 105 dubnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2
9.2 K.[31] Niobium has the greatest magnetic penetration depth of any element.[31] In
addition, it is one of the three elemental Type II superconductors, along with vanadium and technetium. The superconductive
properties are strongly dependent on the purity of the niobium metal.[32]
When very pure, it is comparatively soft and ductile, but impurities make it harder.[33]
The metal has a low capture cross-section for thermal neutrons;[34] thus it is used in the nuclear industries where neutron
transparent structures are desired.[35]
Chemical
The metal takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to air at room temperature for extended periods.[36] Despite a high melting point
in elemental form (2,468 °C), it has a lower density than other refractory metals. Furthermore, it is corrosion-resistant, exhibits
superconductivity properties, and forms dielectric oxide layers.
Niobium is slightly less electropositive and more compact than its predecessor in the periodic table, zirconium, whereas it is
virtually identical in size to the heavier tantalum atoms, as a result of the lanthanide contraction.[33] As a result, niobium's
chemical properties are very similar to those for tantalum, which appears directly below niobium in the periodic table.[15]
Although its corrosion resistance is not as outstanding as that of tantalum, the lower price and greater availability make niobium
attractive for less demanding applications, such as vat linings in chemical plants.[33]
Isotopes
Niobium in the Earth's crust comprises one stable isotope, 93Nb.[37] By 2003, at least 32 radioisotopes had been synthesized,
ranging in atomic mass from 81 to 113. The most stable of these is 92Nb with a half-life of 34.7 million years. One of the least
stable is 113Nb, with an estimated half-life of 30 milliseconds. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 93Nb tend to decay by β+
decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β− decay, with some exceptions. 81Nb, 82Nb, and 84Nb have minor β+ delayed
proton emission decay paths, 91Nb decays by electron capture and positron emission, and 92Nb decays by both β+ and β−
decay.[37]
At least 25 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 84 to 104. Within this range, only 96Nb, 101Nb,
and 103Nb do not have isomers. The most stable of niobium's isomers is 93mNb with a half-life of 16.13 years. The least stable
isomer is 84mNb with a half-life of 103 ns. All of niobium's isomers decay by isomeric transition or beta decay except 92m1Nb,
which has a minor electron capture branch.[37]
Occurrence
Niobium is estimated to be the 34th most common element in the Earth's crust, with 20 ppm.[38] Some think that the abundance
on Earth is much greater, and that the element's high density has concentrated it in the Earth's core.[27] The free element is not
found in nature, but niobium occurs in combination with other elements in minerals.[33] Minerals that contain niobium often
also contain tantalum. Examples include columbite ((Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6) and columbite–tantalite (or coltan, (Fe,Mn)
(Ta,Nb)2O6).[39] Columbite–tantalite minerals (the most common species being columbite-(Fe) and tantalite-(Fe), where "-(Fe)"
is the Levinson suffix informing about the prevailence of iron over other elements like manganese[40][41][42][43]) are most usually
found as accessory minerals in pegmatite intrusions, and in alkaline intrusive rocks. Less common are the niobates of calcium,
uranium, thorium and the rare earth elements. Examples of such niobates are pyrochlore ((Na,Ca)2Nb2O6(OH,F)) (now a group
name, with a relatively common example being, e.g., fluorcalciopyrochlore[44][45][42][43][46]) and euxenite (correctly named
euxenite-(Y)[47][42][43]) ((Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6). These large deposits of niobium have been found associated with
carbonatites (carbonate-silicate igneous rocks) and as a constituent of pyrochlore.[48]
The three largest currently mined deposits of pyrochlore, two in Brazil and one in Canada, were found in the 1950s, and are still
the major producers of niobium mineral concentrates.[15] The largest deposit is hosted within a carbonatite intrusion in Araxá,
state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, owned by CBMM (Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração); the other active Brazilian
deposit is located near Catalão, state of Goiás, and owned by China Molybdenum, also hosted within a carbonatite intrusion.[49]
Together, those two mines produce about 88% of the world's supply.[50] Brazil also has a large but still unexploited deposit near
São Gabriel da Cachoeira, state of Amazonas, as well as a few smaller deposits, notably in the state of Roraima.[50]
The third largest producer of niobium is the carbonatite-hosted Niobec mine, in Saint-Honoré, near Chicoutimi, Quebec,
Canada, owned by Magris Resources.[51] It produces between 7% and 10% of the world's supply.[49][50]
Production
After the separation from the other minerals, the mixed oxides of tantalum
Ta2O5 and niobium Nb2O5 are obtained. The first step in the processing is the
reaction of the oxides with hydrofluoric acid:[39]
Ta2O5 + 14 HF → 2 H2[TaF7] + 5 H2O

Nb2O5 + 10 HF → 2 H2[NbOF5] + 3 H2O
The first industrial scale separation, developed by de Marignac, exploits the

Niobium producers in 2006 to 2015
differing solubilities of the complex niobium and tantalum fluorides,
dipotassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate (K2[NbOF5]·H2O) and
dipotassium heptafluorotantalate (K2[TaF7]) in water. Newer processes use the liquid extraction of the fluorides from aqueous
solution by organic solvents like cyclohexanone.[39]

The complex niobium and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from
the organic solvent with water and either precipitated by the addition of potassium fluoride to produce a potassium fluoride
complex, or precipitated with ammonia as the pentoxide:[52]
H2[NbOF5] + 2 KF → K2[NbOF5]↓ + 2 HF
Followed by:
2 H2[NbOF5] + 10 NH4OH → Nb2O5↓ + 10 NH4F + 7 H2O
Several methods are used for the reduction to metallic niobium. The electrolysis of a molten mixture of K2[NbOF5] and sodium
chloride is one; the other is the reduction of the fluoride with sodium. With this method, a relatively high purity niobium can be
obtained. In large scale production, Nb2O5 is reduced with hydrogen or carbon.[52] In the aluminothermic reaction, a mixture of
iron oxide and niobium oxide is reacted with aluminium:
3 Nb2O5 + Fe2O3 + 12 Al → 6 Nb + 2 Fe + 6 Al2O3
Small amounts of oxidizers like sodium nitrate are added to enhance the reaction. The result is aluminium oxide and
ferroniobium, an alloy of iron and niobium used in steel production.[53][54] Ferroniobium contains between 60 and 70%
niobium.[49] Without iron oxide, the aluminothermic process is used to produce niobium. Further purification is necessary to
reach the grade for superconductive alloys. Electron beam melting under vacuum is the method used by the two major
distributors of niobium.[55][56]
As of 2013, CBMM from Brazil controlled 85 percent of the world's niobium production.[57] The United States Geological Survey
estimates that the production increased from 38,700 tonnes in 2005 to 44,500 tonnes in 2006.[58][59] Worldwide resources are
estimated to be 4,400,000 tonnes.[59] During the ten-year period between 1995 and 2005, the production more than doubled,
starting from 17,800 tonnes in 1995.[60] Between 2009 and 2011, production was stable at 63,000 tonnes per year,[61] with a
slight decrease in 2012 to only 50,000 tonnes per year.[62]
Mine production (t)[63] (USGS estimate)

Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
160 230 290 230 200 200 200 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Australia
Brazil 30,000 22,000 26,000 29,000 29,900 35,000 40,000 57,300 58,000 58,000 58,000 58,000 45,000 53,100
Canada 2,290 3,200 3,410 3,280 3,400 3,310 4,167 3,020 4,380 4,330 4,420 4,630 4,710 5,260
Congo
? 50 50 13 52 25 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
D.R.
? ? 5 34 130 34 29 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Mozambique
Nigeria 35 30 30 190 170 40 35 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Rwanda 28 120 76 22 63 63 80 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
World 32,600 25,600 29,900 32,800 34,000 38,700 44,500 60,400 62,900 62,900 62,900 63,000 50,100 59,400
Lesser amounts are found in Malawi's Kanyika Deposit (Kanyika mine).
Compounds
In many ways, niobium is similar to tantalum and zirconium. It reacts with most nonmetals at high temperatures; with fluorine
at room temperature; with chlorine at 150 °C and hydrogen at 200 °C; and with nitrogen at 400 °C, with products that are
frequently interstitial and nonstoichiometric.[33] The metal begins to oxidize in air at 200 °C.[52] It resists corrosion by fused
alkalis and by acids, including aqua regia, hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids.[33] Niobium is attacked by
hydrofluoric acid and hydrofluoric/nitric acid mixtures.
Although niobium exhibits all of the formal oxidation states from +5 to −1, the most common compounds have niobium in the +5
state.[33] Characteristically, compounds in oxidation states less than 5+ display Nb–Nb bonding. In aqueous solutions, niobium
only exhibit the +5 oxidation state. It is also readily prone to hydrolysis and is barely soluble in dilute solutions of hydrochloric,
sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids due to the precipitation of hydrous Nb oxide.[55] Nb(V) is also slightly soluble in alkaline
media due to the formation of soluble polyoxoniobate species.[64][65]
Oxides and sulfides
Niobium forms oxides in the oxidation states +5 (Nb2O5),[66] +4 (NbO2), +3 (Nb2O3),[52] and the rarer oxidation state, +2
(NbO).[67] Most common is the pentoxide, precursor to almost all niobium compounds and alloys.[52][68] Niobates are generated
by dissolving the pentoxide in basic hydroxide solutions or by melting it in alkali metal oxides. Examples are lithium niobate
(LiNbO3) and lanthanum niobate (LaNbO4). In the lithium niobate is a trigonally distorted perovskite-like structure, whereas the
lanthanum niobate contains lone NbO3− 4 ions.
[52] The layered niobium sulfide (NbS ) is also known.[33]
2
Materials can be coated with a thin film of niobium(V) oxide chemical vapor deposition or atomic layer deposition processes,
produced by the thermal decomposition of niobium(V) ethoxide above 350 °C.[69][70]
Halides
Niobium forms halides in the oxidation states of +5 and +4 as well as diverse substoichiometric
compounds.[52][55] The pentahalides (NbX5) feature octahedral Nb centres. Niobium
pentafluoride (NbF5) is a white solid with a melting point of 79.0 °C and niobium pentachloride
(NbCl5) is yellow (see image at left) with a melting point of 203.4 °C. Both are hydrolyzed to give
oxides and oxyhalides, such as NbOCl3. The pentachloride is a versatile reagent used to generate
the organometallic compounds, such as niobocene dichloride ((C5H5)2NbCl2).[71] The tetrahalides
(NbX4) are dark-coloured polymers with Nb-Nb bonds; for example, the black hygroscopic
niobium tetrafluoride (NbF4) and brown niobium tetrachloride (NbCl4).
Anionic halide compounds of niobium are well known, owing in part to the Lewis acidity of the
pentahalides. The most important is [NbF7]2−, an intermediate in the separation of Nb and Ta
from the ores.[39] This heptafluoride tends to form the oxopentafluoride more readily than does
A sample of niobium the tantalum compound. Other halide complexes include octahedral [NbCl6]−:
pentachloride (yellow portion)
that has partially hydrolyzed
Nb2Cl10 + 2 Cl− → 2 [NbCl6]−
(white material).
As with other metals with low atomic numbers, a variety of reduced halide cluster ions is known,
the prime example being [Nb6Cl18]4−.[72]
Nitrides and carbides
Other binary compounds of niobium include niobium nitride (NbN), which becomes a
superconductor at low temperatures and is used in detectors for infrared light.[73] The main
Ball-and-stick model of niobium carbide is NbC, an extremely hard, refractory, ceramic material, commercially used in
niobium pentachloride, which cutting tool bits.
exists as a dimer
Applications
Out of 44,500 tonnes of niobium mined in 2006, an estimated 90% was used in high-grade
structural steel. The second largest application is superalloys.[74] Niobium alloy
superconductors and electronic components account for a very small share of the world
production.[74]
Steel production
Niobium is an effective microalloying element for steel, within which it forms niobium
carbide and niobium nitride.[27] These compounds improve the grain refining, and retard
recrystallization and precipitation hardening. These effects in turn increase the toughness, A niobium foil
strength, formability, and weldability.[27] Within microalloyed stainless steels, the niobium
content is a small (less than 0.1%[75]) but important addition to high strength low alloy steels
that are widely used structurally in modern automobiles.[27] Niobium is sometimes used in considerably higher quantities for
highly wear-resistant machine components and knives, as high as 3% in Crucible CPM S110V stainless steel.[76]
These same niobium alloys are often used in pipeline construction.[77][78]
Superalloys
Quantities of niobium are used in nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-based superalloys in proportions
as great as 6.5%[75] for such applications as jet engine components, gas turbines, rocket
subassemblies, turbo charger systems, heat resisting, and combustion equipment. Niobium
precipitates a hardening γ''-phase within the grain structure of the superalloy.[79]
One example superalloy is Inconel 718, consisting of roughly 50% nickel, 18.6% chromium,
18.5% iron, 5% niobium, 3.1% molybdenum, 0.9% titanium, and 0.4% aluminium.[80][81]
These superalloys were used, for example, in advanced air frame systems for the Gemini
program. Another niobium alloy was used for the nozzle of the Apollo Service Module.
Because niobium is oxidized at temperatures above 400 °C, a protective coating is necessary Apollo 15 CSM in lunar orbit with the
for these applications to prevent the alloy from becoming brittle.[82] dark rocket nozzle made from
niobium-titanium alloy
Niobium-based alloys
C-103 alloy was developed in the early 1960s jointly by the Wah Chang Corporation and Boeing Co. DuPont, Union Carbide
Corp., General Electric Co. and several other companies were developing Nb-base alloys simultaneously, largely driven by the
Cold War and Space Race. It is composed of 89% niobium, 10% hafnium and 1% titanium and is used for liquid rocket thruster
nozzles, such as the main engine of the Apollo Lunar Modules.[82]
The nozzle of the Merlin Vacuum series of engines developed by SpaceX for the upper stage
of its Falcon 9 rocket is made from a niobium alloy.[83]
The reactivity of niobium with oxygen requires it to be worked in a vacuum or inert

atmosphere, which significantly increases the cost and difficulty of production. Vacuum arc
remelting (VAR) and electron beam melting (EBM), novel processes at the time, enabled the
development of niobium and other reactive metals. The project that yielded C-103 began in
1959 with as many as 256 experimental niobium alloys in the "C-series" (possibly from
columbium) that could be melted as buttons and rolled into sheet. Wah Chang had an
inventory of hafnium, refined from nuclear-grade zirconium alloys, that it wanted to put to
commercial use. The 103rd experimental composition of the C-series alloys, Nb-10Hf-1Ti,
had the best combination of formability and high-temperature properties. Wah Chang
fabricated the first 500-lb heat of C-103 in 1961, ingot to sheet, using EBM and VAR. The
intended applications included turbine engines and liquid metal heat exchangers. Competing
niobium alloys from that era included FS85 (Nb-10W-28Ta-1Zr) from Fansteel Metallurgical
Merlin Vacuum nozzle.
Corp., Cb129Y (Nb-10W-10Hf-0.2Y) from Wah Chang and Boeing, Cb752 (Nb-10W-2.5Zr)
from Union Carbide, and Nb1Zr from Superior Tube Co.[82]
Superconducting magnets
Niobium-germanium (Nb3Ge), niobium-tin (Nb3Sn), as well as the niobium-titanium alloys

are used as a type II superconductor wire for superconducting magnets.[84][85] These
superconducting magnets are used in magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic
resonance instruments as well as in particle accelerators.[86] For example, the Large Hadron
Collider uses 600 tons of superconducting strands, while the International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor uses an estimated 600 tonnes of Nb3Sn strands and 250 tonnes of
NbTi strands.[87] In 1992 alone, more than US$1 billion worth of clinical magnetic resonance
imaging systems were constructed with niobium-titanium wire.[20]
A 3-tesla clinical magnetic
resonance imaging scanner using
Other superconductors niobium superconducting alloy
The superconducting radio frequency (SRF) cavities used in the free-electron lasers FLASH
(result of the cancelled TESLA linear accelerator project) and XFEL are made from pure
niobium.[88] A cryomodule team at Fermilab used the same SRF technology from the FLASH project to develop 1.3 GHz nine-cell
SRF cavities made from pure niobium. The cavities will be used in the 30-kilometre (19 mi) linear particle accelerator of the
International Linear Collider.[89] The same technology will be used in LCLS-II at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and PIP-
II at Fermilab.[90]
The high sensitivity of superconducting niobium nitride bolometers make them an ideal
detector for electromagnetic radiation in the THz frequency band. These detectors were
tested at the Submillimeter Telescope, the South Pole Telescope, the Receiver Lab Telescope,
and at APEX, and are now used in the HIFI instrument on board the Herschel Space
Observatory.[91]
Other uses
Electroceramics A 1.3 GHz 9-cell SRF cavity made

from niobium is on display at
Lithium niobate, which is a ferroelectric, is used extensively in mobile telephones and optical Fermilab
modulators, and for the manufacture of surface acoustic wave devices. It belongs to the ABO3
structure ferroelectrics like lithium tantalate and barium titanate.[92] Niobium capacitors are
available as alternative to tantalum capacitors,[93] but tantalum capacitors still predominate. Niobium is added to glass to obtain
a higher refractive index, making possible thinner and lighter corrective glasses.
Hypoallergenic applications: medicine and jewelry
Niobium and some niobium alloys are physiologically inert and hypoallergenic. For this reason, niobium is used in prosthetics
and implant devices, such as pacemakers.[94] Niobium treated with sodium hydroxide forms a porous layer that aids
osseointegration.[95]
Like titanium, tantalum, and aluminium, niobium can be heated and anodized ("reactive metal anodization") to produce a wide
array of iridescent colours for jewelry,[96][97] where its hypoallergenic property is highly desirable.[98]
Numismatics
Niobium is used as a precious metal in commemorative coins, often with silver or gold. For
example, Austria produced a series of silver niobium euro coins starting in 2003; the colour
in these coins is created by the diffraction of light by a thin anodized oxide layer.[99] In 2012,
ten coins are available showing a broad variety of colours in the centre of the coin: blue,
green, brown, purple, violet, or yellow. Two more examples are the 2004 Austrian €25 150
Years Semmering Alpine Railway commemorative coin,[100] and the 2006 Austrian €25
European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin.[101] The Austrian mint produced for
Latvia a similar series of coins starting in 2004,[102] with one following in 2007.[103] In 2011,
the Royal Canadian Mint started production of a $5 sterling silver and niobium coin named
Hunter's Moon[104] in which the niobium was selectively oxidized, thus creating unique
finishes where no two coins are exactly alike.
A 150 Years Semmering Alpine
Railway Coin made of niobium and
Other
silver
The arc-tube seals of high pressure sodium vapor lamps are made from niobium, sometimes
alloyed with 1% of zirconium; niobium has a very similar coefficient of thermal expansion,
matching the sintered alumina arc tube ceramic, a translucent material which resists chemical attack or reduction by the hot
liquid sodium and sodium vapour contained inside the operating lamp.[105][106][107]
Niobium is used in arc welding rods for some stabilized grades of stainless steel[108] and in anodes for cathodic protection
systems on some water tanks, which are then usually plated with platinum.[109][110]
Niobium is an important component of high-performance heterogeneous catalysts for the production of acrylic acid by selective
oxidation of propane.[111][112][113][114]
Niobium is used to make the high voltage wire of the solar corona particles receptor module of the Parker Solar Probe.[115]
Precautions
Niobium has no known biological role. While niobium dust is an eye and skin irritant and a Niobium
potential fire hazard, elemental niobium on a larger scale is physiologically inert (and thus
Hazards
hypoallergenic) and harmless. It is frequently used in jewelry and has been tested for use in
some medical implants.[116][117] NFPA 704 0

(fire diamond) 0 0
Niobium-containing compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but some are toxic
and should be treated with care. The short- and long-term exposure to niobates and niobium
chloride, two chemicals that are water-soluble, have been tested in rats. Rats treated with a
single injection of niobium pentachloride or niobates show a median lethal dose (LD50) between 10 and 100 mg/kg.[118][119][120]
For oral administration the toxicity is lower; a study with rats yielded a LD50 after seven days of 940 mg/kg.[118]
References
1. Meija, Juris; et al. (2016). "Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015
-0305). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 88 (3): 265–91. doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0305 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fpac-2015-030
5).
2. G.V. Samsonov, ed. (1968). "Mechanical Properties of the Elements" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150402123344/http://ihti
k.lib.ru/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika_3560.rar). Handbook of the physicochemical properties of
the elements. New York, USA: IFI-Plenum. pp. 387–446. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-6066-7_7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-
1-4684-6066-7_7). ISBN 978-1-4684-6066-7. Archived from the original (http://ihtik.lib.ru/2011.08_ihtik_nauka-tehnika/2011.0
8_ihtik_nauka-tehnika_3560.rar) on 2 April 2015.
3. Knapp, Brian (2002). Francium to Polonium. Atlantic Europe Publishing Company, p. 40. ISBN 0717256774.
4. Hatchett, Charles (1802). "An analysis of a mineral substance from North America, containing a metal hitherto unknown" (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=c-Q_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.
92: 49–66. doi:10.1098/rspl.1800.0045 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1800.0045). JSTOR 107114 (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/107114).
5. Hatchett, Charles (1802), "Outline of the Properties and Habitudes of the Metallic Substance, lately discovered by Charles
Hatchett, Esq. and by him denominated Columbium" (https://books.google.com/books?id=ylZwOmyBA7IC&pg=PA32#v=one
page&f=false), Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts, I (January): 32–34.
6. Hatchett, Charles (1802). "Eigenschaften und chemisches Verhalten des von Charles Hatchett entdeckten neuen Metalls,
Columbium" (https://books.google.com/books?id=wSYwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA120) [Properties and chemical behavior of the
new metal, columbium, (that was) discovered by Charles Hatchett]. Annalen der Physik (in German). 11 (5): 120–122.
Bibcode:1802AnP....11..120H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1802AnP....11..120H). doi:10.1002/andp.18020110507 (http
s://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18020110507).
7. Noyes, William Albert (1918). A Textbook of Chemistry (https://books.google.com/?id=UupHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA523&dq=colu
mbium+discovered+by+Hatchett+was+a+mixture+of+two+elements). H. Holt & Co. p. 523.
8. Percival, James (January 1853). "Middletown Silver and Lead Mines" (https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=MFILA
AAAYAAJ&rdid=book-MFILAAAAYAAJ&rdot=1). Journal of Silver and Lead Mining Operations. 1: 186. Retrieved 24 April
2013.
9. Griffith, William P.; Morris, Peter J. T. (2003). "Charles Hatchett FRS (1765–1847), Chemist and Discoverer of Niobium".
Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 57 (3): 299–316. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2003.0216 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2
Frsnr.2003.0216). JSTOR 3557720 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3557720).
10. Wollaston, William Hyde (1809). "On the Identity of Columbium and Tantalum". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society. 99: 246–252. doi:10.1098/rstl.1809.0017 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1809.0017). JSTOR 107264 (https://www.js
tor.org/stable/107264).
11. Rose, Heinrich (1844). "Ueber die Zusammensetzung der Tantalite und ein im Tantalite von Baiern enthaltenes neues Metall"
(http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15148n/f327.table). Annalen der Physik (in German). 139 (10): 317–341.
Bibcode:1844AnP...139..317R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1844AnP...139..317R). doi:10.1002/andp.18441391006 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18441391006).
12. Rose, Heinrich (1847). "Ueber die Säure im Columbit von Nordamérika" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15155x/f586.tab
le). Annalen der Physik (in German). 146 (4): 572–577. Bibcode:1847AnP...146..572R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/184
7AnP...146..572R). doi:10.1002/andp.18471460410 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18471460410).
13. Kobell, V. (1860). "Ueber eine eigenthümliche Säure, Diansäure, in der Gruppe der Tantal- und Niob- verbindungen" (https://z
enodo.org/record/1427822). Journal für Praktische Chemie. 79 (1): 291–303. doi:10.1002/prac.18600790145 (https://doi.org/
10.1002%2Fprac.18600790145).
14. Marignac, Blomstrand; Deville, H.; Troost, L.; Hermann, R. (1866). "Tantalsäure, Niobsäure, (Ilmensäure) und Titansäure".
Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 5 (1): 384–389. doi:10.1007/BF01302537 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF0130253
7).
15. Gupta, C. K.; Suri, A. K. (1994). Extractive Metallurgy of Niobium. CRC Press. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-0-8493-6071-8.
16. Marignac, M. C. (1866). "Recherches sur les combinaisons du niobium" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34818t/f4.table).
Annales de chimie et de physique (in French). 4 (8): 7–75.
17. Hermann, R. (1871). "Fortgesetzte Untersuchungen über die Verbindungen von Ilmenium und Niobium, sowie über die
Zusammensetzung der Niobmineralien (Further research about the compounds of ilmenium and niobium, as well as the
composition of niobium minerals)" (https://zenodo.org/record/1427850). Journal für Praktische Chemie (in German). 3 (1):
373–427. doi:10.1002/prac.18710030137 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fprac.18710030137).
18. "Niobium" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071210032159/http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e/elem/e04100.html).

Universidade de Coimbra. Archived from the original (http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e/elem/e04100.html) on 10
December 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2008.
19. Geballe et al. (1993) gives a critical point at currents of 150 kiloamperes and magnetic fields of 8.8 tesla.
20. Geballe, Theodore H. (October 1993). "Superconductivity: From Physics to Technology". Physics Today. 46 (10): 52–56.
Bibcode:1993PhT....46j..52G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993PhT....46j..52G). doi:10.1063/1.881384 (https://doi.org/1
0.1063%2F1.881384).
21. Matthias, B. T.; Geballe, T. H.; Geller, S.; Corenzwit, E. (1954). "Superconductivity of Nb3Sn". Physical Review. 95 (6): 1435.
Bibcode:1954PhRv...95.1435M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954PhRv...95.1435M). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.95.1435 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.95.1435).
22. Kòrösy, F. (1939). "Reaction of Tantalum, Columbium and Vanadium with Iodine". Journal of the American Chemical Society.
61 (4): 838–843. doi:10.1021/ja01873a018 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01873a018).
23. Nicholson, William, ed. (1809), The British Encyclopedia: Or, Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, Comprising an Accurate and
Popular View of the Present Improved State of Human Knowledge (https://books.google.com/books?id=SzUPAQAAIAAJ&pg
=PP284#v=onepage&f=false), 2, Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, p. 284.
24. Ikenberry, L.; Martin, J. L.; Boyer, W. J. (1953). "Photometric Determination of Columbium, Tungsten, and Tantalum in
Stainless Steels". Analytical Chemistry. 25 (9): 1340–1344. doi:10.1021/ac60081a011 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fac60081a
011).
25. Rayner-Canham, Geoff; Zheng, Zheng (2008). "Naming elements after scientists: an account of a controversy". Foundations
of Chemistry. 10 (1): 13–18. doi:10.1007/s10698-007-9042-1 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-007-9042-1).
26. Clarke, F. W. (1914). "Columbium Versus Niobium". Science. 39 (995): 139–140. Bibcode:1914Sci....39..139C (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/1914Sci....39..139C). doi:10.1126/science.39.995.139 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.39.995.139).
JSTOR 1640945 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1640945). PMID 17780662 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17780662).
27. Patel, Zh.; Khul'ka K. (2001). "Niobium for Steelmaking". Metallurgist. 45 (11–12): 477–480. doi:10.1023/A:1014897029026
(https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1014897029026).
28. Norman N., Greenwood (2003). "Vanadium to dubnium: from confusion through clarity to complexity". Catalysis Today. 78
(1–4): 5–11. doi:10.1016/S0920-5861(02)00318-8 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0920-5861%2802%2900318-8).
29. "ASTM A572 / A572M-18, Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel" (http
s://www.astm.org/Standards/A572). ASTM International, West Conshohocken. 2018. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
30. Bollinger, R. K.; White, B. D.; Neumeier, J. J.; Sandim, H. R. Z.; Suzuki, Y.; dos Santos, C. A. M.; Avci, R.; Migliori, A.; Betts,
J. B. (2011). "Observation of a Martensitic Structural Distortion in V, Nb, and Ta" (https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.07
5503). Physical Review Letters. 107 (7): 075503. Bibcode:2011PhRvL.107g5503B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011P
hRvL.107g5503B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.075503 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.107.075503).
PMID 21902404 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21902404).
31. Peiniger, M.; Piel, H. (1985). "A Superconducting Nb3Sn Coated Multicell Accelerating Cavity". IEEE Transactions on
Nuclear Science. 32 (5): 3610–3612. Bibcode:1985ITNS...32.3610P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985ITNS...32.3610
P). doi:10.1109/TNS.1985.4334443 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTNS.1985.4334443).
32. Salles Moura, Hernane R.; Louremjo de Moura, Louremjo (2007). "Melting And Purification of Niobium". AIP Conference
Proceedings. 927 (927): 165–178. Bibcode:2007AIPC..927..165M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AIPC..927..165M).
doi:10.1063/1.2770689 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2770689).
33. Nowak, Izabela; Ziolek, Maria (1999). "Niobium Compounds: Preparation, Characterization, and Application in
Heterogeneous Catalysis". Chemical Reviews. 99 (12): 3603–3624. doi:10.1021/cr9800208 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr98
00208). PMID 11849031 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11849031).
34. Jahnke, L. P.; Frank, R. G.; Redden, T. K. (1960). "Columbium Alloys Today". Metal Progr. 77 (6): 69–74. OSTI 4183692 (http
s://www.osti.gov/biblio/4183692).
35. Nikulina, A. V. (2003). "Zirconium-Niobium Alloys for Core Elements of Pressurized Water Reactors". Metal Science and Heat
Treatment. 45 (7–8): 287–292. Bibcode:2003MSHT...45..287N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003MSHT...45..287N).
doi:10.1023/A:1027388503837 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1027388503837).
36. Lide, David R. (2004). "The Elements" (https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide). CRC Handbook of Chemistry
and Physics (https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide) (85th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 4–21. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.
37. Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and
decay properties" (https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/in2p3-00020241/document), Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128,
Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A),
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001)
38. Emsley, John (2001). "Niobium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements (https://archive.org/details/naturesb
uildingb0000emsl/page/283). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 283–286 (https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildi
ngb0000emsl/page/283). ISBN 978-0-19-850340-8.
39. Soisson, Donald J.; McLafferty, J. J.; Pierret, James A. (1961). "Staff-Industry Collaborative Report: Tantalum and Niobium".
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 53 (11): 861–868. doi:10.1021/ie50623a016
(https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fie50623a016).
40. "Columbite-(Fe): Mineral information, data and localities" (https://www.mindat.org/min-1514.html). www.mindat.org.
41. "Tantalite-(Fe): Mineral information, data and localities" (https://www.mindat.org/min-1530.html). www.mindat.org.

42. Burke, Ernst A.J. (2008). "The use of suffixes in mineral names" (http://elementsmagazine.org/archives/e4_2/e4_2_dep_min
eralmatters.pdf) (PDF). Elements. 4 (2): 96. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
43. "CNMNC" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190810195707/http://nrmima.nrm.se//). nrmima.nrm.se. Archived from the original
(http://nrmima.nrm.se/) on 10 August 2019. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
44. "Pyrochlore Group: Mineral information, data and localities" (https://www.mindat.org/min-3316.html). www.mindat.org.
45. "Fluorcalciopyrochlore: Mineral information, data and localities" (https://www.mindat.org/min-40341.html). www.mindat.org.
46. http://rruff.info/uploads/AM62_403.pdf
47. "Euxenite-(Y): Mineral information, data and localities" (https://www.mindat.org/min-1425.html). www.mindat.org.
48. Lumpkin, Gregory R.; Ewing, Rodney C. (1995). "Geochemical alteration of pyrochlore group minerals: Pyrochlore subgroup"
(http://www.minsocam.org/msa/AmMin/TOC/Articles_Free/1995/Lumpkin_p732-743_95.pdf) (PDF). American Mineralogist.
80 (7–8): 732–743. Bibcode:1995AmMin..80..732L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995AmMin..80..732L).
doi:10.2138/am-1995-7-810 (https://doi.org/10.2138%2Fam-1995-7-810).
49. Kouptsidis, J.; Peters, F.; Proch, D.; Singer, W. "Niob für TESLA" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100548/http://tesla.d
esy.de/new_pages/TESLA_Reports/2001/pdf_files/tesla2001-27.pdf) (PDF) (in German). Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron
DESY. Archived from the original (http://tesla.desy.de/new_pages/TESLA_Reports/2001/pdf_files/tesla2001-27.pdf) (PDF) on
17 December 2008. Retrieved 2 September 2008.
50. Alvarenga, Darlan (9 April 2013). " 'Monopólio' brasileiro do nióbio gera cobiça mundial, controvérsia e mitos" (http://g1.glob
o.com/economia/negocios/noticia/2013/04/monopolio-brasileiro-do-niobio-gera-cobica-mundial-controversia-e-mitos.html)
[Brazilian niobium 'monopoly' brings about the world's greed, controversy, and myths]. G1 (in Portuguese). São Paulo.
Retrieved 23 May 2016.
51. "Magris Resources, officially owner of Niobec" (http://niobec.com/en/2015/01/magris-resources-officially-owner-of-niobec/)
(Press release). Niobec. 23 January 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
52. Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (1985). "Niob". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (in German) (91–100
ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1075–1079. ISBN 978-3-11-007511-3.
53. Tither, Geoffrey (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (ed.). Progress in Niobium Markets and Technology 1981–
2001 (https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100553/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_c
ontent/images/pdfs/oppening.pdf) (PDF). Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium
Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA). ISBN 978-0-9712068-0-9. Archived from the original (https://www.cbmm.com/portug/s
ources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/oppening.pdf) (PDF) on 17 December 2008.
54. Dufresne, Claude; Goyette, Ghislain (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (ed.). The Production of Ferroniobium at
the Niobec mine 1981–2001 (https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100559/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/
science_techno/table_content/sub_1/images/pdfs/start.pdf) (PDF). Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the
International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA). ISBN 978-0-9712068-0-9. Archived from the original (http
s://www.cbmm.com/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_1/images/pdfs/start.pdf) (PDF) on 17
December 2008.
55. Agulyansky, Anatoly (2004). The Chemistry of Tantalum and Niobium Fluoride Compounds. Elsevier. pp. 1–11. ISBN 978-0-
444-51604-6.
56. Choudhury, Alok; Hengsberger, Eckart (1992). "Electron Beam Melting and Refining of Metals and Alloys" (https://doi.org/10.
2355/isijinternational.32.673). The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan International. 32 (5): 673–681.
doi:10.2355/isijinternational.32.673 (https://doi.org/10.2355%2Fisijinternational.32.673).
57. Lucchesi, Cristane; Cuadros, Alex (April 2013), "Mineral Wealth", Bloomberg Markets (paper), p. 14
58. Papp, John F. "Niobium (Columbium)" (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/colummcs06.pdf) (PDF).
USGS 2006 Commodity Summary. Retrieved 20 November 2008.
59. Papp, John F. "Niobium (Columbium)" (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/colummcs07.pdf) (PDF).
USGS 2007 Commodity Summary. Retrieved 20 November 2008.
60. Papp, John F. "Niobium (Columbium)" (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/230397.pdf) (PDF). USGS
1997 Commodity Summary. Retrieved 20 November 2008.
61. Niobium (Colombium) (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/mcs-2011-niobi.pdf) U.S. Geological
Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2011
62. Niobium (Colombium) (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/mcs-2016-niobi.pdf) U.S. Geological
Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2016
63. Cunningham, Larry D. (5 April 2012). "USGS Minerals Information: Niobium (Columbium) and Tantalum" (http://minerals.usg
s.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/). Minerals.usgs.gov. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
64. Deblonde, Gauthier J. -P.; Chagnes, Alexandre; Bélair, Sarah; Cote, Gérard (1 July 2015). "Solubility of niobium(V) and
tantalum(V) under mild alkaline conditions". Hydrometallurgy. 156: 99–106. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2015.05.015 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1016%2Fj.hydromet.2015.05.015). ISSN 0304-386X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0304-386X).
65. Nyman, May (2 August 2011). "Polyoxoniobate chemistry in the 21st century". Dalton Transactions. 40 (32): 8049–8058.
doi:10.1039/C1DT10435G (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FC1DT10435G). ISSN 1477-9234 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1477-
9234).
66. Pubchem. "Niobium oxide | Nb2O5 – PubChem" (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Niobium_oxide#section=Top).

pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
67. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-
08-037941-8.
68. Cardarelli, Francois (2008). Materials Handbook. Springer London. ISBN 978-1-84628-668-1.
69. Rahtu, Antti (2002). Atomic Layer Deposition of High Permittivity Oxides: Film Growth and In Situ Studies (Thesis). University
of Helsinki. hdl:10138/21065 (https://hdl.handle.net/10138%2F21065). ISBN 952-10-0646-3.
70. Maruyama, Toshiro (1994). "Electrochromic Properties of Niobium Oxide Thin Films Prepared by Chemical Vapor
Deposition". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 141 (10): 2868. doi:10.1149/1.2059247 (https://doi.org/10.1149%2F1.20
59247).
71. Lucas, C. R.; Labinger, J. A.; Schwartz, J. (1990). Robert J. Angelici (ed.). Dichlorobis(η5-Cyclopentadienyl)Niobium(IV).
Inorganic Syntheses. 28. New York. pp. 267–270. doi:10.1002/9780470132593.ch68 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F978047013
2593.ch68). ISBN 978-0-471-52619-3.
72. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-
08-037941-8.
73. Verevkin, A.; Pearlman, A.; Slstrokysz, W.; Zhang, J.; et al. (2004). "Ultrafast superconducting single-photon detectors for
near-infrared-wavelength quantum communications". Journal of Modern Optics. 51 (12): 1447–1458.
doi:10.1080/09500340410001670866 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09500340410001670866).
74. Papp, John F. "Niobium (Columbium ) and Tantalum" (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/myb1-2006
-niobi.pdf) (PDF). USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook. Retrieved 3 September 2008.
75. Heisterkamp, Friedrich; Carneiro, Tadeu (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (ed.). Niobium: Future Possibilities –
Technology and the Market Place (https://web.archive.org/web/20081217100604/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/te
chlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/closing.pdf) (PDF). Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the
International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA). ISBN 978-0-9712068-0-9. Archived from the original (http
s://www.cbmm.com/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/images/pdfs/closing.pdf) (PDF) on 17 December
2008.
76. "Datasheet CPM S110V" (http://www.crucible.com/PDFs/DataSheets2010/Datasheet%20CPM%20S110Vv12010.pdf) (PDF).
Crucible Industries LLC. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
77. Eggert, Peter; Priem, Joachim; Wettig, Eberhard (1982). "Niobium: a steel additive with a future". Economic Bulletin. 19 (9):
8–11. doi:10.1007/BF02227064 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02227064).
78. Hillenbrand, Hans-Georg; Gräf, Michael; Kalwa, Christoph (2 May 2001). "Development and Production of High Strength
Pipeline Steels" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150605054604/http://www.europipe.com/files/ep_tp_43_01en.pdf) (PDF).
Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA).
Archived from the original (http://www.europipe.com/files/ep_tp_43_01en.pdf) (PDF) on 5 June 2015.
79. Donachie, Matthew J. (2002). Superalloys: A Technical Guide (https://archive.org/details/superalloystechn00dona). ASM
International. pp. 29 (https://archive.org/details/superalloystechn00dona/page/n36)–30. ISBN 978-0-87170-749-9.
80. Bhadeshia, H. k. d. h. "Nickel Based Superalloys" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060825053006/http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/
phase-trans/2003/Superalloys/superalloys.html). University of Cambridge. Archived from the original (http://www.msm.cam.a
c.uk/phase-trans/2003/Superalloys/superalloys.html) on 25 August 2006. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
81. Pottlacher, G.; Hosaeus, H.; Wilthan, B.; Kaschnitz, E.; Seifter, A. (2002). "Thermophysikalische Eigenschaften von festem
und flüssigem Inconel 718". Thermochimica Acta (in German). 382 (1––2): 55–267. doi:10.1016/S0040-6031(01)00751-1 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0040-6031%2801%2900751-1).
82. Hebda, John (2 May 2001). "Niobium alloys and high Temperature Applications" (https://web.archive.org/web/200812170805
13/http://www.cbmm.com.br/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_3/images/pdfs/016.pdf) (PDF).
Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA).
Archived from the original (https://www.cbmm.com/portug/sources/techlib/science_techno/table_content/sub_3/images/pdfs/0
16.pdf) (PDF) on 17 December 2008.
83. Dinardi, Aaron; Capozzoli, Peter; Shotwell, Gwynne (2008). Low-cost Launch Opportunities Provided by the Falcon Family of
Launch Vehicles (https://web.archive.org/web/20120315135217/http://www2.nspo.org.tw/ASC2008/4th%20Asian%20Spac
e%20Conference%202008/oral/S12-11.pdf) (PDF). Fourth Asian Space Conference. Taipei. Archived from the original (http://
www2.nspo.org.tw/ASC2008/4th%20Asian%20Space%20Conference%202008/oral/S12-11.pdf) (PDF) on 15 March 2012.
84. Lindenhovius, J.L.H.; Hornsveld, E. M.; Den Ouden, A.; Wessel, W. A. J.; et al. (2000). "Powder-in-tube (PIT) Nb/sub 3/Sn
conductors for high-field magnets". IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity. 10 (1): 975–978.
Bibcode:2000ITAS...10..975L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ITAS...10..975L). doi:10.1109/77.828394 (https://doi.or
g/10.1109%2F77.828394).
85. Nave, Carl R. "Superconducting Magnets" (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/solids/scmag.html). Georgia State
University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved 25 November 2008.
86. Glowacki, B. A.; Yan, X. -Y.; Fray, D.; Chen, G.; Majoros, M.; Shi, Y. (2002). "Niobium based intermetallics as a source of
high-current/high magnetic field superconductors". Physica C: Superconductivity. 372–376 (3): 1315–1320. arXiv:cond-
mat/0109088 (https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0109088). Bibcode:2002PhyC..372.1315G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
002PhyC..372.1315G). doi:10.1016/S0921-4534(02)01018-3 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0921-4534%2802%2901018-3).
87. Grunblatt, G.; Mocaer, P.; Verwaerde Ch.; Kohler, C. (2005). "A success story: LHC cable production at ALSTOM-MSA".
Fusion Engineering and Design (Proceedings of the 23rd Symposium of Fusion Technology). 75–79 (2): 3516.
Bibcode:2005ITAS...15.3516M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ITAS...15.3516M).
doi:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2005.06.216 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fusengdes.2005.06.216).
88. Lilje, L.; Kako, E.; Kostin, D.; Matheisen, A.; et al. (2004). "Achievement of 35 MV/m in the superconducting nine-cell cavities
for TESLA". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and
Associated Equipment. 524 (1–3): 1–12. arXiv:physics/0401141 (https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0401141).
Bibcode:2004NIMPA.524....1L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004NIMPA.524....1L). doi:10.1016/j.nima.2004.01.045 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nima.2004.01.045).
89. The International Linear Collider Technical Design Report 2013 (http://edmsdirect.desy.de/edmsdirect/file.jsp?edmsid=D0000
0001021265&fileClass=native). International Linear Collider. 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
90. "ILC-type cryomodule makes the grade" (http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/59319). CERN Courier. IOP Publishing. 27
November 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
91. Cherednichenko, Sergey; Drakinskiy, Vladimir; Berg, Therese; Khosropanah, Pourya; et al. (2008). "A Hot-electron bolometer
terahertz mixers for the Herschel Space Observatory". Review of Scientific Instruments. 79 (3): 0345011–03451010.
Bibcode:2008RScI...79c4501C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008RScI...79c4501C). doi:10.1063/1.2890099 (https://do
i.org/10.1063%2F1.2890099). PMID 18377032 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18377032).
92. Volk, Tatyana; Wohlecke, Manfred (2008). Lithium Niobate: Defects, Photorefraction and Ferroelectric Switching (https://archi
ve.org/details/lithiumniobatede00volk_393). Springer. pp. 1
(https://archive.org/details/lithiumniobatede00volk_393/page/n12)–9. ISBN 978-3-540-70765-3.
93. Pozdeev, Y. (1991). "Reliability comparison of tantalum and niobium solid electrolytic capacitors". Quality and Reliability
Engineering International. 14 (2): 79–82. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1638(199803/04)14:2<79::AID-QRE163>3.0.CO;2-Y (http
s://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291099-1638%28199803%2F04%2914%3A2%3C79%3A%3AAID-QRE163%3E3.0.CO%
3B2-Y).
94. Mallela, Venkateswara Sarma; Ilankumaran, V.; Srinivasa Rao, N. (1 January 2004). "Trends in Cardiac Pacemaker
Batteries" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1502062). Indian Pacing Electrophysiol J. 4 (4): 201–212.
PMC 1502062 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1502062). PMID 16943934 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1
6943934).
95. Godley, Reut; Starosvetsky, David; Gotman, Irena (2004). "Bonelike apatite formation on niobium metal treated in aqueous
NaOH". Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine. 15 (10): 1073–1077.
doi:10.1023/B:JMSM.0000046388.07961.81 (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AJMSM.0000046388.07961.81).
PMID 15516867 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15516867).
96. Biason Gomes, M. A.; Onofre, S.; Juanto, S.; Bulhões, L. O. de S. (1991). "Anodization of niobium in sulphuric acid media".
Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 21 (11): 1023–1026. doi:10.1007/BF01077589 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF0107758
9).
97. Chiou, Y. L. (1971). "A note on the thicknesses of anodized niobium oxide films". Thin Solid Films. 8 (4): R37–R39.
Bibcode:1971TSF.....8R..37C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971TSF.....8R..37C). doi:10.1016/0040-6090(71)90027-7
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0040-6090%2871%2990027-7).
98. Azevedo, C. R. F.; Spera, G.; Silva, A. P. (2002). "Characterization of metallic piercings that caused adverse reactions during
use". Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention. 2 (4): 47–53. doi:10.1361/152981502770351860 (https://doi.org/10.1361%2
F152981502770351860).
99. Grill, Robert; Gnadenberge, Alfred (2006). "Niobium as mint metal: Production–properties–processing". International Journal
of Refractory Metals and Hard Materials. 24 (4): 275–282. doi:10.1016/j.ijrmhm.2005.10.008 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijr
mhm.2005.10.008).
00. "25 Euro – 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway (2004)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110721053534/http://austrian-mint.
at/bimetallmuenzen?l=en&muenzeSubTypeId=113&muenzeId=217). Austrian Mint. Archived from the original (http://austrian-
mint.at/bimetallmuenzen?l=en&muenzeSubTypeId=113&muenzeId=217) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 4 November 2008.
01. "150 Jahre Semmeringbahn" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110720002739/http://www.austrian-mint.at/cms/download.php?d
ownloadId=131) (in German). Austrian Mint. Archived from the original (http://www.austrian-mint.at/cms/download.php?downl
oadId=131) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
02. "Neraža – mēs nevarējām atrast meklēto lapu!" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080109033431/http://www.bank.lv/eng/main/a
ll/lvnaud/jubmon/nmp/time/) (in Latvian). Bank of Latvia. Archived from the original (http://www.bank.lv/eng/main/all/lvnaud/ju
bmon/nmp/time/) on 9 January 2008. Retrieved 19 September 2008.
03. "Neraža – mēs nevarējām atrast meklēto lapu!" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090522101540/http://www.bank.lv/eng/main/a
ll/lvnaud/jubmon/nmp/time2/) (in Latvian). Bank of Latvia. Archived from the original (http://www.bank.lv/eng/main/all/lvnaud/j
ubmon/nmp/time2/) on 22 May 2009. Retrieved 19 September 2008.
04. "$5 Sterling Silver and Niobium Coin – Hunter's Moon (2011)" (http://www.mint.ca/store/coin/5-sterling-silver-and-niobium-coi
n-hunters-moon-2011-prod1110013). Royal Canadian Mint. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
05. Henderson, Stanley Thomas; Marsden, Alfred Michael; Hewitt, Harry (1972). Lamps and Lighting. Edward Arnold Press.
pp. 244–245. ISBN 978-0-7131-3267-0.
06. Eichelbrönner, G. (1998). "Refractory metals: crucial components for light sources". International Journal of Refractory
Metals and Hard Materials. 16 (1): 5–11. doi:10.1016/S0263-4368(98)00009-2 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0263-4368%289
8%2900009-2).
07. Michaluk, Christopher A.; Huber, Louis E.; Ford, Robert B. (2001). Minerals, Metals and Materials Society (ed.). Niobium and
Niobium 1% Zirconium for High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Discharge Lamps. Niobium Science & Technology: Proceedings of
the International Symposium Niobium 2001 (Orlando, Florida, USA). ISBN 978-0-9712068-0-9.
08. US patent 5254836 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5254836), Okada, Yuuji; Kobayashi,
Toshihiko; Sasabe, Hiroshi; Aoki, Yoshimitsu; Nishizawa, Makoto; Endo, Shunji, "Method of arc welding with a ferrite
stainless steel welding rod", issued 19 October 1993
09. Moavenzadeh, Fred (14 March 1990). Concise Encyclopedia of Building and Construction Materials (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=YiJaEAUj258C&pg=PA157). MIT Press. pp. 157–. ISBN 978-0-262-13248-0. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
10. Cardarelli, François (9 January 2008). Materials handbook: a concise desktop reference (https://books.google.com/books?id
=PvU-qbQJq7IC&pg=PA352). Springer. pp. 352–. ISBN 978-1-84628-668-1. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
11. Hävecker, Michael; Wrabetz, Sabine; Kröhnert, Jutta; Csepei, Lenard-Istvan; Naumann d'Alnoncourt, Raoul; Kolen'Ko, Yury
V; Girgsdies, Frank; Schlögl, Robert; Trunschke, Annette (2012). "Surface chemistry of phase-pure M1 MoVTeNb oxide
during operation in selective oxidation of propane to acrylic acid" (http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:110856
0/component/escidoc:1402724/1108560.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Catalysis. 285: 48–60. doi:10.1016/j.jcat.2011.09.012 (https://
doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcat.2011.09.012). hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-1BEB-F (https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0
000-0012-1BEB-F).
12. Amakawa, Kazuhiko; Kolen'Ko, Yury V; Villa, Alberto; Schuster, Manfred E/; Csepei, Lénárd-István; Weinberg, Gisela;
Wrabetz, Sabine; Naumann d'Alnoncourt, Raoul; Girgsdies, Frank; Prati, Laura; Schlögl, Robert; Trunschke, Annette (2013).
"Multifunctionality of Crystalline MoV(TeNb) M1 Oxide Catalysts in Selective Oxidation of Propane and Benzyl Alcohol". ACS
Catalysis. 3 (6): 1103. doi:10.1021/cs400010q (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcs400010q). hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-000E-
FA39-1 (https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-000E-FA39-1).
13. Csepei, Lénárd-István (2011). Kinetic studies of propane oxidation on Mo and V based mixed oxide catalysts. Technische
Universität Berlin. pp. 157–166. doi:10.14279/depositonce-2972 (https://doi.org/10.14279%2Fdepositonce-2972).
14. Naumann d'Alnoncourt, Raoul; Csepei, Lénárd-István; Hävecker, Michael; Girgsdies, Frank; Schuster, Manfred E; Schlögl,
Robert; Trunschke, Annette (2014). "The reaction network in propane oxidation over phase-pure MoVTeNb M1 oxide
catalysts" (http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:1896844/component/escidoc:1896843/JCAT-13-716_revised_0
6Dec2013.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Catalysis. 311: 369–385. doi:10.1016/j.jcat.2013.12.008 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcat.2
013.12.008). hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0014-F434-5 (https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0014-F434-5).
15. Dr. Tony Case (24 August 2018). Scientist Interview: Dr. Tony Case (Parker Solar Probe) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=m3GKfvPc2ns&t=214s). Retrieved 24 August 2018.
16. Vilaplana, J.; Romaguera, C.; Grimalt, F.; Cornellana, F. (1990). "New trends in the use of metals in jewellery". Contact
Dermatitis. 25 (3): 145–148. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1991.tb01819.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0536.1991.tb01819.
x). PMID 1782765 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1782765).
17. Vilaplana, J.; Romaguera, C. (1998). "New developments in jewellery and dental materials". Contact Dermatitis. 39 (2): 55–
57. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1998.tb05832.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0536.1998.tb05832.x). PMID 9746182 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9746182).
18. Haley, Thomas J.; Komesu, N.; Raymond, K. (1962). "Pharmacology and toxicology of niobium chloride". Toxicology and
Applied Pharmacology. 4 (3): 385–392. doi:10.1016/0041-008X(62)90048-0 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0041-008X%2862%
2990048-0). PMID 13903824 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13903824).
19. Downs, William L.; Scott, James K.; Yuile, Charles L.; Caruso, Frank S.; et al. (1965). "The Toxicity of Niobium Salts".
American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal. 26 (4): 337–346. doi:10.1080/00028896509342740 (https://doi.org/10.108
0%2F00028896509342740). PMID 5854670 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5854670).
20. Schroeder, Henry A.; Mitchener, Marian; Nason, Alexis P. (1970). "Zirconium, Niobium, Antimony, Vanadium and Lead in
Rats: Life term studies". Journal of Nutrition. 100 (1): 59–68. doi:10.1093/jn/100.1.59 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F100.
1.59). PMID 5412131 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5412131).
External links
Los Alamos National Laboratory – Niobium (http://periodic.lanl.gov/41.shtml)
Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center (http://www.tanb.org/)
Niobium for particle accelerators eg ILC. 2005 (https://web.archive.org/web/20061002182416/http://www.symmetrymag.org/c
ms/?pid=1000173)
"Columbium" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Columbium). Encyclopædia Britannica
(11th ed.). 1911.
Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Columbium" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_En
cyclop%C3%A6dia/Columbium). New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
Niobium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/041.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niobium&oldid=963706043"
This page was last edited on 21 June 2020, at 09:32 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of
Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Niobium: Niobium, Also Known As Columbium, Is A Chemical Element With The

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Niobium: Niobium, Also Known As Columbium, Is A Chemical Element With The

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

7/22/2020 Niobium - Wikipedia

Contents Density (near r.t.) 8.57 g/cm3

Isotopes Vapor pressure

Production at T (K) 2942 3207 3524 3910 4393 5013

Applications Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.6

quickly became obsolete through the replacement of niobium with tungsten,

Ta2O5 + 14 HF → 2 H2[TaF7] + 5 H2O

The first industrial scale separation, developed by de Marignac, exploits the

solution by organic solvents like cyclohexanone.[39]

2 H2[NbOF5] + 10 NH4OH → Nb2O5↓ + 10 NH4F + 7 H2O

3 Nb2O5 + Fe2O3 + 12 Al → 6 Nb + 2 Fe + 6 Al2O3

Mine production (t)[63] (USGS estimate)

160 230 290 230 200 200 200 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Lesser amounts are found in Malawi's Kanyika Deposit (Kanyika mine).

Oxides and sulfides

Nitrides and carbides

These same niobium alloys are often used in pipeline construction.[77][78]

The reactivity of niobium with oxygen requires it to be worked in a vacuum or inert

Niobium-germanium (Nb3Ge), niobium-tin (Nb3Sn), as well as the niobium-titanium alloys

Electroceramics A 1.3 GHz 9-cell SRF cavity made

Hypoallergenic applications: medicine and jewelry

some medical implants.[116][117] NFPA 704 0

18. "Niobium" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071210032159/http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e/elem/e04100.html).

41. "Tantalite-(Fe): Mineral information, data and localities" (https://www.mindat.org/min-1530.html). www.mindat.org.

66. Pubchem. "Niobium oxide | Nb2O5 – PubChem" (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Niobium_oxide#section=Top).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niobium&oldid=963706043"

This page was last edited on 21 June 2020, at 09:32 (UTC).

You might also like