Palladium

Palladium is a chemical element; it has symbol

Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare and lustrous
Palladium, 46Pd
silvery-white metal discovered in 1803 by the
English chemist William Hyde Wollaston. He
named it after the asteroid Pallas, which was itself
named after the epithet of the Greek goddess
Athena, acquired by her when she slew Pallas.
Palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium
and osmium form a group of elements referred to
as the platinum group metals (PGMs). They have
similar chemical properties, but palladium has the
lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.

More than half the supply of palladium and its

congener platinum is used in catalytic converters, Palladium
which convert as much as 90% of the harmful Pronunciation /pəˈleɪdiəm/ ​
gases in automobile exhaust (hydrocarbons,
(pə-LAY -dee-əm)
carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide) into
nontoxic substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and Appearance silvery white
water vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics,
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Pd)
dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification,
chemical applications, groundwater treatment, and 106.42 ± 0.01
jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel 106.42 ± 0.01 (abridged)[1]
cells, in which hydrogen and oxygen react to
produce electricity, heat, and water. Palladium in the periodic table

Ni
Ore deposits of palladium and other PGMs are ↑
rare. The most extensive deposits have been found Pd
↓
in the norite belt of the Bushveld Igneous Pt
Complex covering the Transvaal Basin in South rhodium ← palladium → silver
Africa, the Stillwater Complex in Montana, United
Atomic number (Z) 46
States; the Sudbury Basin and Thunder Bay
District of Ontario, Canada, and the Norilsk Group group 10
Complex in Russia. Recycling is also a source, Period period 5
mostly from scrapped catalytic converters. The
numerous applications and limited supply sources Block d-block
result in considerable investment interest. Electron [Kr] 4d10
configuration
Characteristics Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 18
Physical properties
Palladium belongs to group 10 in the periodic
Phase at STP solid
table, but the configuration in the outermost
electrons is in accordance with Hund's rule.
Electrons that by the Madelung rule would be Melting point 1828.05 K ​(1554.9 °C, ​
expected to occupy the 5s instead fill the 2830.82 °F)
4d orbitals, as it is more energetically favorable to
Boiling point 3236 K ​(2963 °C, ​5365 °F)
have a completely filled 4d10 shell instead of the
5s2 4d8 configuration. Density (near r.t.) 12.023 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.) 10.38 g/cm3
This 5s0 configuration, unique in period 5, makes
palladium the heaviest element having only one Heat of fusion 16.74 kJ/mol
incomplete electron shell, with all shells above it Heat of 358 kJ/mol
empty. vaporization
Molar heat capacity 25.98 J/(mol·K)
Palladium has the appearance of a soft silver-white
metal that resembles platinum. It is the least dense Vapor pressure
and has the lowest melting point of the platinum P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
group metals. It is soft and ductile when annealed
and is greatly increased in strength and hardness at T (K) 1721 1897 2117 2395 2753 3234
when cold-worked. Palladium dissolves slowly in
concentrated nitric acid, in hot, concentrated Atomic properties
sulfuric acid, and when finely ground, in Oxidation states 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5[2]
hydrochloric acid.[6] It dissolves readily at room (a mildly basic oxide)
temperature in aqua regia.
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.20
Palladium does not react with oxygen at standard Ionization energies 1st: 804.4 kJ/mol
temperature (and thus does not tarnish in air).
2nd: 1870 kJ/mol
Palladium heated to 800 °C will produce a layer of
palladium(II) oxide (PdO). It may slowly develop 3rd: 3177 kJ/mol
a slight brownish coloration over time, likely due
Atomic radius empirical: 137 pm
to the formation of a surface layer of its monoxide.
Covalent radius 139±6 pm
Palladium films with defects produced by alpha Van der Waals 163 pm
particle bombardment at low temperature exhibit
radius
superconductivity having Tc=3.2 K.[7]

Isotopes Spectral lines of palladium

Other properties
Naturally occurring palladium is composed of
seven isotopes, six of which are stable. The most Natural occurrence primordial
stable radioisotopes are 107 Pd with a half-life of Crystal structure ​face-centered cubic (fcc)
6.5 million years (found in nature), 103 Pd with 17
days, and 100 Pd with 3.63 days. Eighteen other
radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic
weights ranging from 90.94948(64) u (91 Pd) to Speed of sound 3070 m/s (at 20 °C)
122.93426(64) u (123 Pd).[8] These have half-lives thin rod
of less than thirty minutes, except 101 Pd (half-life:
Thermal expansion 11.8 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
8.47 hours), 109 Pd (half-life: 13.7 hours), and
112 Pd (half-life: 21 hours).[9] Thermal 71.8 W/(m⋅K)
conductivity
For isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than Electrical resistivity 105.4 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
that of the most abundant stable isotope, 106 Pd,
Magnetic ordering paramagnetic[3]
the primary decay mode is electron capture with
the primary decay product being rhodium. The Molar magnetic +567.4 × 10−6 cm3/mol
primary mode of decay for those isotopes of Pd susceptibility (288 K)[4]
with atomic mass greater than 106 is beta decay
Young's modulus 121 GPa
with the primary product of this decay being
silver.[9] Shear modulus 44 GPa
Bulk modulus 180 GPa
Radiogenic 107 Ag is a decay product of 107 Pd
Poisson ratio 0.39
and was first discovered in 1978[10] in the Santa
Clara[11] meteorite of 1976. The discoverers Mohs hardness 4.75
suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of Vickers hardness 400–600 MPa
iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10
Brinell hardness 320–610 MPa
million years after a nucleosynthetic event. 107 Pd
versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which CAS Number 7440-05-3
have been melted since accretion of the Solar History
System, must reflect the presence of short-lived
Naming after asteroid Pallas, itself
nuclides in the early Solar System.[12] 107 Pd is
also produced as a fission product in spontaneous named after Pallas Athena
or induced fission of 235 U. As it is not very mobile Discovery and first William Hyde Wollaston
in the environment and has a relatively low decay isolation (1802)
energy, 107 Pd is usually considered to be among Isotopes of palladium
the less concerning of the long-lived fission
products. Main isotopes[5] Decay

abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct

Compounds 100 100
Pd synth 3.63 d ε Rh
Palladium compounds exist primarily in the 0 and
γ –
+2 oxidation state. Other less common states are
also recognized. Generally the compounds of 102
Pd 1.02% stable
palladium are more similar to those of platinum
103 103
than those of any other element. Pd synth 16.991 d ε Rh

104
Pd 11.1% stable

105
Pd 22.3% stable

106
Pd 27.3% stable
107
Pd trace 6.5 × 106 y β− 107
Ag
108
Structure of β- Pd 26.5% stable
Structure of α-PdCl2 PdCl2 110
Pd 11.7% stable

Z Element No. of electrons/shell

28 nickel 2, 8, 16, 2 (or 2, 8, 17, 1) Palladium(II)

46 palladium 2, 8, 18, 18, 0
Palladium(II) chloride is the principal starting
78 platinum 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1 material for other palladium compounds. It arises by
110 darmstadtium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2 (predicted) the reaction of palladium with chlorine. It is used to
prepare heterogeneous palladium catalysts such as
palladium on barium sulfate, palladium on carbon, and palladium chloride on carbon.[13] Solutions of
PdCl2 in nitric acid react with acetic acid to give palladium(II) acetate, also a versatile reagent. PdCl2 reacts
with ligands (L) to give square planar complexes of the type PdCl2 L2 . One example of such complexes is
the benzonitrile derivative PdX2 (PhCN)2 .[14][15]

PdCl2 + 2 L → PdCl2L2 (L = PhCN, PPh3, NH3, etc)

The complex bis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II) dichloride is a useful catalyst.[16]

Palladium(0)

Palladium forms a range of

zerovalent complexes with
the formula PdL4 , PdL3
and PdL2 . For example,
reduction of a mixture of
PdCl2 (PPh3 )2 and PPh3
gives Platinum-palladium ore from the
Palladium(II) acetate Stillwater mine in the Beartooth
Mountains, Montana, USA

tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0):[17]

2 PdCl2(PPh3)2 + 4 PPh3 + 5 N2H4 → 2 Pd(PPh3)4 +

N2 + 4 N2H5+ Cl−

Another major palladium(0) complex,

tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pd2 (dba)3 ), is prepared
by reducing sodium tetrachloropalladate in the presence of
dibenzylideneacetone.[18]
Sulfidic serpentintite (platinum-
Palladium(0), as well as palladium(II), are catalysts in coupling palladium ore) from the Stillwater
reactions, as has been recognized by the 2010 Nobel Prize in mine in Montana
Chemistry to Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi, and Akira Suzuki.
Such reactions are widely practiced for the synthesis of fine
chemicals. Prominent coupling reactions include the Heck, Suzuki, Sonogashira coupling, Stille reactions,
and the Kumada coupling. Palladium(II) acetate, tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) (Pd(PPh3 )4 , and
tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pd2 (dba)3 ) serve either as catalysts or precatalysts.[19]

Other oxidation states

Although Pd(IV) compounds are comparatively rare, one example is sodium hexachloropalladate(IV),
Na2 [PdCl6 ]. A few compounds of palladium(III) are also known.[20] Palladium(VI) was claimed in
2002,[21][22] but subsequently disproven.[23][24]

Mixed valence palladium complexes exist, e.g. Pd4 (CO)4 (OAc)4 Pd(acac)2 forms an infinite Pd chain
structure, with alternatively interconnected Pd4 (CO)4 (OAc)4 and Pd(acac)2 units.[25]
When alloyed with a more electropositive element, palladium can acquire a negative charge. Such
compounds are known as palladides, such as gallium palladide.[26] Palladides with the stoichiometry RPd3
exist where R is scandium, yttrium, or any of the lanthanides.[27]

Occurrence
As overall mine production of palladium
reached 210,000 kilograms in 2022, Russia
was the top producer with 88,000 kilograms,
followed by South Africa, Canada, the U.S.,
and Zimbabwe.[28] Russia's company Norilsk
Nickel ranks first among the largest palladium
producers globally, accounting for 39% of the
world's production.[29]
Palladium output in 2005
Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed
with gold and other platinum-group metals in
placer deposits of the Ural Mountains, Australia, Ethiopia, North and South America. For the production of
palladium, these deposits play only a minor role. The most important commercial sources are nickel-copper
deposits found in the Sudbury Basin, Ontario, and the Norilsk–Talnakh deposits in Siberia. The other large
deposit is the Merensky Reef platinum group metals deposit within the Bushveld Igneous Complex South
Africa. The Stillwater igneous complex of Montana and the Roby zone ore body of the Lac des Îles
igneous complex of Ontario are the two other sources of palladium in Canada and the United States.[30][31]
Palladium is found in the rare minerals cooperite[32] and polarite.[33] Many more Pd minerals are known,
but all of them are very rare.[34]

Palladium is also produced in nuclear fission reactors and can be extracted from spent nuclear fuel (see
synthesis of precious metals), though this source for palladium is not used. None of the existing nuclear
reprocessing facilities are equipped to extract palladium from the high-level radioactive waste.[35] A
complication for the recovery of palladium in spent fuel is the presence of 107 Pd, a slightly radioactive
long-lived fission product. Depending on end use, the radioactivity contributed by the 107 Pd might make
the recovered Palladium unusable without a costly step of isotope separation.

Applications
The largest use of palladium today is in catalytic converters.[36]
Palladium is also used in jewelry, dentistry,[36][37] watch making,
blood sugar test strips, aircraft spark plugs, surgical instruments,
and electrical contacts.[38] Palladium is also used to make some
professional transverse (concert or classical) flutes.[39] As a
commodity, palladium bullion has ISO currency codes of XPD and Cross section of a metal-core
964. Palladium is one of only four metals to have such codes, the catalytic converter
others being gold, silver and platinum.[40] Because it adsorbs
hydrogen, palladium was a key component of the controversial
cold fusion experiments of the late 1980s.[41]

Catalysis
When it is finely divided, as with palladium on carbon, palladium
forms a versatile catalyst; it speeds heterogeneous catalytic
processes like hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, and petroleum
cracking. Palladium is also essential to the Lindlar catalyst, also
called Lindlar's Palladium.[42] A large number of carbon–carbon
bonding reactions in organic chemistry are facilitated by palladium
compound catalysts. For example: The Soviet 25-rouble
commemorative palladium coin is a
Heck reaction rare example of the monetary usage
Suzuki coupling of palladium.
Tsuji-Trost reactions
Wacker process
Negishi reaction
Stille coupling
Sonogashira coupling

(See palladium compounds and palladium-catalyzed coupling reactions.)

When dispersed on conductive materials, palladium is an excellent electrocatalyst for oxidation of primary
alcohols in alkaline media.[43] Palladium is also a versatile metal for homogeneous catalysis, used in
combination with a broad variety of ligands for highly selective chemical transformations.

In 2010 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded "for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic
synthesis" to Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi and Akira Suzuki. A 2008 study showed that palladium is an
effective catalyst for carbon-fluorine bonds.[44]

Palladium catalysis is primarily

employed in organic chemistry and
industrial applications, although its use
is growing as a tool for synthetic
biology; in 2017, effective in vivo
catalytic activity of palladium
nanoparticles was demonstrated in
mammals to treat disease.[45]

Electronics

The primary application of palladium

in electronics is in multi-layer ceramic
capacitors[46] in which palladium (and
palladium-silver alloy) is used for
electrodes.[36] Palladium (sometimes
alloyed with nickel) is or can be used Catalytic cycle for Kumada cross coupling reaction, which is widely
for component and connector plating used in the synthesis of fine chemicals.
in consumer electronics[47][48] and in
soldering materials. The electronic sector consumed 1.07 million troy ounces (33 tonnes) of palladium in
2006, according to a Johnson Matthey report.[49]

Technology

Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium,[6] and membrane reactors with Pd membranes are used
in the production of high purity hydrogen.[50] Palladium is used in palladium-hydrogen electrodes in
electrochemical studies. Palladium(II) chloride readily catalyzes carbon monoxide gas to carbon dioxide
and is useful in carbon monoxide detectors.[51]

Hydrogen storage

Palladium readily adsorbs hydrogen at room temperatures, forming palladium hydride PdHx with x less
than 1.[52] While this property is common to many transition metals, palladium has a uniquely high
absorption capacity and does not lose its ductility until x approaches 1.[53] This property has been
investigated in designing an efficient and safe hydrogen fuel storage medium, though palladium itself is
currently prohibitively expensive for this purpose.[54] The content of hydrogen in palladium can be linked
to magnetic susceptibility, which decreases with the increase of hydrogen and becomes zero for PdH0.62 .
At any higher ratio, the solid solution becomes diamagnetic.[55]

Palladium is also used for hydrogen purification via hydrogen-purification membranes.[56]: 183–217 [57]

Dentistry

Palladium is used in small amounts (about 0.5%) in some alloys of dental amalgam to decrease corrosion
and increase the metallic lustre of the final restoration.[58][59]

Jewelry

Palladium has been used as a precious metal in jewelry since 1939 as an alternative to platinum in the alloys
called "white gold", where the naturally white color of palladium does not require rhodium plating.
Palladium, being much less dense than platinum, is similar to gold in that it can be beaten into leaf as thin as
100 nm (1 ⁄250,000 in).[6] Unlike platinum, palladium may discolor at temperatures above 400 °C
(752 °F)[60] due to oxidation, making it more brittle and thus less suitable for use in jewelry; to prevent this,
palladium intended for jewelry is heated under controlled conditions.

Prior to 2004, the principal use of palladium in jewelry was the manufacture of white gold. Palladium is
one of the three most popular alloying metals in white gold (nickel and silver can also be used).[36]
Palladium-gold is more expensive than nickel-gold, but seldom causes allergic reactions (though certain
cross-allergies with nickel may occur).[61]

When platinum became a strategic resource during World War II, many jewelry bands were made out of
palladium. Palladium was little used in jewelry because of the technical difficulty of casting. With the
casting problem resolved[62] the use of palladium in jewelry increased, originally because platinum
increased in price while the price of palladium decreased.[63] In early 2004, when gold and platinum prices
rose steeply, China began fabricating volumes of palladium jewelry, consuming 37 tonnes in 2005.
Subsequent changes in the relative price of platinum lowered demand for palladium to 17.4 tonnes in
2009.[64][65] Demand for palladium as a catalyst has increased the price of palladium to about 50% higher
than that of platinum in January 2019.[66]

In January 2010, hallmarks for palladium were introduced by assay offices in the United Kingdom, and
hallmarking became mandatory for all jewelry advertising pure or alloyed palladium. Articles can be
marked as 500, 950, or 999 parts of palladium per thousand of the alloy.

Fountain pen nibs made from gold are sometimes plated with palladium when a silver (rather than gold)
appearance is desired. Sheaffer has used palladium plating for decades, either as an accent on otherwise
gold nibs or covering the gold completely.

Palladium is also used by the luxury brand Hermes as one of the metals plating the hardware on their
handbags, most famous of which being Birkin.

Photography

In the platinotype printing process, photographers make fine-art black-and-white prints using platinum or
palladium salts. Often used with platinum, palladium provides an alternative to silver.[67]

Effects on health

Toxicity

Palladium is a metal with low toxicity as conventionally measured Palladium

(e.g. LD50 ). Recent research on the mechanism of palladium Hazards
toxicity suggests high toxicity if measured on a longer timeframe GHS labelling:
and at the cellular level in the liver and kidney.[69] Mitochondria
appear to have a key role in palladium toxicity via mitochondrial Pictograms
membrane potential collapse and depletion of the cellular
glutathione (GSH) level. Until that recent work, it had been
Signal word Warning
thought that palladium was poorly absorbed by the human body
when ingested. Plants such as the water hyacinth are killed by low Hazard H317
levels of palladium salts, but most other plants tolerate it, although statements
tests show that, at levels above 0.0003%, growth is affected. High Precautionary P261, P273, P280,
doses of palladium could be poisonous; tests on rodents suggest it statements P302+P352, P321,
may be carcinogenic, though until the recent research cited above, P333+P313, P363,
no clear evidence indicated that the element harms humans.[70] P501[68]
NFPA 704
Precautions (fire diamond) 0
0 0
Like other platinum-group metals, bulk Pd is quite inert. Although
contact dermatitis has been reported, data on the effects are limited.
It has been shown that people with an allergic reaction to palladium also react to nickel, making it advisable
to avoid the use of dental alloys containing palladium on those so allergic.[71][72][73][74][75]

Some palladium is emitted with the exhaust gases of cars with catalytic converters. Between 4 and
108 ng/km of palladium particulate is released by such cars, while the total uptake from food is estimated to
be less than 2 µg per person a day. The second possible source of palladium is dental restoration, from
which the uptake of palladium is estimated to be less than 15 µg per person per day. People working with
palladium or its compounds might have a considerably greater uptake. For soluble compounds such as
palladium chloride, 99% is eliminated from the body within 3 days.[71]

The median lethal dose (LD50 ) of soluble palladium compounds in mice is 200 mg/kg for oral and 5 mg/kg
for intravenous administration.[71]

History
William Hyde Wollaston noted the discovery of a new noble metal in July
1802 in his lab book and named it palladium in August of the same year.
Wollaston purified a quantity of the material and offered it, without naming
the discoverer, in a small shop in Soho in April 1803. After harsh criticism
from Richard Chenevix, who claimed that palladium was an alloy of
platinum and mercury, Wollaston anonymously offered a reward of £20 for
20 grains of synthetic palladium alloy.[76] Chenevix received the Copley
Medal in 1803 after he published his experiments on palladium. Wollaston
published the discovery of rhodium in 1804 and mentions some of his work
on palladium.[77][78] He disclosed that he was the discoverer of palladium
in a publication in 1805.[76][79]

William Hyde Wollaston It was named by Wollaston in 1802 after the asteroid 2 Pallas, which had
been discovered two months earlier.[6] Wollaston found palladium in crude
platinum ore from South America by dissolving the ore in aqua regia,
neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide, and precipitating platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate
with ammonium chloride. He added mercuric cyanide to form the compound palladium(II) cyanide, which
was heated to extract palladium metal.[77]

Palladium chloride was at one time prescribed as a tuberculosis treatment at the rate of 0.065 g per day
(approximately one milligram per kilogram of body weight). This treatment had many negative side-effects,
and was later replaced by more effective drugs.[80]

Most palladium is used for catalytic converters in the automobile industry.[71] Catalytic converters are
targets for thieves because they contain palladium and other rare metals. In the run up to year 2000, the
Russian supply of palladium to the global market was repeatedly delayed and disrupted; for political
reasons, the export quota was not granted on time.[81] The ensuing market panic drove the price to an all-
time high of $1,340 per troy ounce ($43/g) in January 2001.[82] Around that time, the Ford Motor
Company, fearing that automobile production would be disrupted by a palladium shortage, stockpiled the
metal. When prices fell in early 2001, Ford lost nearly US$1 billion.[83]

World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300 tons in 2000. The global
production of palladium from mines was 222 tonnes in 2006 according to the United States Geological
Survey.[30] Many were concerned about a steady supply of palladium in the wake of Russia's annexation of
Crimea, partly as sanctions could hamper Russian palladium exports; any restrictions on Russian palladium
exports could have exacerbated what was already expected to be a large palladium deficit in 2014.[84]
Those concerns pushed palladium prices to their highest level since 2001.[85] In September 2014 they
soared above the $900 per ounce mark. In 2016 however palladium cost around $614 per ounce as Russia
managed to maintain stable supplies.[86] In January 2019 palladium futures climbed past $1,344 per ounce
for the first time on record, mainly due to the strong demand from the automotive industry.[87] Palladium
reached $2,024.64 per troy ounce ($65.094/g) on 6 January 2020, passing $2,000 per troy ounce the first
time.[88] The price rose above $3,000 per troy ounce in May 2021 and March 2022.[89]

Palladium as investment
Global palladium sales were 8.84 million ounces (250.6 tonnes) in
2017,[90] of which 86% was used in the manufacturing of
automotive catalytic converters, followed by industrial, jewelry, and
investment usages.[91] More than 75% of global platinum and 40% Palladium prices – US Dollars per
of palladium are mined in South Africa. Russia's mining company, troy ounce
Norilsk Nickel, produces another 44% of palladium, with US and
Canada-based mines producing most of the rest.

The price for palladium reached an all-time high of $2,981.40 per ounce on May 3, 2021[92][93] driven
mainly on speculation of the catalytic converter demand from the automobile industry. Palladium is traded
in the spot market with the code "XPD". When settled in USD, the code is "XPDUSD". A later surplus of
the metal was caused by the Russian government selling stockpiles from the Soviet Era, at a rate of about
1.6 to 2 million ounces (45.4 to 56.7 t) a year. The amount and status of this stockpile are a state secret.

During the Russo-Ukrainian War in March 2022, prices for palladium increased 13%, since the first of
March. Russia is the primary supplier to Europe and the country supplies 37% of the global production.[94]

Palladium producers
Norilsk Nickel
Sibanye-Stillwater
Anglo American Platinum
Impala Platinum
Northam Platinum

Exchange-traded products

WisdomTree Physical Palladium (LSE: PHPD (https://www.londonstockexchange.com/stock/PHPD//)) is

backed by allocated palladium bullion and was the world's first palladium ETF. It is listed on the London
Stock Exchange as PHPD,[95] Xetra Trading System, Euronext and Milan. ETFS Physical Palladium
Shares (NYSE: PALL (https://www.nyse.com/quote/XNYS:PALL)) is an ETF traded on the New York
Stock Exchange.

Bullion coins and bars

A traditional way of investing in palladium is buying bullion coins and bars made of palladium. Available
palladium coins include the Canadian Palladium Maple Leaf, the Chinese Panda, and the American
Palladium Eagle. The liquidity of direct palladium bullion investment is poorer than that of gold and silver
because there is low circulation of palladium coins.[96]

See also
2000s commodities boom
2020s commodities boom
Bullion
Bullion coin
Inflation hedge
Pseudo palladium
Rare materials as an investment:
Silver as an investment
Gold as an investment
Platinum as an investment
Diamonds as an investment

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External links
Palladium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/046.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Current and Historical Palladium Price (http://www.kitco.com/charts/livepalladium.html)
Special Market Report on Palladium and Precious Metals (http://www.twst.com/tt/info/info16
77.htm)
 "Palladium" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Palladiu
m_(chemistry)). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 636–637.

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