Iridium

Iridium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ir

and atomic number 77. A very hard, brittle,
Iridium, 77Ir
silvery-white transition metal of the platinum
group, it is considered the second-densest naturally
occurring metal (after osmium) with a density of
22.56 g/cm3 (0.815 lb/cu in)[6] as defined by
experimental X-ray crystallography.[a] It is one of
the most corrosion-resistant metals,[9] even at
temperatures as high as 2,000 °C (3,630 °F).
However, corrosion-resistance is not quantifiable
in absolute terms; although only certain molten
salts and halogens are corrosive to solid iridium,
finely divided iridium dust is much more reactive Iridium
and can be flammable, whereas gold dust is not Pronunciation /ɪˈrɪdiəm/ ​(i-RID-ee-əm)
flammable but can be attacked by substances that
iridium resists, such as aqua regia. Appearance silvery white

Standard atomic weight Ar°(Ir)

Iridium was discovered in 1803 among insoluble
impurities in natural platinum. Smithson Tennant, 192.217 ± 0.002
the primary discoverer, named it after the Greek 192.22 ± 0.01 (abridged)[1]
goddess Iris, personification of the rainbow,
because of the striking and diverse colors of its Iridium in the periodic table
salts. Iridium is one of the rarest elements in
Rh
Earth's crust, with estimated annual production ↑
and consumption of only 7.3 tonnes (16 thousand Ir
↓
pounds) in 2018.[10] 191 Ir and 193 Ir are the only Mt
two naturally occurring isotopes of iridium, as well osmium ← iridium → platinum
as the only stable isotopes; the latter is the more
Atomic number (Z) 77
abundant.
Group group 9
The dominant uses of iridium are the metal itself Period period 6
and its alloys, as in high-performance spark plugs,
crucibles for recrystallization of semiconductors at Block d-block
high temperatures, and electrodes for the Electron [Xe] 4f14 5d7 6s2
production of chlorine in the chloralkali process. configuration
Important compounds of iridium are chlorides and
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2
iodides in industrial catalysis. Iridium is a
component of some OLEDs. Physical properties
Phase at STP solid
Iridium is found in meteorites in much higher
abundance than in the Earth's crust.[11] For this Melting point 2719 K ​(2446 °C, ​4435 °F)
reason, the unusually high abundance of iridium in Boiling point 4403 K ​(4130 °C, ​7466 °F)
the clay layer at the Cretaceous–Paleogene
Density (near r.t.) 22.56 g/cm3
boundary gave rise to the Alvarez hypothesis that
the impact of a massive extraterrestrial object when liquid (at m.p.) 19 g/cm3
caused the extinction of dinosaurs and many other
Heat of fusion 41.12 kJ/mol
species 66 million years ago, now known to be
produced by the impact that formed the Chicxulub Heat of 564 kJ/mol
crater. Similarly, an iridium anomaly in core vaporization
samples from the Pacific Ocean suggested the Molar heat capacity 25.10 J/(mol·K)
Eltanin impact of about 2.5 million years ago.[12]
Vapor pressure
It is thought that the total amount of iridium in the P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
planet Earth is much higher than that observed in
crustal rocks, but as with other platinum-group at T (K) 2713 2957 3252 3614 4069 4659
metals, the high density and tendency of iridium to
Atomic properties
bond with iron caused most iridium to descend
below the crust when the planet was young and Oxidation states −3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4,
still molten. +5, +6, +7, +8, +9[2]
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.20
Characteristics Ionization energies 1st: 880 kJ/mol
2nd: 1600 kJ/mol
Physical properties Atomic radius empirical: 136 pm
Covalent radius 141±6 pm

Spectral lines of iridium

Other properties
Natural occurrence primordial
Crystal structure ​face-centered cubic (fcc)

One troy ounce (31.1035 grams) of

arc-melted iridium Speed of sound 4825 m/s (at 20 °C)
thin rod
A member of the platinum group metals, iridium is Thermal expansion 6.4 µm/(m⋅K)
white, resembling platinum, but with a slight
Thermal 147 W/(m⋅K)
yellowish cast. Because of its hardness, brittleness,
and very high melting point, solid iridium is conductivity
difficult to machine, form, or work; thus powder Electrical resistivity 47.1 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
metallurgy is commonly employed instead.[13] It is Magnetic ordering paramagnetic[3]
the only metal to maintain good mechanical
properties in air at temperatures above 1,600 °C Molar magnetic +25.6 × 10−6 cm3/mol
(2,910 °F).[14] It has the 10th highest boiling point susceptibility (298 K)[4]
among all elements and becomes a superconductor Young's modulus 528 GPa
at temperatures below 0.14 K (−273.010 °C;
Shear modulus 210 GPa
−459.418 °F).[15]
Bulk modulus 320 GPa
Iridium's modulus of elasticity is the second- Poisson ratio 0.26
highest among the metals, being surpassed only by
Mohs hardness 6.5
osmium.[14] This, together with a high shear
modulus and a very low figure for Poisson's ratio Vickers hardness 1760–2200 MPa
(the relationship of longitudinal to lateral strain),
Brinell hardness 1670 MPa
indicate the high degree of stiffness and resistance
to deformation that have rendered its fabrication CAS Number 7439-88-5
into useful components a matter of great difficulty. History
Despite these limitations and iridium's high cost, a
Discovery and Smithson Tennant (1803)
number of applications have developed where
mechanical strength is an essential factor in some first isolation
of the extremely severe conditions encountered in Isotopes of iridium
modern technology.[14]
Main isotopes[5] Decay
The measured density of iridium is only slightly
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
lower (by about 0.12%) than that of osmium, the
densest metal known.[16][17] Some ambiguity 188
Ir synth 1.73 d ε 188
Os
occurred regarding which of the two elements was
189 189
denser, due to the small size of the difference in Ir synth 13.2 d ε Os
density and difficulties in measuring it 190 190
Ir synth 11.8 d ε Os
accurately,[18] but, with increased accuracy in
factors used for calculating density, X-ray 191
Ir 37.3% stable
crystallographic data yielded densities of
22.56 g/cm3 (0.815 lb/cu in) for iridium and
192
Ir synth 73.827 d β− 192
Pt
22.59 g/cm3 (0.816 lb/cu in) for osmium.[19] ε 192
Os

Iridium is extremely brittle, to the point of being 192m2

Ir synth 241 y IT 192
Ir
hard to weld because the heat-affected zone
193
cracks, but it can be made more ductile by addition Ir 62.7% stable
of small quantities of titanium and zirconium 193m 193
(0.2% of each apparently works well).[20]
Ir synth 10.5 d IT Ir

194
Ir synth 19.3 h β− 194
Pt
The Vickers hardness of pure platinum is 56 HV,
whereas platinum with 50% of iridium can reach 194m2
Ir synth 171 d IT 194
Ir
over 500 HV.[21][22]

Chemical properties

Iridium is the most corrosion-resistant metal known:[23] it is not attacked by acids, including aqua regia. In
the presence of oxygen, it reacts with cyanide salts.[24] Traditional oxidants also react, including the
halogens and oxygen[25] at higher temperatures.[26] Iridium also reacts directly with sulfur at atmospheric
pressure to yield iridium disulfide.[27]

Isotopes

Iridium has two naturally occurring, stable isotopes, 191 Ir and 193 Ir, with natural abundances of 37.3% and
62.7%, respectively.[28] At least 37 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in mass number from
164 to 202. 192 Ir, which falls between the two stable isotopes, is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-
life of 73.827 days, and finds application in brachytherapy[29] and in industrial radiography, particularly for
nondestructive testing of welds in steel in the oil and gas industries; iridium-192 sources have been
involved in a number of radiological accidents. Three other isotopes have half-lives of at least a day—188 Ir,
189 Ir, and 190 Ir.[28] Isotopes with masses below 191 decay by some combination of β+ decay, α decay, and
(rare) proton emission, with the exception of 189 Ir, which decays by electron capture. Synthetic isotopes
heavier than 191 decay by β− decay, although 192 Ir also has a minor electron capture decay path.[28] All
known isotopes of iridium were discovered between 1934 and 2008, with the most recent discoveries being
200–202 Ir.[30]

At least 32 metastable isomers have been characterized, ranging in mass number from 164 to 197. The most
stable of these is 192m2 Ir, which decays by isomeric transition with a half-life of 241 years,[28] making it
more stable than any of iridium's synthetic isotopes in their ground states. The least stable isomer is 190m3 Ir
with a half-life of only 2 μs.[28] The isotope 191 Ir was the first one of any element to be shown to present a
Mössbauer effect. This renders it useful for Mössbauer spectroscopy for research in physics, chemistry,
biochemistry, metallurgy, and mineralogy.[31]

Chemistry

Oxidation states[b]
Oxidation states
3−
−3 [Ir(CO)3]
Iridium forms compounds in oxidation states between −3 and +9, but the most
−1 [Ir(CO)3(PPh3)]1−
common oxidation states are +1, +2, +3, and +4.[13] Well-characterized
compounds containing iridium in the +6 oxidation state include IrF6 and the 0 Ir4(CO)12
oxides Sr2 MgIrO6 and Sr2 CaIrO6 .[13][32]
iridium(VIII) oxide (IrO4 ) was
+1 [IrCl(CO)(PPh3)2]
generated under matrix isolation conditions at 6 K in argon.[33] The highest
oxidation state (+9), which is also the highest recorded for any element, is +2 Ir(C5H5)2
+
found in gaseous [IrO4 ] .[2] +3 IrCl3

+4 IrO2
Binary compounds +5 Ir4F20

Iridium does not form binary hydrides. Only one binary oxide is well- +6 IrF6
characterized: iridium dioxide, IrO2 . It is a blue black solid that adopts the +7 [Ir(O2)O2]
+

fluorite structure.[13] A sesquioxide, Ir2 O3 , has been described as a blue-black

+8 IrO4
powder, which is oxidized to IrO2 by HNO3 .[25] The corresponding disulfides,
diselenides, sesquisulfides, and sesquiselenides are known, as well as IrS3 .[13] +9 [IrO4]
+[2]

Binary trihalides, IrX3 , are known for all of the halogens.[13] For oxidation
states +4 and above, only the tetrafluoride, pentafluoride and hexafluoride are known.[13] Iridium
hexafluoride, IrF6 , is a volatile yellow solid, composed of octahedral molecules. It decomposes in water
and is reduced to IrF4 .[13] Iridium pentafluoride is also a strong oxidant, but it is a tetramer, Ir4 F20 , formed
by four corner-sharing octahedra.[13]

Complexes

Iridium has extensive coordination chemistry.

Iridium in its complexes is always low-spin. Ir(III) and Ir(IV) generally form octahedral complexes.[13]
Polyhydride complexes are known for the +5 and +3 oxidation states.[34] One example is IrH5 (PiPr3 )2 .[35]
The ternary hydride Mg6 Ir2 H11 is believed to contain both the IrH4− 5−
5 and the 18-electron IrH 4 anion.
[36]
 Iridium also forms oxyanions with oxidation states +4 and +5.
K2 IrO3 and KIrO3 can be prepared from the reaction of potassium
oxide or potassium superoxide with iridium at high temperatures.
Such solids are not soluble in conventional solvents.[37]

Just like many elements, iridium forms important chloride

complexes. Hexachloroiridic (IV) acid, H2 IrCl6 , and its ammonium
Hydrated iridium trichloride, a
salt are the most common iridium compounds from an industrial
common salt of iridium.
and preparative perspectives.[38] They are intermediates in the
purification of iridium and used as precursors for most other iridium
compounds, as well as in the preparation of anode coatings. The IrCl2− 6 ion has an intense dark brown
3−
color, and can be readily reduced to the lighter-colored IrCl6 and vice versa.[38] Iridium trichloride, IrCl3 ,
which can be obtained in anhydrous form from direct oxidation of iridium powder by chlorine at
650 °C,[38] or in hydrated form by dissolving Ir2 O3 in hydrochloric acid, is often used as a starting material
for the synthesis of other Ir(III) compounds.[13] Another compound used as a starting material is ammonium
hexachloroiridate(III), (NH4 )3 IrCl6 .

In the presence of air, iridium metal dissolves in molten alkali-metal cyanides to produce the Ir(CN)3−
6
(hexacyanoiridate) ion and upon oxidation produces the most stable oxide.

Organoiridium chemistry

Organoiridium compounds contain iridium–carbon bonds. Early

Cyclooctadiene iridium chloride dimer
is a common complex of Ir(I).
studies identified the very stable tetrairidium dodecacarbonyl,
Ir4 (CO)12 .[13] In this compound, each of the iridium atoms is
bonded to the other three, forming a tetrahedral cluster. The
discovery of Vaska's complex (IrCl(CO)[P(C6 H5 )3 ]2 ) opened the
door for oxidative addition reactions, a process fundamental to
useful reactions. For example, Crabtree's catalyst, a homogeneous
catalyst for hydrogenation reactions.[39][40]

Iridium complexes played a

pivotal role in the development
of Carbon–hydrogen bond
activation (C–H activation),
which promises to allow
functionalization of
Oxidative addition to hydrocarbons in organoiridium chemistry[41][42] hydrocarbons, which are
traditionally regarded as
unreactive.[43]

History

Platinum group

The discovery of iridium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group.
The first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius
Caesar Scaliger as a description of an unknown noble metal found between Darién and Mexico, "which no
fire nor any Spanish artifice has yet been able to liquefy".[44] From their
first encounters with platinum, the Spanish generally saw the metal as a
kind of impurity in gold, and it was treated as such. It was often simply
thrown away, and there was an official decree forbidding the adulteration
of gold with platinum impurities.[45]

In 1735, Antonio de Ulloa and Jorge Juan y Santacilia

saw Native Americans mining platinum while the
Spaniards were travelling through Colombia and Peru
for eight years. Ulloa and Juan found mines with the
whitish metal nuggets and took them home to Spain.
This
Antonio de Ulloa returned to Spain and established the
alchemical
first mineralogy lab in Spain and was the first to
symbol for
systematically study platinum, which was in 1748. His The Greek goddess Iris,
platinum was
historical account of the expedition included a after whom iridium was
made by description of platinum as being neither separable nor named.
joining the calcinable. Ulloa also anticipated the discovery of
symbols of platinum mines. After publishing the report in
silver (moon) 1748, Ulloa did not continue to investigate the
and gold (sun). new metal. In 1758, he was sent to superintend
mercury mining operations in Huancavelica.[44]

In 1741, Charles Wood,[46] a British metallurgist, found various

samples of Colombian platinum in Jamaica, which he sent to
William Brownrigg for further investigation.

In 1750, after studying the platinum sent to him by Wood,

Brownrigg presented a detailed account of the metal to the Royal
Society, stating that he had seen no mention of it in any previous
accounts of known minerals.[47] Brownrigg also made note of
platinum's extremely high melting point and refractory metal-like
behaviour toward borax. Other chemists across Europe soon began
studying platinum, including Andreas Sigismund Marggraf,[48]
Torbern Bergman, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, William Lewis, and Pierre Antonio de Ulloa is credited in
Macquer. In 1752, Henrik Scheffer published a detailed scientific European history with the discovery
description of the metal, which he referred to as "white gold", of platinum.
including an account of how he succeeded in fusing platinum ore
with the aid of arsenic. Scheffer described platinum as being less
pliable than gold, but with similar resistance to corrosion.[44]

Discovery

Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to
create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue.[14] Joseph Louis
Proust thought that the residue was graphite.[14] The French chemists Victor Collet-Descotils, Antoine
François, comte de Fourcroy, and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803, but did
not obtain enough for further experiments.[14]

In 1803, British scientist Smithson Tennant (1761–1815) analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that
it must contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids[23] and obtained
a volatile new oxide, which he believed to be of this new metal—which he named ptene, from the Greek
word πτηνός ptēnós, "winged".[49][50] Tennant, who had the advantage of a much greater amount of
residue, continued his research and identified the two previously undiscovered elements in the black
residue, iridium and osmium.[14][23] He obtained dark red crystals (probably of Na2 [IrCl6 ]·nH2 O) by a
sequence of reactions with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.[50] He named iridium after Iris (Ἶρις),
the Greek winged goddess of the rainbow and the messenger of the Olympian gods, because many of the
salts he obtained were strongly colored.[c][51] Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to
the Royal Society on June 21, 1804.[14][52]

Metalworking and applications

British scientist John George Children was the first to melt a sample of iridium in 1813 with the aid of "the
greatest galvanic battery that has ever been constructed" (at that time).[14] The first to obtain high-purity
iridium was Robert Hare in 1842. He found it had a density of around 21.8 g/cm3 (0.79 lb/cu in) and noted
the metal is nearly immalleable and very hard. The first melting in appreciable quantity was done by Henri
Sainte-Claire Deville and Jules Henri Debray in 1860. They required burning more than 300 litres
(79 US gal) of pure O2 and H2 gas for each 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of iridium.[14]

These extreme difficulties in melting the metal limited the possibilities for handling iridium. John Isaac
Hawkins was looking to obtain a fine and hard point for fountain pen nibs, and in 1834 managed to create
an iridium-pointed gold pen. In 1880, John Holland and William Lofland Dudley were able to melt iridium
by adding phosphorus and patented the process in the United States; British company Johnson Matthey
later stated they had been using a similar process since 1837 and had already presented fused iridium at a
number of World Fairs.[14] The first use of an alloy of iridium with ruthenium in thermocouples was made
by Otto Feussner in 1933. These allowed for the measurement of high temperatures in air up to 2,000 °C
(3,630 °F).[14]

In Munich, Germany in 1957 Rudolf Mössbauer, in what has been called one of the "landmark experiments
in twentieth-century physics",[53] discovered the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of
gamma rays by atoms in a solid metal sample containing only 191 Ir.[54] This phenomenon, known as the
Mössbauer effect resulted in the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1961, at the age 32, just three
years after he published his discovery.[55]

Occurrence
Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron, iridium is only naturally formed by
the r-process (rapid neutron capture) in supernovae and neutron star mergers.[56][57]

Iridium is one of the nine least abundant stable elements in Earth's crust, having an average mass fraction of
0.001 ppm in crustal rock; platinum is 10 times more abundant, gold is 40 times more abundant, and silver
and mercury are 80 times more abundant.[13] Tellurium is about as abundant as iridium.[13] In contrast to its
low abundance in crustal rock, iridium is relatively common in meteorites, with concentrations of 0.5 ppm
or more.[59] The overall concentration of iridium on Earth is thought to be much higher than what is
observed in crustal rocks, but because of the density and siderophilic ("iron-loving") character of iridium, it
descended below the crust and into Earth's core when the planet was still molten.[38]

Iridium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys; especially the iridium–osmium
alloys, osmiridium (osmium-rich), and iridosmium (iridium-rich).[23] In the nickel and copper deposits, the
platinum group metals occur as sulfides (i.e. (Pt,Pd)S), tellurides (i.e. PtBiTe), antimonides (PdSb), and
arsenides (i.e. PtAs2 ). In all of these compounds, platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and
osmium. As with all of the platinum group
metals, iridium can be found naturally in
alloys with raw nickel or raw copper.[60] A
number of iridium-dominant minerals, with
iridium as the species-forming element, are
known. They are exceedingly rare and
often represent the iridium analogues of the
above-given ones. The examples are irarsite
and cuproiridsite, to mention
some. [61][62][63] Within Earth's crust,
iridium is found at highest concentrations in
three types of geologic structure: igneous
deposits (crustal intrusions from below),
impact craters, and deposits reworked from
one of the former structures. The largest
known primary reserves are in the
Iridium is one of the least abundant elements in Earth's crust.
Bushveld igneous complex in South
Africa,[64] (near the largest known impact
structure, the Vredefort impact structure) though the large copper–nickel
deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin (also an impact
crater) in Canada are also significant sources of iridium. Smaller reserves
are found in the United States.[64] Iridium is also found in secondary
deposits, combined with platinum and other platinum group metals in
alluvial deposits. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the
Chocó Department of Colombia are still a source for platinum-group
metals. As of 2003, world reserves have not been estimated.[23]

Marine oceanography

Iridium is found within marine organisms, sediments, and the water

The Willamette Meteorite,
column. The abundance of iridium in seawater[65] and organisms[66] is
the sixth-largest meteorite
relatively low, as it does not readily form chloride complexes.[66] The found in the world, has
abundance in organisms is about 20 parts per trillion, or about five orders of
4.7 ppm iridium.[58]
magnitude less than in sedimentary rocks at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–
T) boundary.[66] The concentration of iridium in seawater and marine
sediment is sensitive to marine oxygenation, seawater temperature, and various geological and biological
processes.[67]

Iridium in sediments can come from cosmic dust, volcanoes, precipitation from seawater, microbial
processes, or hydrothermal vents,[67] and its abundance can be strongly indicative of the source.[68][67] It
tends to associate with other ferrous metals in manganese nodules.[65] Iridium is one of the characteristic
elements of extraterrestrial rocks, and, along with osmium, can be used as a tracer element for meteoritic
material in sediment.[69][70] For example core samples from the Pacific Ocean with elevated iridium levels
suggested the Eltanin impact of about 2.5 million years ago.[12]

Some of the mass extinctions, such as the Cretaceous extinction, can be identified by anomalously high
concentrations of iridium in sediment, and these can be linked to major asteroid impacts.[71]

Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary presence


The red arrow points to the
Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary.
Earth's core is rich in iridium, and active volcanoes such as Piton de la Fournaise, in the island of Réunion,
are still releasing iridium.[75][76]
The Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary of 66 million years ago,
marking the temporal border between the Cretaceous and
Paleogene periods of geological time, was identified by a thin
stratum of iridium-rich clay.[72] A team led by Luis Alvarez
proposed in 1980 an extraterrestrial origin for this iridium,
attributing it to an asteroid or comet impact.[72] Their theory,
known as the Alvarez hypothesis, is now widely accepted to
explain the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. A large buried
impact crater structure with an estimated age of about 66 million
years was later identified under what is now the Yucatán Peninsula
(the Chicxulub crater).[73][74] Dewey M. McLean and others argue
that the iridium may have been of volcanic origin instead, because

Production
Worldwide production of iridium was about 7,300 Consumption
kilograms (16,100 lb) in 2018.[10] The price is high and Year (tonnes) Price (USD)[77]
varying (see table). Illustrative factors that affect the
2001 2.6 $415.25/ozt ($13.351/g)
price include oversupply of Ir crucibles[77][78] and
changes in LED technology.[79] 2002 2.5 $294.62/ozt ($9.472/g)
2003 3.3 $93.02/ozt ($2.991/g)
Platinum metals occur together as dilute ores. Iridium is
2004 3.60 $185.33/ozt ($5.958/g)
one of the rarer platinum metals: for every 190 tonnes
of platinum obtained from ores, only 7.5 tonnes of 2005 3.86 $169.51/ozt ($5.450/g)
iridium is isolated.[80] To separate the metals, they must 2006 4.08 $349.45/ozt ($11.235/g)
first be brought into solution. Two methods for
rendering Ir-containing ores soluble are (i) fusion of the 2007 3.70 $444.43/ozt ($14.289/g)
solid with sodium peroxide followed by extraction of 2008 3.10 $448.34/ozt ($14.414/g)
the resulting glass in aqua regia and (ii) extraction of
2009 2.52 $420.4/ozt ($13.52/g)
the solid with a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric
acid.[38][64] From soluble extracts, iridium is separated 2010 10.40 $642.15/ozt ($20.646/g)
by precipitating solid ammonium hexachloroiridate 2011 9.36 $1,035.87/ozt ($33.304/g)
((NH4 )2 IrCl6 ) or by extracting IrCl2− 6 with organic
[81] 2012 5.54 $1,066.23/ozt ($34.280/g)
amines. The first method is similar to the procedure
Tennant and Wollaston used for their original 2013 6.16 $826.45/ozt ($26.571/g)
separation. The second method can be planned as 2014 6.1 $556.19/ozt ($17.882/g)
continuous liquid–liquid extraction and is therefore
2015 7.81 $544/ozt ($17.5/g)
more suitable for industrial scale production. In either
case, the product, an iridium chloride salt, is reduced 2016 7.71 $586.90/ozt ($18.869/g)
with hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or 2017 n.d. $908.35/ozt ($29.204/g)
sponge, which is amenable to powder metallurgy
techniques.[82][83] Iridium is also obtained 2018 n.d. $1,293.27/ozt ($41.580/g)
commercially as a by-product from nickel and copper 2019 n.d. $1,485.80/ozt ($47.770/g)
mining and processing. During electrorefining of
2020 n.d. $1,633.51/ozt ($52.519/g)
copper and nickel, noble metals such as silver, gold and
the platinum group metals as well as selenium and 2021 n.d. $5,400.00/ozt ($173.614/g)
tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud,
which forms the starting point for their extraction.[77]
 Leading iridium-producing countries (kg)[84]
1 Country 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
2 World 7,720 7,180 7,540 7,910 8,170

3 South Africa * 6,624 6,057 6,357 6,464 6,786

4 Zimbabwe 598 619 586 845 836

5 Canada * 300 200 400 300 300

6 Russia * 200 300 200 300 250

Applications
The main areas of use of iridium are electrodes for producing chlorine and other aggressive products,
OLEDs, crucibles, catalysts (e.g. acetic acid), and ignition tips for spark plugs.[80]

Ir metal and alloys

Resistance to heat and corrosion are the bases for several uses of iridium and its alloys.

Owing to its high melting point, hardness, and corrosion resistance, iridium is used to make crucibles. Such
crucibles are used in the Czochralski process to produce oxide single-crystals (such as sapphires) for use in
computer memory devices and in solid state lasers.[85][86] The crystals, such as gadolinium gallium garnet
and yttrium gallium garnet, are grown by melting pre-sintered charges of mixed oxides under oxidizing
conditions at temperatures up to 2,100 °C (3,810 °F).[14]

Certain long-life aircraft engine parts are made of an iridium alloy, and an iridium–titanium alloy is used for
deep-water pipes because of its corrosion resistance.[23] Iridium is used for multi-pored spinnerets, through
which a plastic polymer melt is extruded to form fibers, such as rayon.[87] Osmium–iridium is used for
compass bearings and for balances.[14]

Because of their resistance to arc erosion, iridium alloys are used by some manufacturers for electrical
contacts for spark plugs,[85][88] and iridium-based spark plugs are particularly used in aviation.

Catalysis

Iridium compounds are used as catalysts in the Cativa process for carbonylation of methanol to produce
acetic acid.[89][90]

Iridium complexes are often active for asymmetric hydrogenation both by traditional hydrogenation.[91] and
transfer hydrogenation.[92] This property is the basis of the industrial route to the chiral herbicide (S)-
metolachlor. As practiced by Syngenta on the scale of 10,000 tons/year, the complex [[ [Ir(COD)Cl]2 in the
presence of Josiphos ligands.[93]

Medical imaging
The radioisotope iridium-192 is one of the two most important sources of energy for use in industrial γ-
192
radiography for non-destructive testing of metals.[94][95] Additionally, Ir is used as a source of gamma
radiation for the treatment of cancer using brachytherapy, a form of radiotherapy where a sealed radioactive
source is placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment. Specific treatments include high-dose-rate
prostate brachytherapy, biliary duct brachytherapy, and intracavitary cervix brachytherapy.[23] Iridium-192
is normally produced by neutron activation of isotope iridium-191 in natural-abundance iridium metal.[96]

Photocatalysis and OLEDs

Iridium complexes are key components of white OLEDs. Similar complexes are used in photocatalysis.[97]

Scientific

An alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium was used in 1889 to

construct the International Prototype Meter and kilogram mass, kept
by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near
Paris.[23] The meter bar was replaced as the definition of the
fundamental unit of length in 1960 by a line in the atomic spectrum
of krypton,[d][98] but the kilogram prototype remained the
international standard of mass until 20 May 2019, when the
kilogram was redefined in terms of the Planck constant.[99] International Prototype Meter bar

Historical

Iridium–osmium alloys were used in fountain pen nib tips. The first
major use of iridium was in 1834 in nibs mounted on gold.[14]
Since 1944, the famous Parker 51 fountain pen was fitted with a
nib tipped by a ruthenium and iridium alloy (with 3.8% iridium).
The tip material in modern fountain pens is still conventionally
called "iridium", although there is seldom any iridium in it; other
metals such as ruthenium, osmium, and tungsten have taken its
place.[100]
Fountain pen nib labelled Iridium
An iridium–platinum alloy was used for the touch holes or vent
Point
pieces of cannon. According to a report of the Paris Exhibition of
1867, one of the pieces being exhibited by Johnson and Matthey
"has been used in a Whitworth gun for more than 3000 rounds, and scarcely shows signs of wear yet.
Those who know the constant trouble and expense which are occasioned by the wearing of the vent-pieces
of cannon when in active service, will appreciate this important adaptation".[101]

The pigment iridium black, which consists of very finely divided iridium, is used for painting porcelain an
intense black; it was said that "all other porcelain black colors appear grey by the side of it".[102]

Precautions
Iridium in bulk metallic form is not biologically important or hazardous to health due to its lack of reactivity
with tissues; there are only about 20 parts per trillion of iridium in human tissue.[23] Like most metals,
finely divided iridium powder can be hazardous to handle, as it is an irritant and may ignite in air.[64] By
2015 very little is known about the toxicity of iridium compounds,[103] primarily because it is used so
rarely that few people come in contact with it and those who do only with very small amounts. However,
soluble salts, such as the iridium halides, could be hazardous due to elements other than iridium or due to
iridium itself.[29] At the same time, most iridium compounds are insoluble, which makes absorption into the
body difficult.[23]

A radioisotope of iridium, 192 Ir, is dangerous, like other radioactive isotopes. The only reported injuries
related to iridium concern accidental exposure to radiation from 192 Ir used in brachytherapy.[29] High-
energy gamma radiation from 192 Ir can increase the risk of cancer. External exposure can cause burns,
radiation poisoning, and death. Ingestion of 192 Ir can burn the linings of the stomach and the intestines.[104]
192 Ir, 192mIr, and 194mIr tend to deposit in the
liver, and can pose health hazards from both gamma and beta
radiation. [59]

Notes
a. At room temperature and standard atmospheric pressure, iridium has been calculated to
have a density of 22.65 g/cm3 (0.818 lb/cu in), 0.04 g/cm3 (0.0014 lb/cu in) higher than
osmium measured the same way.[7] Still, the experimental X-ray crystallography value is
considered to be the most accurate, and as such iridium is considered to be the second
densest element.[8]
b. Most common oxidation states of iridium are in bold. The right column lists one
representative compound for each oxidation state.
c. Iridium literally means "of rainbows".
d. The definition of the meter was changed again in 1983. The meter is currently defined as the
distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1⁄299,792,458 of a second.

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External links
Iridium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/077.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Iridium in Encyclopædia Britannica (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293985/iri
dium-Ir)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iridium&oldid=1188978456"