Lead

Lead
Lead is a chemical element; it has symbol Pb (from

Latin plumbum) and atomic number 82. It is a Lead, 82Pb
heavy metal that is denser than most common
materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a
relatively low melting point. When freshly cut, lead
is a shiny gray with a hint of blue. It tarnishes to a
dull gray color when exposed to air. Lead has the
highest atomic number of any stable element and
three of its isotopes are endpoints of major nuclear
decay chains of heavier elements. Lead is toxic,
even in small amounts, especially to children. Lead
Pronunciation /ˈlɛd/ (led)
Lead is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal.
Appearance metallic gray
Its weak metallic character is illustrated by its
amphoteric nature; lead and lead oxides react with Standard atomic weight Ar°(Pb)
acids and bases, and it tends to form covalent
[206.14, 207.94]
bonds. Compounds of lead are usually found in the
+2 oxidation state rather than the +4 state common 207.2 ± 1.1 (abridged)[1]
with lighter members of the carbon group. Lead in the periodic table
Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead
compounds. Like the lighter members of the group, Sn
↑
lead tends to bond with itself; it can form chains Pb
and polyhedral structures. ↓
Fl
thallium ← lead → bismuth
Since lead is easily extracted from its ores,
prehistoric people in the Near East were aware of it. Atomic number (Z) 82
Galena is a principal ore of lead which often bears
Group group 14 (carbon group)
silver. Interest in silver helped initiate widespread
extraction and use of lead in ancient Rome. Lead Period period 6
production declined after the fall of Rome and did Block p-block
not reach comparable levels until the Industrial
Revolution. Lead played a crucial role in the Electron [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2
development of the printing press, as movable type configuration
could be relatively easily cast from lead alloys.[6] In Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4
2014, the annual global production of lead was
Physical properties
about ten million tonnes, over half of which was
from recycling. Lead's high density, low melting Phase at STP solid
point, ductility and relative inertness to oxidation Melting point 600.61 K (327.46 °C,
make it useful. These properties, combined with its 621.43 °F)
relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its
Boiling point 2022 K (1749 °C, 3180 °F)
extensive use in construction, plumbing, batteries,
bullets and shot, weights, solders, pewters, fusible Density (near r.t.) 11.34 g/cm3
alloys, white paints, leaded gasoline, and radiation when liquid (at m.p.) 10.66 g/cm3
shielding.
Heat of fusion 4.77 kJ/mol
Lead is a devastating and persistent neurotoxin that Heat of 179.5 kJ/mol
accumulates in soft tissues and bones. It damages vaporization
the nervous system and interferes with the function
Molar heat capacity 26.650 J/(mol·K)
of biological enzymes, causing neurological
disorders ranging from behavioral problems to brain Vapor pressure
damage, and also affects general health, P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
cardiovascular, and renal systems. Lead's toxicity
was first documented by ancient Greek and Roman at T (K) 978 1088 1229 1412 1660 2027
writers, who noted some of the symptoms of lead
poisoning, but became widely recognized in Atomic properties
Europe in the late 19th century. Oxidation states −4, −2, −1, 0,[2] +1, +2, +3,
+4 (an amphoteric oxide)
Physical properties Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.33 (in +4),
1.87 (in +2)
Ionization energies 1st: 715.6 kJ/mol
Atomic
2nd: 1450.5 kJ/mol
A lead atom has 82 electrons, arranged in an 3rd: 3081.5 kJ/mol
electron configuration of [Xe]4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2 . The
sum of lead's first and second ionization energies— Atomic radius empirical: 175 pm
the total energy required to remove the two 6p Covalent radius 146±5 pm
electrons—is close to that of tin, lead's upper
Van der Waals 202 pm
neighbor in the carbon group. This is unusual;
ionization energies generally fall going down a radius
group, as an element's outer electrons become more
distant from the nucleus, and more shielded by
smaller orbitals. Spectral lines of lead
The sum of the first four ionization energies of lead Other properties
exceeds that of tin,[7] contrary to what periodic Natural occurrence primordial
trends would predict. This is explained by Crystal structure face-centered cubic (fcc)
relativistic effects, which become significant in
a=495.08 pm
heavier atoms,[8] which contract s and p orbitals
such that lead's 6s electrons have larger binding
energies than its 5s electrons.[9] A consequence is
Speed of sound 1190 m/s (at r.t.)
the so-called inert pair effect: the 6s electrons of
lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, thin rod (annealed)
stabilising the +2 oxidation state and making the Thermal expansion 28.9 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead Thermal 35.3 W/(m⋅K)
unusually long.[10]
conductivity
Lead's lighter carbon group congeners form stable Electrical resistivity 208 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
or metastable allotropes with the tetrahedrally Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic
structure. The energy levels of their outer s- and p- Molar magnetic −23.0 × 10−6 cm3/mol (at
orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four susceptibility 298 K)[3]
hybrid sp3 orbitals. In lead, the inert pair effect Young's modulus 16 GPa
increases the separation between its s- and p-
Shear modulus 5.6 GPa
orbitals, and the gap cannot be overcome by the
energy that would be released by extra bonds Bulk modulus 46 GPa
following hybridization.[11] Rather than having a Poisson ratio 0.44
diamond cubic structure, lead forms metallic bonds Mohs hardness 1.5
in which only the p-electrons are delocalized and
Brinell hardness 38–50 MPa
shared between the Pb2+ ions. Lead consequently
has a face-centered cubic structure[12] like the CAS Number 7439-92-1
similarly sized[13] divalent metals calcium and History
strontium.[14][a][b][c] Discovery Middle East (7000 BCE)
Symbol "Pb": from Latin plumbum
Bulk Isotopes of lead
Pure lead has a bright, shiny gray appearance with Main isotopes[4] Decay
a hint of blue.[19] It tarnishes on contact with moist
abundance half-life (t1/2) mode product
air and takes on a dull appearance, the hue of which
depends on the prevailing conditions. Characteristic 202
Pb synth 5.25 × 104 y ε 202
Tl
properties of lead include high density, malleability,
204
ductility, and high resistance to corrosion due to Pb 1.40% stable
passivation.[20] 205
Pb trace 1.73 × 107 y ε 205
Tl
206
Pb 24.1% stable
207
Pb 22.1% stable
208
Pb 52.4% stable
209
Pb trace 3.253 h β− 209
Bi
210
Pb trace 22.20 y β− 210
Bi
211
Pb trace 36.1 min β− 211
Bi
A sample of lead solidified from the 212

Pb trace 10.64 h β− 212
Bi
molten state
214
Pb trace 26.8 min β− 214
Bi
[5]
Lead's close-packed face-centered cubic structure Isotopic abundances vary greatly by sample
and high atomic weight result in a density [21] of
11.34 g/cm , which is greater than that of common metals such as iron (7.87 g/cm3 ), copper (8.93 g/cm3 ),
3
and zinc (7.14 g/cm3 ).[22] This density is the origin of the idiom to go over like a lead balloon.[23][24][d]
Some rarer metals are denser: tungsten and gold are both at 19.3 g/cm3 , and osmium—the densest metal
known—has a density of 22.59 g/cm3 , almost twice that of lead.[25]
Lead is a very soft metal with a Mohs hardness of 1.5; it can be scratched with a fingernail.[26] It is quite
malleable and somewhat ductile.[27][e] The bulk modulus of lead—a measure of its ease of compressibility
—is 45.8 GPa. In comparison, that of aluminium is 75.2 GPa; copper 137.8 GPa; and mild steel 160–
169 GPa.[28] Lead's tensile strength, at 12–17 MPa, is low (that of aluminium is 6 times higher, copper 10
times, and mild steel 15 times higher); it can be strengthened by adding small amounts of copper or
antimony.[29]
The melting point of lead—at 327.5 °C (621.5 °F)[30]—is very low compared to most metals.[21][f] Its
boiling point of 1749 °C (3180 °F)[30] is the lowest among the carbon-group elements. The electrical
resistivity of lead at 20 °C is 192 nanoohm-meters, almost an order of magnitude higher than those of other
industrial metals (copper at 15.43 nΩ·m; gold 20.51 nΩ·m; and aluminium at 24.15 nΩ·m).[32] Lead is a
superconductor at temperatures lower than 7.19 K;[33] this is the highest critical temperature of all type-I
superconductors and the third highest of the elemental superconductors.[34]
Isotopes
Natural lead consists of four stable isotopes with mass numbers of 204, 206, 207, and 208,[35] and traces of
five short-lived radioisotopes.[36] The high number of isotopes is consistent with lead's atomic number
being even.[g] Lead has a magic number of protons (82), for which the nuclear shell model accurately
predicts an especially stable nucleus.[37] Lead-208 has 126 neutrons, another magic number, which may
explain why lead-208 is extraordinarily stable.[37]
With its high atomic number, lead is the heaviest element whose natural isotopes are regarded as stable;
lead-208 is the heaviest stable nucleus. (This distinction formerly fell to bismuth, with an atomic number of
83, until its only primordial isotope, bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to decay very slowly.)[h] The four
stable isotopes of lead could theoretically undergo alpha decay to isotopes of mercury with a release of
energy, but this has not been observed for any of them; their predicted half-lives range from 1035 to 10189
years[40] (at least 1025 times the current age of the universe).
Three of the stable isotopes are found in three of the four major decay chains: lead-206, lead-207, and lead-
208 are the final decay products of uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232, respectively.[41] These
decay chains are called the uranium chain, the actinium chain, and the thorium chain.[42] Their isotopic
concentrations in a natural rock sample depends greatly on the presence of these three parent uranium and
thorium isotopes. For example, the relative abundance of lead-208 can range from 52% in normal samples
to 90% in thorium ores;[43] for this reason, the standard atomic weight of lead is given to only one decimal
place.[44] As time passes, the ratio of lead-206 and lead-207 to lead-204 increases, since the former two are
supplemented by radioactive decay of heavier elements while the latter is not; this allows for lead–lead
dating. As uranium decays into lead, their relative amounts change; this is the basis for uranium–lead
dating.[45] Lead-207 exhibits nuclear magnetic resonance, a property that has been used to study its
compounds in solution and solid state,[46][47] including in the human body.[48]
Apart from the stable isotopes, which make up almost all lead that
exists naturally, there are trace quantities of a few radioactive
isotopes. One of them is lead-210; although it has a half-life of only
22.2 years,[35] small quantities occur in nature because lead-210 is
produced by a long decay series that starts with uranium-238 (that
has been present for billions of years on Earth). Lead-211, −212,
and −214 are present in the decay chains of uranium-235, thorium-
232, and uranium-238, respectively, so traces of all three of these
lead isotopes are found naturally. Minute traces of lead-209 arise
The Holsinger meteorite, the largest
from the very rare cluster decay of radium-223, one of the daughter
piece of the Canyon Diablo
meteorite. Uranium–lead dating and
products of natural uranium-235, and the decay chain of
lead–lead dating on this meteorite
neptunium-237, traces of which are produced by neutron capture in
allowed refinement of the age of the
uranium ores. Lead-210 is particularly useful for helping to identify
Earth to 4.55 billion ± 70 million the ages of samples by measuring its ratio to lead-206 (both
years. isotopes are present in a single decay chain).[49]
In total, 43 lead isotopes have been synthesized, with mass

numbers 178–220.[35] Lead-205 is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of around
1.73 × 107 years.[i] The second-most stable is lead-202, which has a half-life of about 52,500 years, longer
than any of the natural trace radioisotopes.[35]
Chemistry
Bulk lead exposed to moist air forms a protective layer of varying composition.
Lead(II) carbonate is a common constituent;[51][52][53] the sulfate or chloride may
also be present in urban or maritime settings.[54] This layer makes bulk lead
effectively chemically inert in the air.[54] Finely powdered lead, as with many metals,
is pyrophoric,[55] and burns with a bluish-white flame.[56]
Fluorine reacts with lead at room temperature, forming lead(II) fluoride. The reaction
with chlorine is similar but requires heating, as the resulting chloride layer diminishes
the reactivity of the elements.[54] Molten lead reacts with the chalcogens to give
lead(II) chalcogenides.[57]
Lead metal resists sulfuric and phosphoric acid but not hydrochloric or nitric acid; the
outcome depends on insolubility and subsequent passivation of the product salt.[58]
Organic acids, such as acetic acid, dissolve lead in the presence of oxygen.[54]
Concentrated alkalis will dissolve lead and form plumbites.[59]
Inorganic compounds
Flame test: lead
Lead shows two main oxidation states: +4 and +2. The tetravalent state is common colors flame pale
for the carbon group. The divalent state is rare for carbon and silicon, minor for blue
germanium, important (but not prevailing) for tin, and is the more important of the
two oxidation states for lead.[54] This is attributable to relativistic effects, specifically
the inert pair effect, which manifests itself when there is a large difference in electronegativity between lead
and oxide, halide, or nitride anions, leading to a significant partial positive charge on lead. The result is a
stronger contraction of the lead 6s orbital than is the case for the 6p orbital, making it rather inert in ionic
compounds. The inert pair effect is less applicable to compounds in which lead forms covalent bonds with
elements of similar electronegativity, such as carbon in organolead compounds. In these, the 6s and 6p
orbitals remain similarly sized and sp3 hybridization is still energetically favorable. Lead, like carbon, is
predominantly tetravalent in such compounds.[60]
There is a relatively large difference in the electronegativity of lead(II) at 1.87 and lead(IV) at 2.33. This
difference marks the reversal in the trend of increasing stability of the +4 oxidation state going down the
carbon group; tin, by comparison, has values of 1.80 in the +2 oxidation state and 1.96 in the +4 state.[61]
Lead(II)
Lead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead. Even strong oxidizing agents like
fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only PbF2 and PbCl2 .[54] Lead(II) ions are usually colorless in
solution,[62] and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH)+ and finally [Pb4 (OH)4 ]4+ (in which the hydroxyl
ions act as bridging ligands),[63][64] but are not reducing agents as tin(II) ions are. Techniques for
identifying the presence of the Pb2+ ion in water generally rely on the precipitation of lead(II) chloride
using dilute hydrochloric acid. As the chloride salt is sparingly soluble in water, in very dilute solutions the
precipitation of lead(II) sulfide is instead achieved by bubbling hydrogen sulfide through the solution.[65]
Lead monoxide exists in two polymorphs, litharge α-PbO (red) and
massicot β-PbO (yellow), the latter being stable only above around
488 °C. Litharge is the most commonly used inorganic compound
of lead.[66] There is no lead(II) hydroxide; increasing the pH of
solutions of lead(II) salts leads to hydrolysis and condensation.[67]
Lead commonly reacts with heavier chalcogens. Lead sulfide is a
semiconductor, a photoconductor, and an extremely sensitive
infrared radiation detector. The other two chalcogenides, lead
selenide and lead telluride, are likewise photoconducting. They are
unusual in that their color becomes lighter going down the
Lead(II) oxide
group.[68]
Lead dihalides are well-

characterized; this includes the diastatide[69] and mixed halides, such as
PbFCl. The relative insolubility of the latter forms a useful basis for the
gravimetric determination of fluorine. The difluoride was the first solid
ionically conducting compound to be discovered (in 1834, by Michael
Faraday).[70] The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or
visible light, especially the diiodide.[71] Many lead(II) pseudohalides are
known, such as the cyanide, cyanate, and thiocyanate.[68][72] Lead(II)
forms an extensive variety of halide coordination complexes, such as
[PbCl4 ]2−, [PbCl6 ]4−, and the [Pb2 Cl9 ]n 5n− chain anion.[71] Lead and oxygen in a
tetragonal unit cell of
Lead(II) sulfate is insoluble in water, like the sulfates of other heavy lead(II,IV) oxide
divalent cations. Lead(II) nitrate and lead(II) acetate are very soluble, and
this is exploited in the synthesis of other lead compounds.[73]
Lead(IV)
Few inorganic lead(IV) compounds are known. They are only formed in highly oxidizing solutions and do
not normally exist under standard conditions.[74] Lead(II) oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation,
Pb3 O4 . It is described as lead(II,IV) oxide, or structurally 2PbO·PbO2 , and is the best-known mixed
valence lead compound. Lead dioxide is a strong oxidizing agent, capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid to
chlorine gas.[75] This is because the expected PbCl4 that would be produced is unstable and spontaneously
decomposes to PbCl2 and Cl2 .[76] Analogously to lead monoxide, lead dioxide is capable of forming
plumbate anions. Lead disulfide[77] and lead diselenide[78] are only stable at high pressures. Lead
tetrafluoride, a yellow crystalline powder, is stable, but less so than the difluoride. Lead tetrachloride (a
yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead
tetraiodide is questionable.[79]
Other oxidation states
Some lead compounds exist in formal oxidation states other than +4 or +2. Lead(III) may be obtained, as an
intermediate between lead(II) and lead(IV), in larger organolead complexes; this oxidation state is not
stable, as both the lead(III) ion and the larger complexes containing it are radicals.[81][82][83] The same
applies for lead(I), which can be found in such radical species.[84]
Numerous mixed lead(II,IV) oxides are known. When PbO2 is heated in
air, it becomes Pb12 O19 at 293 °C, Pb12 O17 at 351 °C, Pb3 O4 at 374 °C,
and finally PbO at 605 °C. A further sesquioxide, Pb2 O3 , can be obtained
at high pressure, along with several non-stoichiometric phases. Many of
them show defective fluorite structures in which some oxygen atoms are
replaced by vacancies: PbO can be considered as having such a structure,
with every alternate layer of oxygen atoms absent.[85]
Negative oxidation states can occur as Zintl phases, as either free lead
anions, as in Ba2 Pb, with lead formally being lead(−IV),[86] or in oxygen-
The capped square
sensitive ring-shaped or polyhedral cluster ions such as the trigonal
antiprismatic anion [Pb9]4−
bipyramidal Pb5 2− ion, where two lead atoms are lead(−I) and three are
from [K(18-crown-
6)]2K2Pb9·(en)1.5[80]
lead(0).[87] In such anions, each atom is at a polyhedral vertex and
contributes two electrons to each covalent bond along an edge from their
sp3 hybrid orbitals, the other two being an external lone pair.[63] They may
be made in liquid ammonia via the reduction of lead by sodium.[88]
Organolead
Lead can form multiply-bonded chains, a property it shares with its lighter
homologs in the carbon group. Its capacity to do so is much less because
the Pb–Pb bond energy is over three and a half times lower than that of the
C–C bond.[57] With itself, lead can build metal–metal bonds of an order up
to three.[89] With carbon, lead forms organolead compounds similar to, but
generally less stable than, typical organic compounds[90] (due to the Pb–C
bond being rather weak).[63] This makes the organometallic chemistry of
lead far less wide-ranging than that of tin.[91] Lead predominantly forms
organolead(IV) compounds, even when starting with inorganic lead(II) Structure of a tetraethyllead
reactants; very few organolead(II) compounds are known. The most well- molecule:
characterized exceptions are Pb[CH(SiMe3 )2 ]2 and Pb(η5 -C5 H5 )2 .[91] Carbon
Hydrogen
The lead analog of the simplest organic compound, methane, is plumbane. Lead
Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic
hydrogen.[92] Two simple derivatives, tetramethyllead and tetraethyllead,
are the best-known organolead compounds. These compounds are relatively stable: tetraethyllead only
starts to decompose if heated[93] or if exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light.[94][j] With sodium metal, lead
readily forms an equimolar alloy that reacts with alkyl halides to form organometallic compounds such as
tetraethyllead.[95] The oxidizing nature of many organolead compounds is usefully exploited: lead
tetraacetate is an important laboratory reagent for oxidation in organic synthesis.[96] Tetraethyllead, once
added to gasoline, was produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound.[91] Other
organolead compounds are less chemically stable.[90] For many organic compounds, a lead analog does not
exist.[92]
Origin and occurrence
In space
Lead's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 0.121 ppb
[97]
Solar System abundances (parts per billion).[97][k] This figure is two and a half times higher
than that of platinum, eight times more than mercury, and
Atomic Relative
number
Element
amount seventeen times more than gold.[97] The amount of lead in the
universe is slowly increasing[98] as most heavier atoms (all of
42 Molybdenum 0.798
which are unstable) gradually decay to lead.[99] The abundance of
46 Palladium 0.440 lead in the Solar System since its formation 4.5 billion years ago
50 Tin 1.146 has increased by about 0.75%.[100] The solar system abundances
table shows that lead, despite its relatively high atomic number, is
78 Platinum 0.417
more prevalent than most other elements with atomic numbers
80 Mercury 0.127 greater than 40.[97]
82 Lead 1
Primordial lead—which comprises the isotopes lead-204, lead-206,
90 Thorium 0.011 lead-207, and lead-208—was mostly created as a result of
92 Uranium 0.003 repetitive neutron capture processes occurring in stars. The two
main modes of capture are the s- and r-processes.[101]
In the s-process (s is for "slow"), captures are separated by years or decades, allowing less stable nuclei to
undergo beta decay.[102] A stable thallium-203 nucleus can capture a neutron and become thallium-204;
this undergoes beta decay to give stable lead-204; on capturing another neutron, it becomes lead-205,
which has a half-life of around 15 million years. Further captures result in lead-206, lead-207, and lead-
208. On capturing another neutron, lead-208 becomes lead-209, which quickly decays into bismuth-209.
Bismuth-209 is also radioactive and eventually decays into thallium-205 if left unperturbed. On capturing
another neutron, bismuth-209 becomes bismuth-210, and this beta decays to polonium-210, which alpha
decays to lead-206. The cycle hence ends at lead-206, lead-207, lead-208, and thallium-205.[103]
In the r-process (r is for "rapid"), captures happen faster than

nuclei can decay.[104] This occurs in environments with a high
neutron density, such as a supernova or the merger of two
neutron stars. The neutron flux involved may be on the order
of 1022 neutrons per square centimeter per second.[105] The r-
process does not form as much lead as the s-process.[106] It
tends to stop once neutron-rich nuclei reach 126
neutrons.[107] At this point, the neutrons are arranged in
complete shells in the atomic nucleus, and it becomes harder to
energetically accommodate more of them.[108] When the
neutron flux subsides, these nuclei beta decay into stable
Chart of the final part of the s-process,
isotopes of osmium, iridium, and platinum.[109] from mercury to polonium. Red lines and
circles represent neutron captures; blue
arrows represent beta decays; the green
On Earth
arrow represents an alpha decay; cyan
arrows represent electron captures.
Lead is classified as a chalcophile under the Goldschmidt
classification, meaning it is generally found combined with
sulfur.[110] It rarely occurs in its native, metallic form.[111] Many lead minerals are relatively light and, over
the course of the Earth's history, have remained in the crust instead of sinking deeper into the Earth's
interior. This accounts for lead's relatively high crustal abundance of 14 ppm; it is the 38th most abundant
element in the crust.[112][l]
The main lead-bearing mineral is galena (PbS), which is mostly found with zinc ores.[114] Most other lead
minerals are related to galena in some way; boulangerite, Pb5 Sb4 S11 , is a mixed sulfide derived from
galena; anglesite, PbSO4 , is a product of galena oxidation; and cerussite or white lead ore, PbCO3 , is a
decomposition product of galena. Arsenic, tin, antimony, silver, gold, copper, and bismuth are common
impurities in lead minerals.[114]
World lead resources exceed two billion tons. Significant

deposits are located in Australia, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru,
Portugal, Russia, and the United States. Global reserves—
resources that are economically feasible to extract—totaled
88 million tons in 2016, of which Australia had 35 million,
China 17 million, and Russia 6.4 million.[115]
Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed

0.1 μg/m3 in the atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 4 mg/kg in
vegetation and 5 μg/L in freshwater and seawater.[116]
Lead is a fairly common element in the

Earth's crust for its high atomic number Etymology
(82). Most elements of atomic number
greater than 40 are less abundant. The modern English word lead is of Germanic origin; it comes
from the Middle English leed and Old English lēad (with the
macron above the "e" signifying that the vowel sound of that
letter is long). [117] The Old English word is derived from the hypothetical reconstructed Proto-Germanic
*lauda- ('lead'). [118] According to linguistic theory, this word bore descendants in multiple Germanic
languages of exactly the same meaning.[118]
There is no consensus on the origin of the Proto-Germanic *lauda-. One hypothesis suggests it is derived
from Proto-Indo-European *lAudh- ('lead'; capitalization of the vowel is equivalent to the macron).[119]
Another hypothesis suggests it is borrowed from Proto-Celtic *ɸloud-io- ('lead'). This word is related to the
Latin plumbum, which gave the element its chemical symbol Pb. The word *ɸloud-io- is thought to be the
origin of Proto-Germanic *bliwa- (which also means 'lead'), from which stemmed the German Blei.[120]
The name of the chemical element is not related to the verb of the same spelling, which is derived from
Proto-Germanic *laidijan- ('to lead').[121]
History
Prehistory and early history
Metallic lead beads dating back to 7000–6500 BC have been found in Asia Minor and may represent the
first example of metal smelting.[123] At that time lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and
dull appearance.[123] The major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver,
which may be obtained by burning galena (a common lead mineral).[124] The Ancient Egyptians were the
first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to Ancient Greece and beyond;[125] the
Egyptians may have used lead for sinkers in fishing nets, glazes, glasses, enamels, and for ornaments.[124]
Various civilizations of the Fertile Crescent used lead as a writing material, as coins,[126] and as a
construction material.[124] Lead was used in the Ancient
Chinese royal court as a stimulant,[124] as currency,[127] and
as a contraceptive;[128] the Indus Valley civilization and the
Mesoamericans used it for making amulets;[124] and the
eastern and southern African peoples used lead in wire
drawing.[129]
Classical era World lead production peaking in the

Roman period and the Industrial
[122]
Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material Revolution
and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in
Asia Minor from 3000 BC; later, lead deposits were developed
in the Aegean and Laurion.[130] These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until
c. 1200 BC.[131] Beginning c. 2000 BC, the Phoenicians worked deposits in the Iberian peninsula; by
1600 BC, lead mining existed in Cyprus, Greece, and Sardinia.[132]
Rome's territorial expansion in Europe and across the

Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming
the greatest producer of lead during the classical era, with an
estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes. Like their
predecessors, the Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of
silver smelting.[122][134] Lead mining occurred in Central Europe, Ancient Greek lead sling bullets with
Britain, the Balkans, Greece, Anatolia, and Hispania, the latter a winged thunderbolt molded on one
accounting for 40% of world production.[122] side and the inscription ΔΕΞΑΙ ("take
that" or "catch") on the other
Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters.[135] side[133]
Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms, with interchangeable motifs to
suit the faith of the deceased were used in ancient Judea.[136] Lead
was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. In Roman
times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a
distance of between 100 and 150 meters. The Balearic slingers,
used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were
famous for their shooting distance and accuracy.[137]
Lead was used for making

water pipes in the Roman
Empire; the Latin word for
the metal, plumbum, is the
origin of the English word
"plumbing". Its ease of
working, its low melting
point enabling the easy The Lead Plaque of Magliano, Italy,
fabrication of completely bears an Etruscan inscription from
Roman lead pipes[m]
waterproof welded joints, mid-5th century BC.
and its resistance to
corrosion [138] ensured its widespread use in other applications,
including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, and warfare.[139][140][141] Writers of the time, such as Cato
the Elder, Columella, and Pliny the Elder, recommended lead (or lead-coated) vessels for the preparation of
sweeteners and preservatives added to wine and food. The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the
formation of "sugar of lead" (lead(II) acetate), whereas copper or bronze vessels could impart a bitter flavor
through verdigris formation.[142]
The Roman author Vitruvius reported the health

dangers of lead[144][145] and modern writers This metal was by far the most used material in
have suggested that lead poisoning played a classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the
major role in the decline of the Roman (Roman) Lead Age. Lead was to the Romans what
Empire. [146][147][n] Other researchers have plastic is to us.
criticized such claims, pointing out, for instance,
that not all abdominal pain is caused by lead
Heinz Eschnauer and Markus Stoeppler
poisoning.[149][150] According to archaeological
research, Roman lead pipes increased lead "Wine—An enological specimen bank", 1992[143]
levels in tap water but such an effect was
"unlikely to have been truly harmful".[151][152]
When lead poisoning did occur, victims were called "saturnine", dark and cynical, after the ghoulish father
of the gods, Saturn. By association, lead was considered the father of all metals.[153] Its status in Roman
society was low as it was readily available[154] and cheap.[155]
Confusion with tin and antimony
Since the Bronze Age metallurgists and engineers have understood the difference between rare and
valuable tin, essential for alloying with copper to produce tough and corrosion resistant bronze, and 'cheap
and cheerful' lead. However, the nomenclature in some languages is similar. Romans called lead plumbum
nigrum ("black lead"), and tin plumbum candidum ("bright lead"). The association of lead and tin can be
seen in other languages: the word olovo in Czech translates to "lead", but in Russian, its cognate олово
(olovo) means "tin".[156] To add to the confusion, lead bore a close relation to antimony: both elements
commonly occur as sulfides (galena and stibnite), often together. Pliny incorrectly wrote that stibnite would
give lead on heating, instead of antimony.[157] In countries such as Turkey and India, the originally Persian
name surma came to refer to either antimony sulfide or lead sulfide,[158] and in some languages, such as
Russian, gave its name to antimony (сурьма).[159]
Middle Ages and the Renaissance
Lead mining in Western Europe declined after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, with Arabian Iberia
being the only region having a significant output.[161][162] The largest production of lead occurred in South
and East Asia, especially China and India, where lead mining grew rapidly.[162]
In Europe, lead production began to increase in the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was again used for
roofing and piping. Starting in the 13th century, lead was used to create stained glass.[163] In the European
and Arabian traditions of alchemy, lead (symbol ♄ in the European tradition)[164] was considered an
impure base metal which, by the separation, purification and balancing of its constituent essences, could be
transformed to pure and incorruptible gold.[165] During the period, lead was used increasingly for
adulterating wine. The use of such wine was forbidden for use in Christian rites by a papal bull in 1498, but
it continued to be imbibed and resulted in mass poisonings up to the late 18th century.[161][166] Lead was a
key material in parts of the printing press, and lead dust was commonly inhaled by print workers, causing
lead poisoning.[167] Lead also became the chief material for making bullets for firearms: it was cheap, less
damaging to iron gun barrels, had a higher density (which allowed for better retention of velocity), and its
lower melting point made the production of bullets easier as they could be made using a wood fire.[168]
Lead, in the form of Venetian ceruse, was extensively used in cosmetics by
Western European aristocracy as whitened faces were regarded as a sign of
modesty.[169][170] This practice later expanded to white wigs and eyeliners,
and only faded out with the French Revolution in the late 18th century. A
similar fashion appeared in Japan in the 18th century with the emergence of
the geishas, a practice that continued long into the 20th century. The white
faces of women "came to represent their feminine virtue as Japanese
women",[171] with lead commonly used in the whitener.[172]
Outside Europe and Asia
In the New World, lead production was recorded soon after the arrival of Elizabeth I of England was
European settlers. The earliest record dates to 1621 in the English Colony commonly depicted with a
of Virginia, fourteen years after its foundation.[173] In Australia, the first whitened face. Lead in face
mine opened by colonists on the continent was a lead mine, in 1841.[174] In whiteners is thought to have
Africa, lead mining and smelting were known in the Benue Trough[175] contributed to her death.[160]
and the lower Congo Basin, where lead was used for trade with Europeans,
and as a currency by the 17th century,[176] well before the scramble for
Africa.
Industrial Revolution
In the second half of the 18th century, Britain, and later continental
Europe and the United States, experienced the Industrial
Revolution. This was the first time during which lead production
rates exceeded those of Rome.[177] Britain was the leading
producer, losing this status by the mid-19th century with the
depletion of its mines and the development of lead mining in
Germany, Spain, and the United States.[178] By 1900, the United
Lead mining in the upper Mississippi
States was the leader in global lead production, and other non-
River region in the United States in
European nations—Canada, Mexico, and Australia—had begun
1865
significant production; production outside Europe exceeded that
within.[179] A great share of the demand for lead came from
plumbing and painting—lead paints were in regular use.[180] At this time, more (working class) people
were exposed to the metal and lead poisoning cases escalated. This led to research into the effects of lead
intake. Lead was proven to be more dangerous in its fume form than as a solid metal. Lead poisoning and
gout were linked; British physician Alfred Baring Garrod noted a third of his gout patients were plumbers
and painters. The effects of chronic ingestion of lead, including mental disorders, were also studied in the
19th century. The first laws aimed at decreasing lead poisoning in factories were enacted during the 1870s
and 1880s in the United Kingdom.[180]
Modern era
Further evidence of the threat that lead posed to humans was discovered in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Mechanisms of harm were better understood, lead blindness was documented, and the element
was phased out of public use in the United States and Europe. The United Kingdom introduced mandatory
factory inspections in 1878 and appointed the first Medical Inspector of Factories in 1898; as a result, a 25-
fold decrease in lead poisoning incidents from 1900 to 1944 was
reported.[181] Most European countries banned lead paint—commonly
used because of its opacity and water resistance[182]—for interiors by
1930.[183]
The last major human exposure to lead was the addition of tetraethyllead to
gasoline as an antiknock agent, a practice that originated in the United
States in 1921. It was phased out in the United States and the European
Union by 2000.[180]
In the 1970s, the United States and Western European countries introduced
legislation to reduce lead air pollution.[184][185] The impact was significant: Promotional poster for Dutch
while a study conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Boy lead paint, United
in the United States in 1976–1980 showed that 77.8% of the population States, 1912
had elevated blood lead levels, in 1991–1994, a study by the same institute
showed the share of people with such high levels dropped to 2.2%.[186]
The main product made of lead by the end of the 20th century was the lead–acid battery.[187]
From 1960 to 1990, lead output in the Western Bloc grew by about 31%.[188] The share of the world's lead
production by the Eastern Bloc increased from 10% to 30%, from 1950 to 1990, with the Soviet Union
being the world's largest producer during the mid-1970s and the 1980s, and China starting major lead
production in the late 20th century.[189] Unlike the European communist countries, China was largely
unindustrialized by the mid-20th century; in 2004, China surpassed Australia as the largest producer of
lead.[190] As was the case during European industrialization, lead has had a negative effect on health in
China.[191]
Production
As of 2014, production of lead is increasing worldwide due to its
use in lead–acid batteries.[192] There are two major categories of
production: primary from mined ores, and secondary from scrap. In
2014, 4.58 million metric tons came from primary production and
5.64 million from secondary production. The top three producers of
mined lead concentrate in that year were China, Australia, and the
United States.[115] The top three producers of refined lead were
China, the United States, and India.[193] According to the
International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report of
Primary production of lead since
2010, the total amount of lead in use, stockpiled, discarded, or
1840
dissipated into the environment, on a global basis, is 8 kg per
capita. Much of this is in more developed countries (20–150 kg per
capita) rather than less developed ones (1–4 kg per capita).[194]
The primary and secondary lead production processes are similar. Some primary production plants now
supplement their operations with scrap lead, and this trend is likely to increase in the future. Given adequate
techniques, lead obtained via secondary processes is indistinguishable from lead obtained via primary
processes. Scrap lead from the building trade is usually fairly clean and is re-melted without the need for
smelting, though refining is sometimes needed. Secondary lead production is therefore cheaper, in terms of
energy requirements, than is primary production, often by 50% or more.[195]
Primary
Most lead ores contain a low percentage of lead (rich ores have a typical content of 3–8%) which must be
concentrated for extraction.[196] During initial processing, ores typically undergo crushing, dense-medium
separation, grinding, froth flotation, and drying. The resulting concentrate, which has a lead content of 30–
80% by mass (regularly 50–60%),[196] is then turned into (impure) lead metal.
There are two main ways of doing this: a two-stage process involving roasting followed by blast furnace
extraction, carried out in separate vessels; or a direct process in which the extraction of the concentrate
occurs in a single vessel. The latter has become the most common route, though the former is still
significant.[197]
Two-stage process World's largest mining

countries of lead, 2016[115]
First, the sulfide concentrate is roasted in air to oxidize the lead
Output
sulfide:[198] Country (thousand
tons)
2 PbS(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2 PbO(s) + 2 SO2(g)↑
China 2,400
As the original concentrate was not pure lead sulfide, roasting yields not Australia 500
only the desired lead(II) oxide, but a mixture of oxides, sulfates, and
United States 335
silicates of lead and of the other metals contained in the ore.[199] This
impure lead oxide is reduced in a coke-fired blast furnace to the (again, Peru 310
impure) metal:[200] Mexico 250
2 PbO(s) + C(s) → 2 Pb(s) + CO2(g)↑ Russia 225
India 135
Impurities are mostly arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver,
Bolivia 80
and gold. Typically they are removed in a series of pyrometallurgical
processes. The melt is treated in a reverberatory furnace with air, steam, Sweden 76
and sulfur, which oxidizes the impurities except for silver, gold, and
Turkey 75
bismuth. Oxidized contaminants float to the top of the melt and are
skimmed off.[201][202] Metallic silver and gold are removed and Iran 41
recovered economically by means of the Parkes process, in which zinc Kazakhstan 41
is added to lead. Zinc, which is immiscible in lead, dissolves the silver
Poland 40
and gold. The zinc solution can be separated from the lead, and the
silver and gold retrieved.[202][203] De-silvered lead is freed of bismuth South Africa 40
by the Betterton–Kroll process, treating it with metallic calcium and
North Korea 35
magnesium. The resulting bismuth dross can be skimmed off.[202]
Ireland 33
Alternatively to the pyrometallurgical processes, very pure lead can be Macedonia 33
obtained by processing smelted lead electrolytically using the Betts
process. Anodes of impure lead and cathodes of pure lead are placed in Other countries 170
an electrolyte of lead fluorosilicate (PbSiF6 ). Once electrical potential is
applied, impure lead at the anode dissolves and plates onto the cathode,
leaving the majority of the impurities in solution.[202][204] This is a high-cost process and thus mostly
reserved for refining bullion containing high percentages of impurities.[205]
Direct process
In this process, lead bullion and slag is obtained directly from lead concentrates. The lead sulfide
concentrate is melted in a furnace and oxidized, forming lead monoxide. Carbon (as coke or coal gas[o]) is
added to the molten charge along with fluxing agents. The lead monoxide is thereby reduced to metallic
lead, in the midst of a slag rich in lead monoxide.[197]
If the input is rich in lead, as much as 80% of the original lead can be obtained as bullion; the remaining
20% forms a slag rich in lead monoxide. For a low-grade feed, all of the lead can be oxidized to a high-lead
slag.[197] Metallic lead is further obtained from the high-lead (25–40%) slags via submerged fuel
combustion or injection, reduction assisted by an electric furnace, or a combination of both.[197]
Alternatives
Research on a cleaner, less energy-intensive lead extraction process continues; a major drawback is that
either too much lead is lost as waste, or the alternatives result in a high sulfur content in the resulting lead
metal. Hydrometallurgical extraction, in which anodes of impure lead are immersed into an electrolyte and
pure lead is deposited (electrowound) onto a cathode, is a technique that may have potential, but is not
currently economical except in cases where electricity is very cheap.[206]
Secondary
Smelting, which is an essential part of the primary production, is often skipped during secondary
production. It is only performed when metallic lead has undergone significant oxidation.[195] The process is
similar to that of primary production in either a blast furnace or a rotary furnace, with the essential
difference being the greater variability of yields: blast furnaces produce hard lead (10% antimony) while
reverberatory and rotary kiln furnaces produce semisoft lead (3–4% antimony).[207]
The ISASMELT process is a more recent smelting method that may act as an extension to primary
production; battery paste from spent lead–acid batteries (containing lead sulfate and lead oxides) has its
sulfate removed by treating it with alkali, and is then treated in a coal-fueled furnace in the presence of
oxygen, which yields impure lead, with antimony the most common impurity.[208] Refining of secondary
lead is similar to that of primary lead; some refining processes may be skipped depending on the material
recycled and its potential contamination.[208]
Of the sources of lead for recycling, lead–acid batteries are the most important; lead pipe, sheet, and cable
sheathing are also significant.[195]
Applications
Contrary to popular belief, pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead. When the
pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite used was named
plumbago (literally, act for lead or lead mockup).[210]
Elemental form
Lead metal has several useful mechanical properties, including high density, low melting point, ductility,
and relative inertness. Many metals are superior to lead in some of these aspects but are generally less
common and more difficult to extract from parent ores. Lead's toxicity has led to its phasing out for some
uses.[211]
Lead has been used for bullets since their invention in the Middle
Ages. It is inexpensive; its low melting point means small arms
ammunition and shotgun pellets can be cast with minimal technical
equipment; and it is denser than other common metals, which
allows for better retention of velocity. It remains the main material
for bullets, alloyed with other metals as hardeners.[168] Concerns
have been raised that lead bullets used for hunting can damage the
environment.[p]
Bricks of lead (alloyed with 4%

Lead's high density and resistance to corrosion have been exploited
antimony) are used as radiation
in a number of related applications. It is used as ballast in sailboat
shielding.[209] keels; its density allows it to take up a small volume and minimize
water resistance, thus counterbalancing the heeling effect of wind
on the sails.[213] It is used in scuba diving weight belts to
counteract the diver's buoyancy.[214] In 1993, the base of the Leaning Tower of Pisa was stabilized with
600 tonnes of lead.[215] Because of its corrosion resistance, lead is used as a protective sheath for
underwater cables.[216]
Lead has many uses in the construction industry; lead sheets are
used as architectural metals in roofing material, cladding, flashing,
gutters and gutter joints, and on roof parapets.[217][218] Lead is still
used in statues and sculptures,[q] including for armatures.[220] In
the past it was often used to balance the wheels of cars; for
environmental reasons this use is being phased out in favor of other
materials.[115]
Lead is added to copper alloys, such as brass and bronze, to A 17th-century gold-coated lead
improve machinability and for its lubricating qualities. Being sculpture
practically insoluble in copper the lead forms solid globules in
imperfections throughout the alloy, such as grain boundaries. In
low concentrations, as well as acting as a lubricant, the globules hinder the formation of swarf as the alloy
is worked, thereby improving machinability. Copper alloys with larger concentrations of lead are used in
bearings. The lead provides lubrication, and the copper provides the load-bearing support.[221]
Lead's high density, atomic number, and formability form the basis for use of lead as a barrier that absorbs
sound, vibration, and radiation.[222] Lead has no natural resonance frequencies;[222] as a result, sheet-lead
is used as a sound deadening layer in the walls, floors, and ceilings of sound studios.[223] Organ pipes are
often made from a lead alloy, mixed with various amounts of tin to control the tone of each pipe.[224][225]
Lead is an established shielding material from radiation in nuclear science and in X-ray rooms[226] due to
its denseness and high attenuation coefficient.[227] Molten lead has been used as a coolant for lead-cooled
fast reactors.[228]
Batteries
The largest use of lead in the early 21st century is in lead–acid batteries. The lead in batteries undergoes no
direct contact with humans, so there are fewer toxicity concerns.[r] People who work in lead battery
production plants may be exposed to lead dust and inhale it.[230] The reactions in the battery between lead,
lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid provide a reliable source of voltage.[s] Supercapacitors incorporating lead–
acid batteries have been installed in kilowatt and megawatt scale applications in Australia, Japan, and the
United States in frequency regulation, solar smoothing and shifting, wind smoothing, and other
applications.[232] These batteries have lower energy density and charge-discharge efficiency than lithium-
ion batteries, but are significantly cheaper.[233]
Coating for cables
Lead is used in high voltage power cables as shell material to prevent water diffusion into insulation; this
use is decreasing as lead is being phased out.[234] Its use in solder for electronics is also being phased out
by some countries to reduce the amount of environmentally hazardous waste.[235] Lead is one of three
metals used in the Oddy test for museum materials, helping detect organic acids, aldehydes, and acidic
gases.[236][237]
Compounds
In addition to being the main

application for lead metal, lead–
acid batteries are also the main
consumer of lead compounds. The
energy storage/release reaction used
in these devices involves lead
sulfate and lead dioxide:
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq)

Lead glass
→ 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Other applications of lead Lead yellow and red lead

compounds are very specialized and often fading. Lead-based coloring
agents are used in ceramic glazes and glass, especially for red and yellow
shades.[238] While lead paints are phased out in Europe and North America, they remain in use in less
developed countries such as China,[239] India,[240] or Indonesia.[241] Lead tetraacetate and lead dioxide are
used as oxidizing agents in organic chemistry. Lead is frequently used in the polyvinyl chloride coating of
electrical cords.[242][243] It can be used to treat candle wicks to ensure a longer, more even burn. Because
of its toxicity, European and North American manufacturers use alternatives such as zinc.[244][245] Lead
glass is composed of 12–28% lead oxide, changing its optical characteristics and reducing the transmission
of ionizing radiation,[246] a property used in old TVs and computer monitors with cathode-ray tubes. Lead-
based semiconductors such as lead telluride and lead selenide are used in photovoltaic cells and infrared
detectors.[247]
Biological effects
Lead has no confirmed biological role, and there is no confirmed Lead
safe level of lead exposure.[249] A 2009 Canadian–American study Hazards
concluded that even at levels that are considered to pose little to no
risk, lead may cause "adverse mental health outcomes".[250] Its GHS labelling:
prevalence in the human body—at an adult average of 120 mg[t]—
is nevertheless exceeded only by zinc (2500 mg) and iron
(4000 mg) among the heavy metals.[252] Lead salts are very
efficiently absorbed by the body.[253] A small amount of lead (1%)
is stored in bones; the rest is excreted in urine and feces within a Pictograms
few weeks of exposure. Only about a third of lead is excreted by a
child. Continual exposure may result in the bioaccumulation of
lead.[254]
Toxicity Signal word Danger

Hazard H302, H332,
Lead is a highly poisonous metal (whether inhaled or swallowed), statements H351, H360Df,
affecting almost every organ and system in the human body.[255] H373, H410
At airborne levels of 100 mg/m3 , it is immediately dangerous to
Precautionary P201, P261, P273,
life and health.[256] Most ingested lead is absorbed into the statements P304, P308, P312,
bloodstream.[257] The primary cause of its toxicity is its
P313, P340,
predilection for interfering with the proper functioning of enzymes.
It does so by binding to the sulfhydryl groups found on many P391[248]
enzymes,[258] or mimicking and displacing other metals which act NFPA 704
as cofactors in many enzymatic reactions.[259] The essential metals (fire diamond) 0
that lead interacts with include calcium, iron, and zinc.[260] High
2 0
levels of calcium and iron tend to provide some protection from
lead poisoning; low levels cause increased susceptibility.[253]
Effects
Lead can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys and, ultimately, death. By mimicking calcium, lead
can cross the blood–brain barrier. It degrades the myelin sheaths of neurons, reduces their numbers,
interferes with neurotransmission routes, and decreases neuronal growth.[258] In the human body, lead
inhibits porphobilinogen synthase and ferrochelatase, preventing both porphobilinogen formation and the
incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin IX, the final step in heme synthesis. This causes ineffective heme
synthesis and microcytic anemia.[261]
Symptoms of lead poisoning include nephropathy, colic-like

abdominal pains, and possibly weakness in the fingers, wrists, or
ankles. Small blood pressure increases, particularly in middle-aged
and older people, may be apparent and can cause anemia. Several
studies, mostly cross-sectional, found an association between
increased lead exposure and decreased heart rate variability.[262] In
pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause
miscarriage. Chronic, high-level exposure has been shown to
reduce fertility in males.[263]
In a child's developing brain, lead interferes with synapse formation

in the cerebral cortex, neurochemical development (including that
of neurotransmitters), and the organization of ion channels.[264]
Early childhood exposure has been linked with an increased risk of
sleep disturbances and excessive daytime drowsiness in later
childhood.[265] High blood levels are associated with delayed
puberty in girls.[266] The rise and fall in exposure to airborne lead
Symptoms of lead poisoning

from the combustion of tetraethyl lead in gasoline during the 20th century has been linked with historical
increases and decreases in crime levels.
Exposure sources
Lead exposure is a global issue since lead mining and smelting, and battery manufacturing, disposal, and
recycling, are common in many countries. Lead enters the body via inhalation, ingestion, or skin
absorption. Almost all inhaled lead is absorbed into the body; for ingestion, the rate is 20–70%, with
children absorbing a higher percentage than adults.[267]
Poisoning typically results from ingestion of food or water contaminated with lead, and less commonly after
accidental ingestion of contaminated soil, dust, or lead-based paint.[268] Seawater products can contain lead
if affected by nearby industrial waters.[269] Fruit and vegetables can be contaminated by high levels of lead
in the soils they were grown in. Soil can be contaminated through particulate accumulation from lead in
pipes, lead paint, and residual emissions from leaded gasoline.[270]
The use of lead for water pipes is a problem in areas with soft or acidic water.[271] Hard water forms
insoluble protective layers on the inner surface of the pipes, whereas soft and acidic water dissolves the lead
pipes.[272] Dissolved carbon dioxide in the carried water may result in the formation of soluble lead
bicarbonate; oxygenated water may similarly dissolve lead as lead(II) hydroxide. Drinking such water, over
time, can cause health problems due to the toxicity of the dissolved lead. The harder the water the more
calcium bicarbonate and sulfate it will contain, and the more the inside of the pipes will be coated with a
protective layer of lead carbonate or lead sulfate.[273]
Ingestion of applied lead-based paint is the major source of exposure for

children: a direct source is chewing on old painted window sills.
Alternatively, as the applied dry paint deteriorates, it peels, is pulverized
into dust and then enters the body through hand-to-mouth contact or
contaminated food, water, or alcohol. Ingesting certain home remedies may
result in exposure to lead or its compounds.[274]
Inhalation is the second major exposure pathway, affecting smokers and

especially workers in lead-related occupations.[257] Cigarette smoke
contains, among other toxic substances, radioactive lead-210.[275] "As a
result of EPA's regulatory efforts, levels of lead in the air [in the United
States] decreased by 86 percent between 2010 and 2020."[276] The
concentration of lead in the air in the United States fell below the national
standard of 0.15 μg/m3[277] in 2014.[278]
Kymographic recording of
Skin exposure may be significant for people working with organic lead the effect of lead acetate on
compounds. The rate of skin absorption is lower for inorganic lead.[279] frog heart experimental set
up
Lead in foods
Lead may be found in food when food is grown in soil that is high in lead, airborne lead contaminates the
crops, animals eat lead in their diet, or lead enters the food either from what it was stored or cooked in.[280]
Ingestion of lead paint and batteries is also a route of exposure for livestock, which can subsequently affect
humans.[281] Milk produced by contaminated cattle can be diluted to a lower lead concentration and sold
for consumption.[282]
In Bangladesh, lead compounds have been added to turmeric to make it more yellow.[283] This is believed
to have started in the 1980s and continues as of 2019.[283] It is believed to be one of the main sources of
high lead levels in the country.[284] In Hong Kong the maximum allowed lead parts per million is 6 in solid
foods and 1 in liquid foods.[285]
In December 2022, Consumer Reports tested 28 dark chocolate brands and found that 23 of them
contained potentially harmful levels of lead, cadmium or both. They have urged the chocolate makers to
reduce the level of lead which could be harmful to certain people, specially pregnant women.[286] Lead-
containing dust can settle on drying cocoa beans when they are set outside near polluting industrial
plants.[287]
Lead in plastic toys
According to the United States Center for Disease Control, the use of lead in plastics has not been banned.
Lead softens the plastic and makes it more flexible so that it can go back to its original shape. It may also be
used in plastic toys to stabilize molecules from heat. Lead dust can be formed when plastic is exposed to
sunlight, air, and detergents that break down the chemical bond between the lead and plastics.[288]
Treatment
Treatment for lead poisoning normally involves the administration of dimercaprol and succimer.[289] Acute
cases may require the use of disodium calcium edetate, the calcium chelate, and the disodium salt of
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). It has a greater affinity for lead than calcium, with the result that
lead chelate is formed by exchange and excreted in the urine, leaving behind harmless calcium.[290]
Environmental effects
The extraction, production, use, and disposal of lead and its
products have caused significant contamination of the Earth's soils
and waters. Atmospheric emissions of lead were at their peak
during the Industrial Revolution, and the leaded gasoline period in
the second half of the twentieth century. [291]
Lead releases originate from natural sources (i.e., concentration of

the naturally occurring lead), industrial production, incineration and
Battery collection site in Dakar, recycling, and mobilization of previously buried lead.[291] In
Senegal, where at least 18 children particular, as lead has been phased out from other uses, in the
died of lead poisoning in 2008
Global South, lead recycling operations designed to extract cheap
lead used for global manufacturing have become a well
documented source of exposure.[292] Elevated concentrations of
lead persist in soils and sediments in post-industrial and urban areas; industrial emissions, including those
arising from coal burning,[293] continue in many parts of the world, particularly in the developing
countries.[294]
Lead can accumulate in soils, especially those with a high organic content, where it remains for hundreds to
thousands of years. Environmental lead can compete with other metals found in and on plant surfaces
potentially inhibiting photosynthesis and at high enough concentrations, negatively affecting plant growth
and survival. Contamination of soils and plants can allow lead to ascend the food chain affecting
microorganisms and animals. In animals, lead exhibits toxicity in many organs, damaging the nervous,
renal, reproductive, hematopoietic, and cardiovascular systems after ingestion, inhalation, or skin
absorption.[295] Fish uptake lead from both water and sediment;[296] bioaccumulation in the food chain
poses a hazard to fish, birds, and sea mammals.[297]
Anthropogenic lead includes lead from shot and sinkers. These are among the most potent sources of lead
contamination along with lead production sites.[298] Lead was banned for shot and sinkers in the United
States in 2017,[299] although that ban was only effective for a month,[300] and a similar ban is being
considered in the European Union.[301]
Analytical methods for the determination of lead in the environment include spectrophotometry, X-ray
fluorescence, atomic spectroscopy and electrochemical methods. A specific ion-selective electrode has been
developed based on the ionophore S,S'-methylenebis (N,N-diisobutyldithiocarbamate).[302] An important
biomarker assay for lead poisoning is δ-aminolevulinic acid levels in plasma, serum, and urine.[303]
Restriction and remediation

By the mid-1980s, there was significant decline in the use of lead in
industry.[304] In the United States, environmental regulations
reduced or eliminated the use of lead in non-battery products,
including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems. Particulate
control devices were installed in coal-fired power plants to capture
lead emissions.[293] In 1992, U.S. Congress required the
Environmental Protection Agency to reduce the blood lead levels of
the country's children.[305] Lead use was further curtailed by the
European Union's 2003 Restriction of Hazardous Substances
Directive.[306] A large drop in lead deposition occurred in the
Netherlands after the 1993 national ban on use of lead shot for
hunting and sport shooting: from 230 tonnes in 1990 to 47.5 tonnes
in 1995.[307]
In the United States, the permissible exposure limit for lead in the Radiography of a swan found dead in
workplace, comprising metallic lead, inorganic lead compounds, Condé-sur-l'Escaut (northern France),
3
and lead soaps, was set at 50 μg/m over an 8-hour workday, and highlighting lead shot. There are
hundreds of lead pellets (a dozen is
the blood lead level limit at 5 μg per 100 g of blood in 2012.[308]
enough to kill an adult swan within a
Lead may still be found in harmful quantities in stoneware,[309]
few days). Such bodies are sources
vinyl[310] (such as that used for tubing and the insulation of of environmental contamination by
electrical cords), and Chinese brass.[u] Old houses may still contain lead.
lead paint.[310] White lead paint has been withdrawn from sale in
industrialized countries, but specialized uses of other pigments such
as yellow lead chromate remain.[182] Stripping old paint by sanding produces dust which can be
inhaled.[312] Lead abatement programs have been mandated by some authorities in properties where young
children live.[313]
Lead waste, depending on the jurisdiction and the nature of the waste, may be treated as household waste
(to facilitate lead abatement activities),[314] or potentially hazardous waste requiring specialized treatment or
storage.[315] Lead is released into the environment in shooting places and a number of lead management
practices have been developed to counter the lead contamination.[316] Lead migration can be enhanced in
acidic soils; to counter that, it is advised soils be treated with lime to neutralize the soils and prevent
leaching of lead.[317]
Research has been conducted on how to remove lead from biosystems by biological means: Fish bones are
being researched for their ability to bioremediate lead in contaminated soil.[318][319] The fungus Aspergillus
versicolor is effective at absorbing lead ions from industrial waste before being released to water
bodies.[320] Several bacteria have been researched for their ability to remove lead from the environment,
including the sulfate-reducing bacteria Desulfovibrio and Desulfotomaculum, both of which are highly
effective in aqueous solutions.[321] Millet grass Urochloa ramosa has the ability to accumulate significant
amounts of metals such as lead and zinc in its shoot and root tissues making it an important plant for
remediation of contaminated soils (Lakshmi et al., 2013).[322]
See also
Derek Bryce-Smith – one of the earliest campaigners against lead in petrol in the UK
Thomas Midgley Jr. – discovered that the addition of tetraethyllead to gasoline prevented
"knocking" in internal combustion engines
Clair Patterson – instrumental in the banning of tetraethyllead in gasoline in the US and lead
solder in food cans.
Robert A. Kehoe – foremost medical advocate for the use of tetraethyllead as an additive in
gasoline.
Notes
a. The tetrahedral allotrope of tin is called α- or gray tin and is stable only at or below 13.2 °C
(55.8 °F). The stable form of tin above this temperature is called β- or white tin and has a
distorted face centered cubic (tetragonal) structure which can be derived by compressing the
tetrahedra of gray tin along their cubic axes. White tin effectively has a structure intermediate
between the regular tetrahedral structure of gray tin, and the regular face centered cubic
structure of lead, consistent with the general trend of increasing metallic character going
down any representative group.[15]
b. A quasicrystalline thin-film allotrope of lead, with pentagonal symmetry, was reported in
2013. The allotrope was obtained by depositing lead atoms on the surface of an icosahedral
silver-indium-ytterbium quasicrystal. Its conductivity was not recorded.[16][17]
c. Diamond cubic structures with lattice parameters around the lattice parameter of silicon
exists both in thin lead and tin films, and in massive lead and tin, freshly solidified in vacuum
of ~5 x 10−6 Torr. Experimental evidence for almost identical structures of at least three oxide
types is presented, demonstrating that lead and tin behave like silicon not only in the initial
stages of crystallization, but also in the initial stages of oxidation.[18]
d. British English: to go down like a lead balloon.
e. Malleability describes how easily it deforms under compression, whereas ductility means its
ability to stretch.
f. A (wet) finger can be dipped into molten lead without risk of a burning injury.[31]
g. An even number of either protons or neutrons generally increases the nuclear stability of
isotopes, compared to isotopes with odd numbers. No elements with odd atomic numbers
have more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable
isotopes, with tin (element 50) having the highest number of isotopes of all elements, ten.[35]
See Even and odd atomic nuclei for more details.
h. The half-life found in the experiment was 1.9 × 1019 years.[38] A kilogram of natural bismuth
would have an activity value of approximately 0.003 becquerels (decays per second). For
comparison, the activity value of natural radiation in the human body is around 65
becquerels per kilogram of body weight (4500 becquerels on average).[39]
i. Lead-205 decays solely via electron capture, which means when there are no electrons
available and lead is fully ionized with all 82 electrons removed it cannot decay. Fully
ionized thallium-205, the isotope lead-205 would decay to, becomes unstable and can
decay into a bound state of lead-205.[50]
j. Tetraphenyllead is even more thermally stable, decomposing at 270 °C.[91]
k. Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation.
The sum of all elements per 106 parts of silicon is 2.6682 × 1010 parts; lead comprises 3.258
parts.
l. Elemental abundance figures are estimates and their details may vary from source to
source.[113]
m. The inscription reads: "Made when the Emperor Vespasian was consul for the ninth term
and the Emperor Titus was consul for the seventh term, when Gnaeus Iulius Agricola was
imperial governor (of Britain)."
n. The fact that Julius Caesar fathered only one child, as well as the alleged sterility of his
successor, Caesar Augustus, have been attributed to lead poisoning.[148]
o. Gaseous by-product of the coking process, containing carbon monoxide, hydrogen and
methane; used as a fuel.
p. California began banning lead bullets for hunting on that basis in July 2015.[212]
q. For example, a firm "...producing quality [lead] garden ornament from our studio in West
London for over a century".[219]
r. Potential injuries to regular users of such batteries are not related to lead's toxicity.[229]
s. See[231] for details on how a lead–acid battery works.
t. Rates vary greatly by country.[251]
u. An alloy of brass (copper and zinc) with lead, iron, tin, and sometimes antimony.[311]
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Further reading
Astrid, S.; Helmut, S.; Sigel, R. K. O., eds. (2017). Lead: Its Effects on Environment and
Health. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 17. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-044107-9. Table of
contents (https://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/460569)
Casas, J. S.; Sordo, J., eds. (2006). Lead Chemistry, Analytical Aspects. Environmental
Impacts and Health Effects (https://books.google.com/books?id=D9nYWCv_FE4C).
Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-52945-9.
Hunt, A.; Abraham, J. L.; Judson, B.; Berry, C. L. (2003). "Toxicologic and epidemiologic
clues from the characterization of the 1952 London smog fine particulate matter in archival
autopsy lung tissues" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241576).
Environmental Health Perspectives. 111 (9): 1209–1214. doi:10.1289/ehp.6114 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1289%2Fehp.6114). PMC 1241576 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12
Zhang, Hao; Wei, Kai; Zhang, Mengyu; Liu, Rutao; Chen, Yadong (2014). "Assessing the
mechanism of DNA damage induced by lead through direct and indirect interactions" (https://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1011134414001286). Journal of
Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology. 136: 46–53.
doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2014.04.020 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jphotobiol.2014.04.020).
External links
The Toxicology of Heavy Metals: Getting the Lead Out (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/
Catherine_Hammett-Stabler/publication/288272623_The_Toxicology_of_Heavy_Metals_Ge
tting_the_Lead_Out/links/572748fd08ae586b21e28b65.pdf), American Society for Clinical
Pathology
COVID-19 to reduce global lead production by 5,2% in 2020 (with a figure showing global
lead production, 2010-2024) (https://www.crown.co.za/modern-mining/industry-news/13897-
covid-19-to-reduce-global-lead-production-by-5-2-in-2020)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lead&oldid=1187803504"

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Lead

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Lead

Lead is a chemical element; it has symbol Pb (from

A sample of lead solidified from the 212

In total, 43 lead isotopes have been synthesized, with mass

Lead dihalides are well-

Other oxidation states

Origin and occurrence

In the r-process (r is for "rapid"), captures happen faster than

World lead resources exceed two billion tons. Significant

Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed

Lead is a fairly common element in the

Prehistory and early history

Classical era World lead production peaking in the

Rome's territorial expansion in Europe and across the

Lead was used for making

The Roman author Vitruvius reported the health

Confusion with tin and antimony

Middle Ages and the Renaissance

Outside Europe and Asia

Two-stage process World's largest mining

2 PbO(s) + C(s) → 2 Pb(s) + CO2(g)↑ Russia 225

Bricks of lead (alloyed with 4%

Coating for cables

In addition to being the main

Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq)

Other applications of lead Lead yellow and red lead

Toxicity Signal word Danger

Symptoms of lead poisoning include nephropathy, colic-like

In a child's developing brain, lead interferes with synapse formation

Symptoms of lead poisoning

Ingestion of applied lead-based paint is the major source of exposure for

Inhalation is the second major exposure pathway, affecting smokers and

Lead in plastic toys

Lead releases originate from natural sources (i.e., concentration of

Restriction and remediation

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