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Colors:
Black Yellow
Copper(II) oxide solid Silver iodide solid
Carbon (graphite) Lead iodide solid
Iodine and astatine solid Sodium ion flame
White
Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate Orange
Salts not containing transition metals Bromine liquid
Silver chloride solid Oxidizing agent
Lead chloride solid Potassium dichromate
Litmus in halogen (bleaches) goes orange to green (not in new
syllabus)
Blue
copper(II) ion in solution Red
copper(II sulfate hydrated Litmus in acid
Litmus in base Li ion flame
Cu2+ ion flame (blue-green)
Brown
Purple Iodine solution
Iodine vapor iron(III) ppt (red-brown)
Oxidizing agent KMnO4 before Reducing agent KI goes colorless to
reaction (colorless after) brown
Lilac
K+ flame
Apparatus:
Conical flask for mixing and titration
Pipette for exact volume (10,25 or 50 cm3)
Burette for adding variable volume
Chemistry Factsheet 2
Salt Analysis
Zinc ion dissolves in both
Al and Cr dissolves in NaOH only
Cu dissolves in ammonium solution
(CuZn - NH3(aq) ZAC- NaOH(aq) )
Note: ions soluble in NaOH all form amphoteric oxides
Solubility Rules
● SNAP (sodium, nitrate, ammonium, potassium) salts are soluble
● Sulfate is soluble except Pb, Ca, Ba
● Halide is soluble except Ag, Hg, Pb (Pb and Hg no longer in syllabus)
● Group 2 hydroxides and oxides are slightly soluble
● All other carbonates, hydroxide, oxide and phosphate are insoluble.
Oxides
● Metal oxides are basic or amphoteric (Al, Pb, Cr, Zn)
● Non metal oxides are acidic or neutral (NO, CO, H2O)
● CaO is slaked lime. It is used to treat soil pH and is produced when limestone is
heated or reacted with acid.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2𝑂
● Al2O3 comes from Bauxite which is used to extract aluminum in electrolysis
● Fe2O3 comes from haematite which is used to extract Fe in blast furnace
● SiO2 is present in sand, has giant structure and used as abrasive
● CO is poisonous
● NO is neutral and acts as catalyst in making NO2 and SO3 in the atmosphere. It is
produced in car engines and during lightning activity
● NO2 is acidic and dissolves in water to make nitric acid (acid rain)
● SO2 is acidic, produced in volcanic eruption or in factories. It is used in food
packaging and to bleach wood pulp for paper industry. It is used to make SO3 in
contact process. It reacts with NO2 in air to make SO3. To stop SO2 going into air, we
used FGD (flue gas desulfurization) process where CaCO3 is used to absorb SO2
and release CO2 instead.
𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂3
Chemistry Factsheet 3
● SO3 dissolves in water and makes sulfuric acid (acid rain). It is dissolved in
concentrated sulfuric acid to make oleum, which reacts with water to make sulfuric
acid in industry.
Diffusion
Faster at high temperature, lower Mr
Diatomic molecules
H2,N2,O2,Halogens
CO
Triatomic Molecules
Ozone (O3), Water, CO2
6. Definitions: Diffusion, Relative mass, proton number, nucleon number, isotopes, allotropes
Atomic Structure
7. Atom has protons (+), electrons (-) and neutrons (no charge).
a. It is overall neutral because protons and electrons are equal in number and cancel
each other's charge
b. Mass number is for protons and neutrons only because electrons have negligible
mass. Only hydrogen has the same mass number as proton number because it
doesn't have a neutron.
c. Isotopes have different neutrons so their mass differs. Their proton numbers are the
same.
d. Valence electrons are what determines chemical properties. So atoms with the same
number of valence electrons have the same chemical properties.
e. Shells have a max capacity of 2n2. this is octet rule*. Number of shells is same in the
same period, number of valence electrons is same as group number. For bonding,
they try to achieve their preferred numbers for each shell. 2 for only the first shell.
For O level: preferred numbers are 0 and 8
For IGCSE, 0,8,18,32
8. Definitions: Isotopes, proton number, nucleon number, relative atomic mass,
Chemical Bonding
9. Ionic bonding is between metal and nonmetal
a. Electrons are transferred to complete octet but you should always mention which
atom loses electrons and how many of them, similarly which atom gains electrons
and how many
b. Metals lose, nonmetals gain*
c. Know how to draw dot and cross diagrams. Always put square brackets and charge
on ion diagram
10. Covalent bonding is between nonmetals
a. Electrons are shared in pairs. This is shown in lewis structure using lines. One line is
one pair
b. Group number determines how many electrons are shared. For example Group 4 will
share 4, group 6 will share 2. This makes molecules and giant structures
c. Know how to make dot and cross diagram
d. Know how to make lewis structure for hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine,
water, ammonia, methane, hydrogen chloride and C2H4, H2; Cl2; O2; HCl; N2; H2O; CH4;
CO2; HCN;
11. Metals have metallic bonding
a. Electrons are delocalised and make sea of electrons
Chemistry Factsheet 5
b. Cations are in layers so metals can be made into sheets and wires (malleable and
ductile)
c. If you draw it, draw 3 layers at least and also electrons around and between layers
12. Electrical conduction: ionic conduct in molten or when dissolved (free ions), simple
molecular and giant (diamond, silicon dioxide) don’t conduct (no free electrons), metals and
graphite conduct (free electrons)
13. Melting point: things with stronger forces have higher melting points (FEM: Force, Energy
requirement and Melting point, all three are high or all three are low). IMFA broken for
simple molecular only, bonds broken for all others
14. Forces: Lattice structure (ionic,metallic, giants) have electrostatic forces (strong), molecular
structures have intermolecular forces of attraction (weak)
15. Definitions:
a. metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive ions in a lattice and
a ‘sea of electrons’
b. ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions in a
lattice
c. covalent bonding as the electrostatic attraction between nuclei and shared pairs of
electrons
d. Intermolecular forces of attraction are between molecules while covalent bond is
inside molecules. IMFA is affected in physical process while bond in a chemical
process
16. Why are things unreactive?
1. Very strong bond so activation energy too high (diamond, graphite, nitrogen).
These things will react at higher temperature e.g. Nitrogen in car engine or
lightening, graphite in electrolysis of aluminum oxide
2. More reactive elements closeby: this is called sacrificial protection. Zinc or Mg
blocks with Iron
3. Some barrier not allowing reaction: Aluminum has oxide layer, we paint gates
and car bodies so paint acts as barrier
4. Complete shell: noble gasses
Chemical Formulae
1. Naming compounds has a few rules.
a. For ionic compounds, write cations first, anions after. Transition metals have their
charges written in brackets. If a single atom makes an anion, it has ide at the end e.g.
Sulfur makes sulfide. If multiple atoms make an anion, they have ate at the end* e.g.
sulfur and oxygen make sulfate. There are others as well but not important for us
right now.
b. Remember the formula and charge for molecular ions
ammonium
Chemistry Factsheet 6
carbonate,
sulfate,
Sulfite
nitrate
Hydroxide
c. In transition metals, remember charges for Silver (+1), Zinc (+2) and Scandium(+3).
Other transition metals have charges mentioned.
d. Covalent compounds should mention number of atoms of an element using mono,
di, tri and tetra. Usually mono is avoided unless there is a confusion. e.g. Carbon and
oxygen make CO and CO2 so mono and di are used to differentiate.
2. Remember the cross multiplication rule (ratio-flip rule) for ionic formulas. First write formula
of cation and anion. Then find the ratio of their charges then flip the ratio.
Periodic Table
1. Noble gasses are unreactive because they have complete valence electrons.
2. Helium for balloons, Neon for lights, Argon for bulbs and manufacturing steel.
3. Metals become more reactive down the group because atoms gets bigger and takes less
energy to lose electron. Nonmetals become less reactive down the group because atoms get
bigger and takes more energy to gain electron.
4. Group 1 elements have low melting points, low density (float on water). Their melting points
decrease down the group. They react with water and acids and give hydrogen gas.
5. To show this trend in reactivity, we can put Li, Na, and K in water and see that reaction is
faster. Metals shoots across surface faster and bubbles are produced rapidly; faster in K, less
so in Li.
6. Halogens (Group VII) are nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules.
7. Metallic character decreases left to right
8. Down the group their density and m.p. increases. F and Cl are gases, Br liquid, and I and At
solid. At will be solid as well.
9. Color darkens. F yellow, Cl green, Br brown, I black. At will be black as well.
10. Down the group reactivity decreases. F>Cl>Br>I. They show displacement reaction where a
more reactive element displaces a less reactive element. Also, when writing ionic equation
for this, don’t ionize molecules.
11. Transition metals are heavy/high density (physical), have high melting points (physical),
variable oxidation states (chemical) and form colored compounds (chemical).
12. Transition metals or compounds are used as catalysts. Iron in the Haber process,
vanadium(V) oxide in the Contact process, nickel in hydrogenation of alkenes.
Chemistry Factsheet 7
Catalysts lower the energy requirement of a reaction. This saves money and preserves energy
sources. They can be poisoned by impurities though.
Reactivity Series
If an element displaces an ion, element is more reactive
𝐶𝑙2 + 𝑁𝑎𝐼 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐼2 so Cl is more reactive
Cold Fast
water slow
fast
hot water
slow
fast
steam
slow
no reaction
Metals
Displacement Principle
A more reactive ion can displace a less reactive ion in favorable conditions. Reactivity series can be
used to compare reactivity.
K Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe H Cu Ag
Copper can only displace H in concentrated acids. Otherwise things on the left displace things on the
right. The greater the difference, faster the reaction.
In a cell/battery, more reactive element can transfer electrons to less reactive element. For example,
if you connect Mg and Cu together, electrons go from Mg to Cu. Mg becomes positive and Cu
becomes negatively charged.
Zn is the only metal that is extracted as gas
H is used as reducing agent for CuO, C for oxides of metals below it, electrolysis for elements above C
Chemistry Factsheet 8
Alloys
Mixtures of metal(s) or other substances
Alloy has lower melting point than the metal with highest melting point. For example, if we
mix chromium (mp 1907) and iron (mp 1537), this alloy would have mp lower than 1907
Steel is carbon with iron and something else
Brass, pewter, bronze are other important alloys
Alloys with magnetic material are magnetic
Catalysts:
Haber Process to make Ammonia Iron
Hydrolysis to make alcohol from alkene Acid (Phosphoric acid for IGCSE)
● Zinc and Scandium are not typical transition metals. Their compounds are white and their
valencies are fixed. Zinc +2, Sc +1
Nonmetals
Sulfur
Source is volcanic activity
Present in crude oil as impurity so produces SO2 when burnt
SO2
Formed in combustion of sulfur (fuel and volcanic activity)
Chemistry Factsheet 9
SO3
Dissolves in water to produce sulfuric acid. Explosive reaction
Dissolves in conc sulfuric acid to produce oleum which then dissolves in water to
produce sulfuric acid. No explosive reaction
CO2
Lime family
CaO lime produced when CaCO3 is thermally decomposed
Reacts with acidic impurities in
Iron extraction: 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑎𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑂3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛 = 𝑀𝑟
for anything else.
Redox
Any reaction with element involved is a redox reaction
Since both Oxidation and Reduction reactions have taken place together, this is a redox
reaction.
Copper (II) oxide is described as the oxidising agent as it caused oxidation of magnesium.
Magnesium is described as the reducing agent as it removed oxygen from copper (II) oxide.
Oxidising agent is a substance which causes oxidation of another substance.
Reducing agent is a substance which causes reduction of another compound.
Extraction of metals from their ores, particularly iron oxide from its ore is a redox reaction.
Iron is extracted from its oxide by heating with carbon in the blast furnace by the reaction:
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
Carbon monoxide is described as the reducing agent as it has reduced iron (III) oxide by
removing oxygen from it.
Transfer of electrons
The general rule for what is oxidised and reduced in the transfer of electrons can be
summed up in this Mnemonic.
OIL RIG
Oxidation is Loss of Electrons, Reduction is Gain of Electrons.
When electrons transfer in the same element that is not redox, it is conduction.
Ionic equations
Neutralization
+ −
𝐻 + 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐻2𝑂
Carbonate-Acid
+ 2−
2𝐻 + 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2𝑂
Ammonium
+ +
𝑁𝐻4 → 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻
When ammonium salt reacts with base, it produces ammonia gas which turns red
litmus blue
Chemistry Factsheet 12
When ammonium chloride reacts with acid, it produces HCl which turns blue litmus
read.
Precipitation
Aq ions of insoluble salt → solid salt
+ −
𝐴𝑔 (𝑎𝑞)
+ 𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞)
→ 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑠)
2+ 2−
𝐵𝑎 (𝑎𝑞)
+ 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4
(𝑎𝑞) (𝑠)
Electrolysis
● electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound (an electrolyte) using
electricity
● Ionic compounds can undergo electrolysis when molten or dissolved
● Polar covalent compounds like acids and water can do electrolysis when impure
● Electrolysis is a chemical process so compounds decompose permanently
● Conduction is a physical process so metals do not decompose permanently
● Electrolysis is evidence of ions and ionic lattice. In solid there is no electrolysis but it
happens when they melt (lattice breaks)
● Electrolysis product at anode is oxygen when dilute and halogen when concentrated
● Electrolysis at cathode of aq solutions is hydrogen or noble metal (copper, silver or
gold)
● In electroplating, anode is impure and cathode is pure.
● In purification of copper, solution changes color in inert anode (graphite or Pt), color
doesn’t change with reactive anode because ions are replenished when copper
anode dissolves
● In extraction of Al, Cryolite lowers the mp and dissolves aluminium oxide
● Conc sodium chloride gives three products; NaOH, H2 and Cl2
● If both hydrogen and oxygen are produced, pH stays the same, if only hydrogen
produced then pH increases, if only oxygen then pH decreases (this is because
water has H+ and OH- so if hydrogen is produced, H+ is used up so pH increases,
with oxygen OH- is used up so pH decreases)
Energetics
Fuels:
O level
Chemistry Factsheet 13
IGCSE
Hydrogen is fuel for rockets (comes from cracking, also used to make margarine)
235
U is radioactive fuel (doesn’t produce harmful or greenhouse gases but is hard to dispose
off)
Fuel cell is more efficient, less polluting but expensive than regular fuel. It generates
electricity by using hydrogen, oxygen and produces water
Kinetics
Increasing concentration means more particles per unit volume
Increasing pressure means gas particles come closer (more particles per unit volume)
Catalyst gives alternative pathway with lower activation energy so more particles have
activation energy
Increasing temperature means particles have greater kinetic energy
Increasing surface area means more particles are exposed
Reversible reactions
Le Chatlier’s Principle: Equilibrium shifts to undo any stress on it. The effect is always
opposite.
Increasing temperature always increases rate.
Yield only increases when equilibrium shifts right.
Equilibrium is not affected by catalyst or surface area, only rate is.
Increase Decrease
Pressure Shifts to side with lower Shifts to side with higher gaseous moles
gaseous moles
Environmental Chemistry
Air and Oxygen:
- Air Consists of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, and Remaining 1% is mixture of gasses,
mainly Argon, and little amounts of Carbon Dioxide
- Air can be fractionally distilled, by first cooling it into Liquid Air, then gasses with the
lowest melting point distill over first, in this case, Nitrogen, then Other gasses distill.
- Oxygen is used in making steel, in oxygen tanks in hospital, and in welding
Atmospheric Pollutants:
Pollutant Source(s) Harms/Effects:
Catalytic Converters:
Their main aim is to reduce harmful gas often released by cars, by oxidizing them to make
gasses less harmful.
1: They Oxidize Released Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide
2: Nitrogen monoxide and carbon monoxide reacts to form Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen
3: Unburnt HydroCarbons are also Oxidized to produce Carbon dioxide and Water
Acid Rain:
Acid Rain is formed when acidic air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
react with water in the atmosphere.
Source 1:
Sulfur Dioxide in Air Reacts with Water molecules to form Sulfurous Acid. In Presence of
Excess oxygen, this slowly oxidizes into Sulfuric Acid
Source 2:
In Presence of Oxygen in air, Nitrogen Dioxide is converted into Nitric Acid
Effect 1:
Acid Rain Reacts with metals and carbonates like marble and limestone. When this
happens, Metal Bridges and stone Buildings are damaged
Effect 2:
Acid Rain Leaches nutrients from soil and causes plants to die
Effect 3:
Acid Rain Reduces the pH value of natural water bodies, making it too acidic for the Aquatic
life to survive.
Organic Chemistry
19. Collection of gases: upward delivery for lighter gases (mass less than 28), downward delivery
for heavier (more than 32), collection over water for all (except those soluble in water)
20. Know the usage of these purification processes
a. Dissolving, filtration, evaporation and crystallization
b. Simple and fractional distillation. Know its uses in air, liquor and crude oil
c. Paper chromatography, know how to calculate Rf value, same substances have the
same Rf value, it is high for more soluble things. Only soluble substances move,
insoluble will not. Use locating agent if a spot is colorless. Solvent level should be
below baseline. Baseline is drawn with pencil so it doesnt dissolve.
21. Lab tips: Electric heater for flammable substances, bunsen burner for rest. Don’t cover
conical flasks if gas is produced. Collect gases in gas syringe preferably, or collect over water.
Remove water with drying agent. Check for
d. nitrate (by reduction with aluminium and aqueous sodium hydroxide to ammonia
and subsequent use of litmus paper),
e. sulfate (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous barium
nitrate), white ppt
f. sulfite (by warming with dilute acid): white ppt which dissolves; gas evolved turns
aqueous potassium manganate purple to colorless.