Chemistry Factsheet 1

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Colors:
Burette for adding variable volume
Yellow
Black
Silver iodide solid
Copper(II) oxide solid
Lead iodide solid
Carbon (graphite)
Sodium ion flame
Iodine and astatine solid

White
Orange
Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
Bromine liquid (can also write red)
Salts not containing transition metals
Oxidizing agent
Silver chloride solid
Potassium dichromate
Lead chloride solid
goes orange to green (not in new
Litmus in halogen (bleaches)
syllabus)
Blue
Red
copper(II) ion in solution
Litmus in acid
copper(II sulfate hydrated
Li ion flame
Litmus in base
Cu2+ion flame (blue-green)
Brown
Iodine solution
Purple
iron(III) ppt (red-brown)
Iodine vapor
Reducing agent KI goes colorless to
Oxidizing agent KMnO4 before
reaction (colorless after) brown

Cream/off white
Green
Universal indicator in water Silver bromide
Chromium(III) Lead bromide
iron(II)
Pink
Copper solid

Lilac
K+flame

Apparatus:
Conical flask for mixing and titration
Pipette for exact volume (10,25 or 50 cm3)
Chemistry Factsheet 2

Boiling flask for heating and mixing

Volumetric flask for changing concentration/ diluting
Measuring cylinder (inverted for gas collection, upright for liquid
measurement) Gas syringe for collecting and measuring gas
Gas jar for collecting gas

Salt Analysis
Zinc ion dissolves in both
Al and Cr dissolves in NaOH only
Cu dissolves in ammonium solution
(CuZn - NH3(aq) ZAC- NaOH(aq) )
Note: ions soluble in NaOH all form amphoteric oxides

Solubility Rules
● SNAP (sodium, nitrate, ammonium, potassium) salts are soluble
● Sulfate is soluble except Pb, Ca, Ba
● Halide is soluble except Ag, Hg, Pb (Pb and Hg no longer in syllabus)
● Group 2 hydroxides and oxides are slightly soluble
● All other carbonates, hydroxide, oxide and phosphate are insoluble.

Oxides
● Metal oxides are basic or amphoteric (Al, Pb, Cr, Zn)
● Non metal oxides are acidic or neutral (NO, CO, H2O)

● CaO is slaked lime. It is used to treat soil pH and is produced when limestone is
heated or reacted with acid.
��������3→ ����2 + ��2��
● Al2O3 comes from Bauxite which is used to extract aluminum in electrolysis
● Fe2O3 comes from haematite which is used to extract Fe in blast furnace ●
SiO2is present in sand, has giant structure and used as abrasive
● CO is poisonous
● NO is neutral and acts as catalyst in making NO2 and SO3in the atmosphere. It is
produced in car engines and during lightning activity
 ● NO2is acidic and dissolves in water to make nitric acid (acid rain)
● SO2is acidic, produced in volcanic eruption or in factories. It is used in food packaging
and to bleach wood pulp for paper industry. It is used to make SO3 in contact
process. It reacts with NO2in air to make SO3. To stop SO2 going into air, we used
FGD (flue gas desulfurization) process where CaCO3is used to absorb SO2 and
release CO2instead.
����2 + ��������3→ ����2 + ��������3

Chemistry Factsheet 3

● SO3 dissolves in water and makes sulfuric acid (acid rain). It is dissolved in
concentrated sulfuric acid to make oleum, which reacts with water to make sulfuric
acid in industry.

Test for water

Cobalt(II) chloride goes blue to pink
Copper(II) sulfate goes white to blue

Diffusion
Faster at high temperature, lower Mr

Diatomic molecules
H2,N2,O2,Halogens
CO

Triatomic Molecules
Ozone (O3), Water, CO2

Kinetic Particle Theory

1. Kinetic Molecular Theory:
a. Particles move randomly; vibrating in solids, sliding in liquids, freely in gases b.
Particles have forces between them; electrostatic in ionic and metallic,intermolecular in
simple covalent
c. Particles have distances between them; closer in solids to far apart in gases d.
Particles are arranged in layers in most solids, but have no fixed arrangement in
other states
2. Diffusion is when particles move from an area of higher concentration to lower
concentration (where they are more to where they are less)
a. They diffuse slower if they are heavy (calculate relative mass)
 b. They diffuse faster if they have high kinetic energy (high temperature)
3. Pressure is more when particles collide more, volume is how far they are; so in less space
they collide more and vice versa, so P is inversely proportional to V
4. Temperature is average kinetic energy of particles, so with high temperature they move
more, this increases volume or also increases pressure
5. Converting states of matter: those that need energy (melting, boiling, evaporation,
sublimation) and those that release energy (freezing, condensation, gas to solid
sublimation)

Chemistry Factsheet 4 6. Definitions: Diffusion, Relative mass, proton number, nucleon number,

isotopes, allotropes

Atomic Structure
7. Atom has protons (+), electrons (-) and neutrons (no charge).
a. It is overall neutral because protons and electrons are equal in number and cancel
each other's charge
b. Mass number is for protons and neutrons only because electrons have negligible
mass. Only hydrogen has the same mass number as proton number because it
doesn't have a neutron.
c. Isotopes have different neutrons so their mass differs. Their proton numbers are the
same.
d. Valence electrons are what determines chemical properties. So atoms with the same
number of valence electrons have the same chemical properties.
e. Shells have a max capacity of 2n2. this is octet rule*. Number of shells is same in the
same period, number of valence electrons is same as group number. For bonding,
they try to achieve their preferred numbers for each shell. 2 for only the first shell.
For O level: preferred numbers are 0 and 8
For IGCSE, 0,8,18,32
8. Definitions: Isotopes, proton number, nucleon number, relative atomic mass,

Chemical Bonding
9. Ionic bonding is between metal and nonmetal
a. Electrons are transferred to complete octet but you should always mention which
atom loses electrons and how many of them, similarly which atom gains electrons
and how many
b. Metals lose, nonmetals gain*
c. Know how to draw dot and cross diagrams. Always put square brackets and charge
on ion diagram
10. Covalent bonding is between nonmetals
 a. Electrons are shared in pairs. This is shown in lewis structure using lines. One line is
one pair
b. Group number determines how many electrons are shared. For example Group 4 will
share 4, group 6 will share 2. This makes molecules and giant structures
c. Know how to make dot and cross diagram
d. Know how to make lewis structure for hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine,
water, ammonia, methane, hydrogen chloride and C2H4, H2; Cl2; O2; HCl; N2; H2O; CH4;
CO2; HCN;
11. Metals have metallic bonding
a. Electrons are delocalised and make sea of electrons

Chemistry Factsheet 5

b. Cations are in layers so metals can be made into sheets and wires (malleable and
ductile)
c. If you draw it, draw 3 layers at least and also electrons around and between layers 12.
Electrical conduction: ionic conduct in molten or when dissolved (free ions), simple molecular
and giant (diamond, silicon dioxide) don’t conduct (no free electrons), metals and graphite
conduct (free electrons)
13. Melting point: things with stronger forces have higher melting points (FEM: Force, Energy
requirement and Melting point, all three are high or all three are low). IMFA broken for
simple molecular only, bonds broken for all others
14. Forces: Lattice structure (ionic,metallic, giants) have electrostatic forces (strong), molecular
structures have intermolecular forces of attraction (weak)
15. Definitions:
a. metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive ions in a lattice and a
‘sea of electrons’
b. ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions in a
lattice
c. covalent bonding as the electrostatic attraction between nuclei and shared pairs of
electrons
d. Intermolecular forces of attraction are between molecules while covalent bond is
inside molecules. IMFA is affected in physical process while bond in a chemical
process
16. Why are things unreactive?
1. Very strong bond so activation energy too high (diamond, graphite, nitrogen).
These things will react at higher temperature e.g. Nitrogen in car engine or
lightening, graphite in electrolysis of aluminum oxide
2. More reactive elements closeby: this is called sacrificial protection. Zinc or Mg
blocks with Iron
3. Some barrier not allowing reaction: Aluminum has oxide layer, we paint gates
and car bodies so paint acts as barrier
4. Complete shell: noble gasses
Chemical Formulae
1. Naming compounds has a few rules.
a. For ionic compounds, write cations first, anions after. Transition metals have their
charges written in brackets. If a single atom makes an anion, it has ide at the end
e.g. Sulfur makes sulfide. If multiple atoms make an anion, they have ate at the end*
e.g. sulfur and oxygen make sulfate. There are others as well but not important for
us right now.
b. Remember the formula and charge for molecular ions
ammonium

Chemistry Factsheet 6

carbonate,
sulfate,
Sulfite
nitrate
Hydroxide
c. In transition metals, remember charges for Silver (+1), Zinc (+2) and Scandium(+3).
Other transition metals have charges mentioned.
d. Covalent compounds should mention number of atoms of an element using mono, di,
tri and tetra. Usually mono is avoided unless there is a confusion. e.g. Carbon and
oxygen make CO and CO2 so mono and di are used to differentiate.
2. Remember the cross multiplication rule (ratio-flip rule) for ionic formulas. First write formula
of cation and anion. Then find the ratio of their charges then flip the ratio.

Periodic Table
1. Noble gasses are unreactive because they have complete valence electrons. 2. Helium for
balloons, Neon for lights, Argon for bulbs and manufacturing steel. 3. Metals become more
reactive down the group because atoms gets bigger and takes less
energy to lose electron. Nonmetals become less reactive down the group because atoms get
bigger and takes more energy to gain electron.
4. Group 1 elements have low melting points, low density (float on water). Their melting points
decrease down the group. They react with water and acids and give hydrogen gas. 5. To show
this trend in reactivity, we can put Li, Na, and K in water and see that reaction is faster. Metals
shoots across surface faster and bubbles are produced rapidly; faster in K, less so in Li.
6. Halogens (Group VII) are nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules.
7. Metallic character decreases left to right
8. Down the group their density and m.p. increases. F and Cl are gases, Br liquid, and I and At
 solid. At will be solid as well.
9. Color darkens. F yellow, Cl green, Br brown, I black. At will be black as well. 10. Down the
group reactivity decreases. F>Cl>Br>I. They show displacement reaction where a more reactive
element displaces a less reactive element. Also, when writing ionic equation for this, don’t
ionize molecules.
11. Transition metals are heavy/high density (physical), have high melting points (physical),
variable oxidation states (chemical) and form colored compounds (chemical). 12.
Transition metals or compounds are used as catalysts. Iron in the Haber process,
vanadium(V) oxide in the Contact process, nickel in hydrogenation of alkenes.

Chemistry Factsheet 7

Catalysts lower the energy requirement of a reaction. This saves money and preserves energy
sources. They can be poisoned by impurities though.

Reactivity Series
If an element displaces an ion, element is more reactive
���� so Cl is more reactive
2 + ������ → �������� + ��2

● How to use water to make reactivity series?

1. Reactivity increases if something reacts with water at low
temperature. Reactivity is higher if reaction is faster. Reactivity decreases in
this order:

Metals
CoFast
wat
slow
hot wafast

slow
steam
fast
slow

no reaction
Displacement Principle
A more reactive ion can displace a less reactive ion in favorable conditions. Reactivity series can be
used to compare reactivity.
K Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe H Cu Ag
Copper can only displace H in concentrated acids. Otherwise things on the left displace things on the
right. The greater the difference, faster the reaction.
In a cell/battery, more reactive element can transfer electrons to less reactive element. For
example, if you connect Mg and Cu together, electrons go from Mg to Cu. Mg becomes positive and
Cu becomes negatively charged.
Zn is the only metal that is extracted as gas
H is used as reducing agent for CuO, C for oxides of metals below it, electrolysis for elements above

Chemistry Factsheet 8

Alloys
Mixtures of metal(s) or other substances
Alloy has lower melting point than the metal with highest melting point. For example, if we
mix chromium (mp 1907) and iron (mp 1537), this alloy would have mp lower than 1907
Steel is carbon with iron and something else
Brass, pewter, bronze are other important alloys
Alloys with magnetic material are magnetic
Catalysts:
Haber Process to make Ammonia Iron

Contact process to make SO3 Vanadium(V) oxide

Hydrogenation to make margarine from

Nickel
vegetable oil

Hydrolysis to make alcohol from alkene Acid (Phosphoric acid for IGCSE)

Catalytic Converter Pt, Pd and Rh (remember anyone)

● Zinc and Scandium are not typical transition metals. Their compounds are white and their
valencies are fixed. Zinc +2, Sc +1

Nonmetals
Sulfur
Source is volcanic activity
Present in crude oil as impurity so produces SO2 when burnt
SO2
Formed in combustion of sulfur (fuel and volcanic activity)

Chemistry Factsheet 9

Bleaches wood pulp for paper industry

Oxidizes in reversible reaction to make SO3 using V2O5 catalyst. 2 atm and 450C
Is a reducing agent, Is easily oxidized so KMnO4 goes purple to colorless with it

SO3
Dissolves in water to produce sulfuric acid. Explosive reaction
Dissolves in conc sulfuric acid to produce oleum which then dissolves in water to
produce sulfuric acid. No explosive reaction

CO2
Lime family
CaO lime produced when CaCO3 is thermally decomposed
Reacts with acidic impurities in
Iron extraction: ������2 + ������ → ����������3

Ca(OH)2 (s) slaked lime solid used to treat acidic soil.

Ca(OH)2 (aq) limewater produces CaCO3 with CO2 so basically turns milky
CaCO3limestone decomposes to make CaO, present in marble
Treats acidic impurities in iron ore and flue gas
Flue gas desulfurization: CaCO3+SO2→CaSO3+CO2

Moles and Stoichiometry

13. In moles, find moles first. It helps. Remember the 4 formulas and where to apply them.
������
�� = for gases, for solutions, for finding particles and 24�� = ���� ��
=���� ���� ������������������

6.02×1023

��������
�� = for anything else.
����
14. The two short cuts
a. When question is only about gases, mole ratio is same as volume ratio.

Chemistry Factsheet 10

b. When question is only about two solutions.

(������)���������������� 1=
(������)���������������� 2
15. For stoichiometry (questions where information is about one substance and question about
the other), remember the 3 step rectangle method; Find moles of first substance then moles
of second substance (using mole ratio) then required quantity
16. Periodic table has period for shell numbers, groups for valence electrons. 7 periods, 8 groups.
Metals on left, transition metals in middle, metalloids on staircase and, nonmetals on right.
17. Stoichiometry: remember the three steps
a. Moles of substance 1
b. Moles of substance 2
c. answer
Redox
Any reaction with element involved is a redox reaction

The following reactions are examples of redox reactions:

- Burning/Combustions
- Rusting
- Reaction between metals and acids
- Extraction of metals
- Displacement reactions
- Respiration
- Photosynthesis

Oxidation and reduction always happen together, never alone.

Reactions that involve reduction and oxidation are redox reactions.

Redox Reactions are classified as:

Gain or loss of Oxygen

In Chemical Reactions, when a substance gains oxygen, it has been

oxidised. Example - Burning Carbon in oxygen
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Carbon has been oxidised as it gains Oxygen to become Carbon Dioxide.
If Oxygen is lost, the substance is reduced.
Example of this is in displacement reactions of metal oxides.

Example - Magnesium being heated with Copper(II) Oxide

Mg(s) + CuO(s) → MgO(s) + Cu(s)
Magnesium is Oxidised, Copper is Reduced.

Chemistry Factsheet 11

Since both Oxidation and Reduction reactions have taken place together, this is a redox
reaction.
Copper (II) oxide is described as the oxidising agent as it caused oxidation of magnesium.
Magnesium is described as the reducing agent as it removed oxygen from copper (II)
oxide. Oxidising agent is a substance which causes oxidation of another substance.
Reducing agent is a substance which causes reduction of another compound. Extraction of
metals from their ores, particularly iron oxide from its ore is a redox reaction. Iron is
extracted from its oxide by heating with carbon in the blast furnace by the reaction: Fe2O3 (s)
+ 3CO (g) → 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)

Iron (III) oxide loses oxygen, so it is reduced.

Carbon monoxide gains oxygen, so it is oxidized.

Carbon monoxide is described as the reducing agent as it has reduced iron (III) oxide by
removing oxygen from it.

Gain or loss of Hydrogen

Transfer of electrons
The general rule for what is oxidised and reduced in the transfer of electrons can be
summed up in this Mnemonic.
OIL RIG
Oxidation is Loss of Electrons, Reduction is Gain of Electrons.
When electrons transfer in the same element that is not redox, it is

conduction. Change in oxidation number

Not a Redox Reaction

- Thermal Decomposition
- Precipitation
- Neutralization

Ionic equations
Neutralization
��+ + ����− → ��2��
Carbonate-Acid
2��+ + ����32− → ����2 + ��2��
Ammonium
����4+→ ����3 + ��+
When ammonium salt reacts with base, it produces ammonia gas which turns red
litmus blue

Chemistry Factsheet 12

When ammonium chloride reacts with acid, it produces HCl which turns blue litmus
read.
Precipitation
Aq ions of insoluble salt → solid salt
����+(����) + ����−(����)→ ��������(��)
4
����2+(����) + ����42−(����)→ �������� (��)

Electrolysis
● electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound (an electrolyte) using
electricity
 ● Ionic compounds can undergo electrolysis when molten or dissolved ● Polar covalent
compounds like acids and water can do electrolysis when impure ● Electrolysis is a
chemical process so compounds decompose permanently ● Conduction is a physical
process so metals do not decompose permanently ● Electrolysis is evidence of ions
and ionic lattice. In solid there is no electrolysis but it happens when they melt (lattice
breaks)
● Electrolysis product at anode is oxygen when dilute and halogen when concentrated
● Electrolysis at cathode of aq solutions is hydrogen or noble metal (copper, silver or
gold)
● In electroplating, anode is impure and cathode is pure.
● In purification of copper, solution changes color in inert anode (graphite or Pt), color
doesn’t change with reactive anode because ions are replenished when copper
anode dissolves
● In extraction of Al, Cryolite lowers the mp and dissolves aluminium oxide
● Conc sodium chloride gives three products; NaOH, H2 and Cl2
● If both hydrogen and oxygen are produced, pH stays the same, if only hydrogen
produced then pH increases, if only oxygen then pH decreases (this is because
water has H+ and OH- so if hydrogen is produced, H+is used up so pH increases,
with oxygen OH-is used up so pH decreases)

Energetics
Fuels:
O level

Chemistry Factsheet 13

IGCSE
Hydrogen is fuel for rockets (comes from cracking, also used to make margarine) 235U is
radioactive fuel (doesn’t produce harmful or greenhouse gases but is hard to dispose off)
Fuel cell is more efficient, less polluting but expensive than regular fuel. It
generates electricity by using hydrogen, oxygen and produces water

Kinetics
Increasing concentration means more particles per unit volume
Increasing pressure means gas particles come closer (more particles per unit
volume) Catalyst gives alternative pathway with lower activation energy so more
particles have activation energy
Increasing temperature means particles have greater kinetic energy
Increasing surface area means more particles are exposed

So more successful collisions per unit time

Reaction faster

Chemistry Factsheet 14

Reversible reactions
Le Chatlier’s Principle: Equilibrium shifts to undo any stress on it. The effect is
always opposite.
Increasing temperature always increases rate.
Yield only increases when equilibrium shifts right.
Equilibrium is not affected by catalyst or surface area, only rate is.
Increase Decrease

Temperature Shifts to endothermic side Shifts to exothermic side

 Pressure Shifts to side with lower
Shifts to side with higher gaseous moles
gaseous moles

Concentra If reactant is increases, shifts to

tio n If reactant is decreases, shift to reactant
product
side

Environmental
Chemistry
Air and Oxygen:
- Air Consists of 78%
Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen,
and Remaining 1% is
mixture of gasses,
mainly Argon, and little
amounts of Carbon
Dioxide
- Air can be fractionally
distilled, by first cooling it into
Liquid Air, then gasses with the
lowest melting point distill over
first, in this case, Nitrogen, then
Other gasses distill. - Oxygen is
used in making steel, in oxygen
tanks in hospital, and in welding
Atmospheric Pollutants:
Pollutant Source(s) Harms/Effects:

Carbon Monoxide Incomplete combustion of

Causes headaches, breathing
Difficulties, even death
carbon containing substances
Supply of O2 in body reduced

Sulfur Dioxide Volcanoes and combustion

Breathing difficulties
of fossil fuels
Acid Rain

Oxides of Nitrogen Breathing Difficulties

Lightning Activity and Internal
Combustion engines
Acid Rain

Methane Bacterial Decay of

GreenHouse gas, causes
Vegetable Matter
Global warming
 Unburnt Hydro-Carbons Internal CombustionCauses Cancer, reacts with nitrogen oxides to
Engines form Ozone

Ozone Photochemical Reactions Photochemical Smog

Chemistry Factsheet 15

Catalytic Converters:
Their main aim is to reduce harmful gas often released by cars, by oxidizing them to make
gasses less harmful.
1: They Oxidize Released Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide
2: Nitrogen monoxide and carbon monoxide reacts to form Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen
3: Unburnt HydroCarbons are also Oxidized to produce Carbon dioxide and Water

Flue Gas Desulfurization:

Its main aim is to reduce Sulfur Dioxide emissions by reacting
it with calcium carbonate Calcium Carbonate Reacts
with Sulfur Dioxide to form Calcium Sulfite and Carbon
Dioxide Equation: CaCO3 + SO2 —-> CaSO3 + CO2

Acid Rain:
Acid Rain is formed when acidic air pollutants such as sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide react with water in the
atmosphere.
Source 1:
Sulfur Dioxide in Air Reacts with Water molecules to form
Sulfurous Acid. In Presence of Excess oxygen, this slowly
oxidizes into Sulfuric Acid
Source 2:
In Presence of Oxygen in air, Nitrogen
Dioxide is converted into Nitric Acid Effect 1:
Acid Rain Reacts with metals and carbonates like
marble and limestone. When this happens, Metal
Bridges and stone Buildings are damaged
Effect 2:
Acid Rain Leaches nutrients from soil and causes plants to
die
Effect 3:
Acid Rain Reduces the pH value of natural water bodies, making
it too acidic for the Aquatic life to survive.

Organic Chemistry
Lab Skills and ATP
17. Tests: chemical tests for
a. ammonia (using damp red litmus paper); goes blue
b. carbon dioxide (using limewater); turns cloudy
c. chlorine (using damp litmus paper); bleaches
d. hydrogen (using a burning splint); pop sound
e. oxygen (using a glowing splint); relights
f. sulfur dioxide (using acidified potassium manganate(VII)); purple to colorless g.
water with anhydrous copper (II) sulfate (turns blue with water). Cobalt chloride
(blue to pink) can also be used but isn’t examiner favorite.
18. Drying agents: they absorb water. Concentrated sulfuric acid is a good one.

Chemistry Factsheet 16

19. Collection of gases: upward delivery for lighter gases (mass less than 28), downward
delivery for heavier (more than 32), collection over water for all (except those soluble in water)
20. Know the usage of these purification processes
a. Dissolving, filtration, evaporation and crystallization
b. Simple and fractional distillation. Know its uses in air, liquor and crude oil c. Paper
chromatography, know how to calculate Rf value, same substances have the same Rf
value, it is high for more soluble things. Only soluble substances move, insoluble will
not. Use locating agent if a spot is colorless. Solvent
level should be below baseline. Baseline is drawn
with pencil so it doesnt dissolve.
21. Lab tips: Electric heater for flammable substances,
bunsen burner for rest. Don’t cover conical flasks if gas is
produced. Collect gases in gas syringe preferably, or
collect over water. Remove water with drying agent. Check
for

Following things are important for ATP.

1. Chemical tests for gases; hydrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, chlorine and ammonia. 2. Drying agents and
their setup specifically concentrated sulfuric acid
3. Purification techniques mainly filtration, distillation,
fractional distillation and chromatography. Being
able to draw their setup would help although isn't
compulsory. Knowing the steps is important.
Remember that residue is collected, washed and
dried, filtrate is crystallized and dried.
4. Observations and setup of some experiments we discussed
 a. Displacement reactions for group VII (color changes when a more reactive substance
displaces less reactive one)
b. Collecting hydrogen when acid reacts with group 1 metal (bubbles, metal floats and
moves around, pH increases, temperature rises)
c. Collecting carbon dioxide when acid reacts with metal carbonate (bubbles, gas turns
limewater milky)
d. Using indicators to check pH and to check whether a liquid is acidic, basic,
amphoteric or neutral
e. Using filtration to separate soluble and insoluble things
f. Using chromatography to identify pure things in a substance, using locating agents
and formula for Rf value
g. Chemical test for water: anhydrous copper (II) sulfate turns blue
h. Physical tests include pH meter, conducting electricity, checking melting & boiling
points
i. Titration is not important for grade 9
5. Test for Anions:
a. carbonate (by the addition of dilute acid and subsequent use of limewater); gives
CO2
b. chloride (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous silver
nitrate); white ppt
c. iodide (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous silver
nitrate); yellow ppt

Chemistry Factsheet 17

d. nitrate (by reduction with aluminium and aqueous sodium hydroxide to ammonia
and subsequent use of litmus paper),
e. sulfate (by reaction of an aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous barium
nitrate), white ppt
f. sulfite (by warming with dilute acid): white ppt which dissolves; gas evolved turns
aqueous potassium manganate purple to colorless.