N-Levels: 2014 Chemistry Notes For Secondary School Combined Chemistry

2014 Chemistry Notes
For Secondary School

Combined Chemistry
N-Levels
By Marcus Ng
©2014 Marcus Ng Chemistry Notes for Secondary School N-Levels Combined Chemistry
Chapter 1
Experimental Chemistry
1.1 Measurements
Physical Quantity SI Unit Apparatus Accuracy
Digital Stopwatch 0.01 s
Time Second (s)
Analog Stopwatch 0.1s
Mercury Thermometer 0.01 K
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Alcohol Thermometer 0.01 K
Electronic Balance
Mass Kilogram (kg)
Beam Balance
Beaker
Measuring Cylinder 1 cm3 (1 ml)
Volume Cubic Meter (m3)
Pipette* 0.1 cm3 (0.1 ml)
Burette 0.1 cm3 (0.1 ml)
Important Points to remember:
1. When measuring Time: Digital Stopwatch is more accurate than Analog Stopwatch
2. When measuring Length: Micrometer is more accurate than Vernier Calipers, which
are both more accurate than a Ruler
3. When measuring Volumes: Pipettes are only used for specific volumes
(10 cm3, 25 cm3 or 50 cm3)
4. When measuring Volumes: Burettes are the most accurate, followed by a Measuring
Cylinder and lastly a Beaker
5. When measuring Temperature: Maximum upper limit for Alcohol Thermometer is

351.15K (78 0C)
6. When measuring Temperature: Mercury Thermometers are more expensive and toxic
then Alcohol Thermometers.
1.2 Separation Techniques
Technique Purpose
Filtration Used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid
Crystallization Used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid
Distillation Used to separate a liquid from a soluble solid
Fractional Distillation Used to separate a liquid from a mixture of Miscible Liquids*
Sublimation Used to separate a sublimable solid from a mixture of solids

*Miscible Liquids refer to liquids that can be completely mixed
Filtration
*Note: When given a soluble salt and insoluble salt, add water to dissolve the soluble salt.
When given a soluble salt and organic compound, add water to dissolve the soluble salt.
Crystallization
Distillation
Fractional Distillation
1.3 Collection of Gases
Properties of Gases
Gas Solubility Density

Ammonia Soluble in Water Less dense than air
Argon Insoluble in Water More dense than air
Carbon Dioxide Soluble in Water More dense than air
Carbon Monoxide Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Chlorine Soluble in Water More dense than air
Helium Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Hydrogen Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Hydrogen Bromide Soluble in Water More dense than air
Hydrogen Chloride Soluble in Water More dense than air
Methane Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Oxygen Insoluble in Water Similar density to air
Neon Insoluble in Water Less dense than air
Nitrogen Insoluble in Water Similar density to air
Nitrogen Dioxide Soluble in Water More dense than air
Sulphur Dioxide Soluble in Water More dense than air
1.4 Purity of a Substance
Important Points/Concepts to remember:
1. A Pure Substance melts and boils at a fixed and constant temperature
2. Impurities decreases the melting point of a substance
3. Impurities increases the boiling point of a substance
Methods to check the purity of a substance
1. Melting Point Determination
2. Boiling Point Determination
3. Chromatography
Chromatography
1. Chromatography can be used to determine the purity of a substance

2. Chromatography can be used to identify the substance
3. Chromatography can be used to separate components of a substance with different
solubilities in the same solvent and identify them.
4. There are 2 types of Paper Chromatography: Ascending and Descending
5. There can be 3 types of results (chromatograms that can be developed)
a. Only one spot is seen - A Pure Substance (one solute in sample)

b. More than one spot is seen - A Mixture (more than one solute in sample)
c. No spots are seen - No soluble* solute in mixture (*in the solvent used)
Note: Some compounds are colourless and thus a locating agent need
to be used. An example of a locating agent is Ninhydrin, used for
locating amino acids.
solvent line
start line
1.5 Tests for Gases
Gas Symbol Properties Litmus Test Splint Test Limewater test
Extinguish a
Colourless & lighted splint
Hydrogen H2
Odourless with a pop
sound
Colourless & Relights a

Oxygen O2
Odourless glowing splint
Carbon Colourless & Turns moist Blue Forms a White

CO2
Dioxide Odourless litmus Red precipitate
Chapter 2
Kinetic Particle Theory
2.1 Three States of Matter
Properties Solid Liquid Gas
Volume Fixed Volume Fixed Volume No Fixed Volume
Shape Fixed Shape No Fixed Shape No Fixed Shape
Compressibility Incompressible Negligibly compressible Very compressible
Particles are very Particles are closely Particles are very

Packing
closely packed packed far apart
Very strong forces Strong forces of Very weak forces

Forces of
of attraction attraction between of attraction
Attraction
between particles particles between particles
Particles vibrate
Particles can slide over Particles are in
Motion about a fixed
each other random motion
position
Diagrammatic
Representation
2.2 Melting & Freezing
Important Explanation: Melting
During melting, the particles of a solid gain energy and vibrate until they overcome the
forces of attraction between the particles, moving faster and further apart. At this
point, there is no rise in temperature as all heat energy is used to separate the particles
at this point.
This is the melting point, at which the temperature remains constant until the whole solid
has melted into a liquid.
Important points to include:

1. Gaining/Losing Energy
2. Motion of particles
3. Forces of attraction
4. New motion of particles
5. No rise/drop in temperature as all heat energy is used to separate/combine the
particles
6. _____ Point where temperature remains constant
Graphical Representation
Temperature/ K
b c
a
Time/min
1. Between points a and b, the substance is in the Solid state

2. Between points b and c, the substance is in a mixture of Solid & Liquid states
3. Between points c and d, the substance is in the Liquid state
2.3 Boiling & Condensation
During boiling, the particles of a liquid gain energy, sliding over each other until they
overcome the forces of attraction between the particles, moving faster, randomly and
very far apart. At this point, there is no rise in temperature as all heat energy is used to
separate the particles at this point.
This is the boiling point, at which the temperature remains constant until the whole liquid
has boiled into a gas.
Difference between Boiling & Evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at boiling point Occurs at any temperature below boiling point
Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs only at the surface of the liquid
Bubbles observed No bubbles observed
Occurs quickly Occurs slowly
2.4 Sublimation
Example of Substances that sublimes are Carbon Dioxide, Naphthalene (Mothballs) and
Iodine
Chapter 3
Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding
3.1 Atomic Structure (& Symbols to represent Atomic Structure)
Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter.
Particle Relative Charge Relative Mass Location

Proton +1 1 Nucleus
Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
Electron -1 0.0005 Electronic Shells outside the Nucleus
1. Atomic Number (or Proton Number) → The number of Protons in an atom

The number of Protons in an atom = The number of electrons
2. Mass number (or Nucleon Number) → The number of Protons + Neutrons
3. Atoms with same number of electrons and protons but different number of neutrons
= isotopes
( )
( )
Common Isotopes
Proton Number of Nucleon Number of

Element Isotope
Number Electrons Number Neutrons
Protium 1 1 1 0
Hydrogen Deuterium 1 1 2 1
Tritium 1 1 3 2
Carbon-12 6 6 12 6
Carbon Carbon-13 6 6 13 7
Carbon-14 6 6 14 8
Chlorine-35 17 17 35 18
Chlorine
Chlorine-37 17 17 37 20
3.2 Electron Arrangement
1. Electrons in an atom are arranged in energy shells

2. The arrangement of the electrons is call its electronic configuration
3. The first shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
4. The second and third shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
5. The outermost shell is called the valence shell. the electrons in this shell is called
valence electrons.
6. The shells & the no. of electrons can be represented by a dot-and-cross diagram.
Electronic Configuration & Dot-and-cross Diagram Examples
Element Electronic Configuration Dot-and-cross Diagram
Hydrogen 1
Carbon 2.4
Oxygen 2.6
Silicon 2.8.4
Easy Reference Table (Please try to not rely on this. learn to derive these information from a periodic table)
Symbol Element Proton Number Electronic Configuration
Hydrogen 1 1
Helium 2 2
Lithium 3 2.1
Beryllium 4 2.2
Boron 5 2.3
Carbon 6 2.4
Nitrogen 7 2.5
Oxygen 8 2.6
Fluorine 9 2.7
Neon 10 2.8
Sodium 11 2.8.1
Magnesium 12 2.8.2
Aluminum 13 2.8.3
Silicon 14 2.8.4
Phosphorus 15 2.8.5
Sulphur 16 2.8.6
or Chlorine 17 2.8.7
Argon 18 2.8.8
Potassium 19 2.8.8.1
Calcium 20 2.8.8.2
3.3 Formation of Ions
1. Atoms are generally naturally unstable. (With the exception of Group 0/ Group 8
elements)
2. This is due to the lack of a stable octet (or duplet) structure, with fully filled shells.
3. Atoms can form ions by gaining or losing valence electrons, in their attempt to obtain
a stable octet (or duplet) structure, with fully filled shells.
4. Metals usually lose electrons, forming Positive Ions, also known as Cations.
5. Non-Metals usually gain electrons, forming Negative Ions, also known as Anions.
Example
Lithium can lose a valence electron to form Li+, a positive ion (cation) with a fully
filled valence shell of 2 electron, with an electronic configuration of 2.
Magnesium can lose two valence electrons to form Mg2+, a positive ion (cation) with
a fully filled valence shell of 8 electron, with an electronic configuration of 2.8
Oxygen can gain two valence electrons to form O2-, a negative ion (anion) with a
fully filled valence shell of 8 electron, with an electronic configuration of 2.8
3.4 Ionic Bonding
1. Ionic Bonds are formed when metallic atoms give their valence electrons to non-
metallic atoms. This enables both the metallic and the non-metallic atoms to achieve
a stable octet (or duplet) structure, with fully filled valence shells.
2. These ions formed are oppositely charged, and attract each other through strong
electrostatic forces of attraction, thus forming the ionic bond.
Examples
Na + Cl → NaCl
Sodium (Na) can lose a valence electron to Chlorine (Cl), forming NaCl, with the
positively charged Na+ ion, and the negatively charged Cl- ion.
Mg + O → MgO
Magnesium (Mg) can lose two valence electrons to Oxygen (O), forming MgO, with the
positively charged Mg2+ ion, and the negatively charged O2- ion.
Mg + 2 Cl → MgCl2
Magnesium (Mg) can lose two valence electrons, one to each Chlorine (Cl), forming
MgCl2, with the positively charged Mg2+ ion, and 2 negatively charged Cl- ions.
3.5 Structure of Ionic Compounds
1. A solid ionic compound has a giant lattice structure with alternating positively and
negatively charged ions.
2. The ions are held in fixed positions by strong electrostatic forces of attraction.
3.6 Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
Physical Properties of Ionic Explanation in terms of their structure and

Compounds bonding
Ionic compounds are usually The ions are arranged in a highly regular fashion,
crystalline solids at room with strong electrostatic forces of attraction (ionic
temperature bonds) between the ions.
Ionic compounds have high The electrostatic forces of attraction between the
melting and boiling points oppositely charged ions is very strong and extends
over the entire crystalline structure. Large amounts
of energy is required to separate the ions
Ionic compounds cannot conduct In the solid structure, the ions are held in fixed
electricity when solid, but do so in positions. When molten or in aqueous solution, the
molten or in aqueous form. ions are mobile, so a flow of charge is possible.
Most ionic compounds are water Water molecules are polar, and are attracted to the
soluble, but insoluble in organic charged ions in the ionic compound. This helps to
solvents. pull the crystalline structure as the solid dissolves.
3.7 Covalent Bonding
1. Covalent bonding occurs when the electrons are shared, so as to achieve a stable
octet/duplet structure.
2. Each pairs of shared electrons forms one covalent bond.
3. Covalent bonding occurs mainly between non-metals
Examples
H + H → H2
Two hydrogen atoms can share an electron each to form a covalent H-H bond, giving
both atoms a stable duplet structure.
O + O → O2
Two oxygen atoms can share two electrons each to form two covalent O-O bonds,
giving both atoms a stable octet structure.
H + H + O → H2O
Each hydrogen atom shares one electron with the oxygen atoms, forming 2 O-H
covalent bonds.
3.8 Physical Properties of Simple Covalent Compounds
Physical Properties of Simple Explanation in terms of their structure and

Covalent Compounds bonding
Simple Covalent Compounds The inter-molecular forces of attraction are very

have low boiling and melting weak, hence very little energy is required to break
points. the forces apart.
Simple Covalent Compounds There are no mobile ions or electrons in simple

cannot conduct electricity in any covalent compounds in any states.
state.
Simple Covalent Compounds are Simple Covalent Compounds have generally non-
soluble in organic solvents but polar molecules, and thus would be unable to
not in water. dissolve in a solvent like water with strong hydrogen
bonding, but would be soluble in a organic solvent
like ethanol, petrol or trichloromethane.
Chapter 4
Stoichiometry & Mole Concept
4.1 Chemical Formulae
Number of Atoms/Ions are denoted by subscript.
Charge of ions are denoted by superscript.
Metals and/or positive cations are placed first in the chemical formula.
Brackets are used for repeated clusters of atoms (like anions)
o E.g. Magnesium Nitrate = Mg(NO3)2
Mono- is a prefix for indicating only 1 of a particular atom/ cluster of atoms
o Carbon Monoxide = CO
Di- is a prefix indicating 2 of a particular atoms/cluster of atoms
o Carbon Dioxide = CO2
Tri- is a prefix indicating 3 of a particular atoms/cluster of atoms
o Dinitrogen Trioxide = N2O3
Prefixes are only used for covalent molecules. For ionic compounds, the formulae have to be
deduced from the valency of the components.
For transition metals, the valency is indicated in brackets
o Iron (II) has a valency of 2, Iron (III) has a valency of 3.
Common Ions
Name Formulae Name Formulae
+ -
Ammonium NH3 Nitrate NO3
2- -
Carbonate CO2 Nitrite NO2
2- 2-
Chromate (VI) CrO4 Oxide O
2- 3-
Dichromate (VI) Cr2O7 Phosphate PO4
- 2-
Ethanoate CH3CO2 Sulphate / Sulfate SO4
- 2-
Hydrogencarbonate HCO2 Sulphite / Sulfite SO3
- 2-
Hydroxide OH Sulphide / Sulfide S
4.2 Balancing Equations (With state symbols)

A chemical equation is used to shows information in a chemical reaction.
o What chemicals are used (Reactants).
o What chemicals are created (Products).
o What states they are in: (s), (l), (g) or (aq)
The reactants are always on the left, and the products on the right.
Ensure the left side of the equation equals the right side.
Example 1:
Fe(s) + 2 C5H6(g) → Fe(C5H5)2(s) + H2(g)
There is 1 Iron atom on both sides.
There are 10 Carbon atoms on both sides.
There are 12 Hydrogen atoms on both sides.
Example 2:
CH3CH2OH + CH3CO2H ⇌ CH3CO2CH2CH3 + H2O
There are 4 Carbon atoms on both sides.
There are 10 Hydrogen atoms on both sides.
There are 4 Oxygen atoms on both sides.
*The catalyst HCl is not included in the equation as it appears in the same form on both sides.
4.3 Relative Atomic Mass (Element) & Relative Molecular Mass
The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the average mass of one atom of an element compared to
of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) may sometimes have the same values as the mass number, but they are
conceptually DIFFERENT from each other.
o Mass number refer to the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. They can differ betweens
isotopes of the same elements. Atoms of different elements can have the same mass number.
o Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) refers to the AVERAGE mass of atoms of a particular element in
accordance with isotopic composition.
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) has no units.
The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a substance is the average mass of one molecule of the substance
compared with of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
4.4 Mole Concept

A mole is the number of particles which contains the same number of atoms in a 12.0g sample of
carbon-12.
23
o This number is 6 x 10 . This number is also known as Avogadro's number.
Mole can be abbreviated as mol.
Examples:
23
1 Mole of Ca = 6 x 10 atoms
23
1 Mole of Na = 6 x 10 atoms
23
1 Mole of Cl2 = 6 x 10 Molecules
23
1 Mole of Cl2 = 2 x 6 x 10 atoms (Since 1 molecule of Cl2 = 2 atoms of Cl)
23
= 12 x 10 atoms
23
1 Mole of NaCl = 2 x 6 x 10 atoms (Since 1 molecule of NaCl = 1 atom of Na +1 atom of Cl)
23
= 12 x 10 atoms
23
1 Mole of NaOH = 3 x 6 x 10 atoms (Since 1 molecule of NaOH = 1 atom of Na +1 atom of O + 1
atom of H)
23
= 18 x 10 atoms
4.5 Molar Mass
The mass (in grams) of 1 mole of a substance, is called its molar mass.
o The molar mass of a substance is equal to its relative atomic mass or relative molecular mass.
E.g. The relative atomic mass (Ar) of Helium is 4.0. The molar mass of Helium is 4.0 g. The
23
mass of 1 mole of Helium atoms is 4.0 g. The mass of 6. x 10 Helium atoms is 4.0 g.
E.g. The relative molecular mass (Mr) of Carbon Dioxide is 44.0. The molar mass of Carbon
23
Dioxide is 44.0 g. The mass of 6.02 x 10 Carbon Dioxide molecules is 44.0 g.
Mole =
The number of moles present in a sample =
Example 1: Calculate the number of moles in a 142.0g sample of Chlorine gas.
Molar Mass of Chlorine gas (Cl2) = 2 x 35.5g

= 71.0g
Number of moles of Cl2 present =

=
= 2 mols
Example 2: Calculate the number of moles in a 100.0g sample of NaCl.
Molar Mass of NaCl = 23.0g + 35.5g

= 58.5 g
Number of moles of Cl2 present =

=
= 1.71 mols (3.s.f)
Chapter 5
Chemical Reactions
Not part of the N-Level Syllabus
Chapter 6
Acid, Bases and Salts
6.1 pH
+
pH measures the concentration of H ions in a solution
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14
o Acids have a pH value of less than 7
The lower the pH, the stronger the acid
Sulphuric Acid in Car Batteries (pH 1) is a much stronger acid than lemon juice (pH 2)
o Bases and Alkalis have a pH value of greater than 7
The higher the pH, the stronger the base/ alkali
Sodium Hydroxide in bleach (pH 13) is a much stronger base than ammonia in fertilizer (pH 11)
o Neutral solutions (like water) have a pH of exactly 7
6.2 pH Indicators
The most accurate way of measuring pH is using a pH meter
An approximate way of measuring pH is using an indicator
An indicator can tell the pH by with colour changes
Universal Indicator
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red Orange Yellow Green Green-Blue Blue Violet
Litmus
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red Blue
Phenolphthalein
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Colourless Pink - Purple
Methyl Orange
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red Yellow
Screened Methyl Orange
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Red Grey Green
Bromothymol Blue
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Yellow Blue
6.3 Acids
Acids are substances that produces H+ ions in Water.
Properties of Acids
Acids are sour
o Lemon's sourness is from citric acid
o Vinegar's sourness is from ethanoic acid
Acids have pH of less than 7
o Acids change Blue Litmus paper Red
Organic acids are acids that contain the -COOH group
o Examples of organic acids are Ethanoic Acid and Citric Acid
Mineral acids are acids that are not organic
o Mineral acids are much stronger acids than organic acids
o Examples of mineral acids are Hydrochloric Acid and Nitric Acid
6.4 Reactions of Acids
Reaction of Acids with Bases

Acids will react with bases to form an inorganic Salt and water only
This reaction is called Neutralization
HX(aq) + ZOH(aq) → ZX(aq) + H2O(l)
Example 1
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Example 2
H2SO4(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
Reaction of Acids with Metals

Acids will react with Metal to form an inorganic Salt and Hydrogen Gas only
This is due to displacement (to be covered under the Reactivity Series in the topic of Metals)
2 HX(aq) + 2 M(s) → 2 MX(aq) + H2(g)
Example 1
2 HCl(aq) + 2 Na(s) → 2 NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
Example 2
H2SO4(aq) + Mg(s) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Reaction of Acids with Carbonates

Acids will react with Carbonates to form an inorganic salt, carbon dioxide and water.
2 HX(aq) + ZCO3(aq) → ZX2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Example 1
2 HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) → 2 NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Example 2
H2SO4(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Common Acids
Acids Formulae Cation Anion

Hydrochloric Acid HCl H+ Cl-
Sulphuric Acid H2SO4 H+ SO42-
Nitric Acid HNO3 H+ NO3-
Ethanoic Acid CH3COOH H+ CH3COO-
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 H+ PO43-
Hydrofluoric Acid HF H+ F-
Hydrobromic Acid HBr H+ Br-
Hydroiodic Acid HI H+ I-
Carbonic Acid H2CO3 H+ CO32-
6.5 Bases and Alkalis
Bases are substances that react with an Acid to form a Salt and Water Only
Properties of Bases
Edible bases taste bitter
Alkalis feel slippery
Bases have pH of more than 7
o Bases change Red Litmus paper Blue
Bases are usually Metal oxides or Metal hydroxides
Soluble Bases are called alkalis
o Group I hydroxides are readily soluble
o Group II hydroxides are sparingly soluble
o Group III or Transition Metal hydroxides are generally insoluble
6.6 Reactions of Bases
Reaction of Bases with Ammonium Salts

Bases will react with Ammonium Salts to form an inorganic salt, ammonia gas and water
NH4X(aq) + ZOH(aq) → ZX(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Example 1
NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Example 2
(NH4)2SO4(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + NH3(g) + 2 H2O(l)
Precipitation of Insoluble hydroxides (Pure)

Alkalis are used to precipitate out insoluble hydroxides from solutions of their salt
Example 1
2 NaOHaq) + CuSO4(s) → Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s) (Blue precipitate)
Example 2
2 NaOHaq) + MgCl2(s) → 2 NaCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) (White precipitate)
Common Bases
Bases Formulae Cation Anion

Sodium Hydroxide NaOH Na+ OH-
Potassium Hydroxide KOH K+ OH-
Ammonium Hydroxide NH4OH NH4+ OH-
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ OH-
Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Mg2+ OH-
Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH)2 Ba2+ OH-
Aluminum Hydroxide Al(OH)3 Al3+ OH-
Zinc Hydroxide Zn(OH)2 Zn2+ OH-
6.7 Oxides
Oxides are formed when elements burn in Oxygen
There are 4 types of Oxides: Acidic, Basic, Amphoteric and Neutral
Non-Metallic oxides are acidic
o They have similar properties as acids, as well as undergo similar reactions as acids
o They form acids when dissolved in water
Carbon Dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Metallic oxides are basic
o They have similar properties as bases, as well as undergo similar reactions as bases
Some Metallic oxides are amphoteric
o They show both acidic and basic properties
They can neutralize both acids and bases.
Aluminum oxide can react with hydrochloric acid to form aluminum chloride and water
Aluminum oxide can react with sodium hydroxide to form sodium aluminate and water
o Some examples are Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3), Zinc Oxide (ZnO) and Lead (II)
Some Non-Metallic oxides are neutral (Pure)
o They show neither acidic nor basic properties
o Some examples are Dihydrogen Oxide, Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Nitrogen Oxide (NO)
6.8 Solubility of Various Salts
Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts

All Nitrates
All Chlorides except Lead (II) Chloride All Lead (II) Salts except Lead (II) Nitrate
All Sulphate except Lead (II) Sulphate
All Carbonates except for Group I and
Ammonium Carbonates
All Sulphides (s2-) except for Group I and
Ammonium Sulphides
All Group I and Ammonium Salts
All hydroxides except for Group I and
Ammonium hydroxides
All oxides except for Group I and
Ammonium Oxides
Also Insoluble: Barium Sulphate, Calcium Sulphate and Silver Chloride

Sparingly soluble: Group II Hydroxides and Oxides
6.9 Preparation of Salts
The method to prepare a salt depends on its solubility
Salt
Insoluble Soluble
Group I or NOT Group I

Precipitation
Ammonium or Ammonium
Method
Salt Salt
Titration Crystalization
React Metal React Metal

React Metal
Carbonate Oxide with
with Acid
with Acid Acid
6.10 Precipitation method
The precipitation method to prepare an Insoluble salt
Step 1: Choosing the reactants. (They must be soluble)
Step 2: Mix the reactants.
Step 3: Wait for the insoluble salt to precipitate out. Stirring or heating may speed the reaction along.
Step 4: Filter out the insoluble salt.
6.11 Crystallization method
The crystallization method is used to prepare a soluble salt that does not contain Group I or
Ammonium ions.
Step 1: Choosing the reactants. (Use the acid containing the anion, and the metal/ oxide/ carbonate.)
Step 2: Mix the reactants. Let the metal/ metal oxide/ metal carbonate be in excess.
Step 3: Wait for the reaction to complete. Stirring or heating may speed the reaction along.
Step 4: Filter out the excess metal/ metal oxide/ metal carbonate
Step 5: Heat the filtrate till saturated (when a thin layer of crystals are formed.
Step 6: Leave the filtrate to cool for more crystals to form.
Step 7: Filter out the crystals and dry
6.12 Titration method
The Titration method is used to prepare a soluble salt that contains Group I or Ammonium ions.
This method is based on the neutralization reaction.
Step 1: Choosing the reactants. (Use the acid containing the anion & the hydroxide containing the cation.)
3
Step 2: Pipette out 25 cm of one of the reactants into a conical flask. Add a few drops of indicator
Step 3: Add the other reactant into a burette
Step 4: Add the reactant in the burette into the conical flask drop by drop. Stop when the colour changes.
Step 5: Heat the filtrate till saturated (when a thin layer of crystals are formed.
Step 6: Leave the filtrate to cool for more crystals to form.
Step 7: Filter out the crystals and dry
Chapter 7
Periodic Table
7.1 Periodic Trends (An Overview)
The Periodic Table is an arrangement of elements with an increasing number of Protons
o Number of valence electrons increases across a period (Left to right) from 1 to 8.
The Periodic Table is arranged in vertical groups and horizontal periods.
o Elements of the same period have the same number of electron shells.
o Elements of the same group have the same number of valence electrons.
o Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties & form compounds with similar
chemical formulae.
A zig-zag diagonal line divides the metals and non metals.
o Elements near the line are called metalloids & have characteristics of both metals & non-metals.
7.2 Electronegativity
Electronegativity refers to the ability to gain electrons
Less electronegative elements have a greater metallic character.
Elements become more electronegative across the period (Left to right)
o Elements become less metallic across the period
Elements become less electronegative down a group (Top to Bottom)
o Elements become more metallic down a group
Chlorine is the most electronegative element, while Francium is the least Electronegative.
Name of Various Groups of Elements
Note: Only Group I (Alkali Metals), Group VII (Halogens) are examinable.
7.3 Group I Metals: Alkali Metals
Group I Elements reacts with water to form Alkalis and hydrogen gas (Thus the name Alkali Metals).
2 Na(s) + 2 H2O(l) → 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Group I Metals are strong reducing agents
Physical properties of Group I Metals include:

o They easily react with cold water and air, and thus have to be stored in oil or vacuum.
o They have low densities.
o They have low melting points.
The melting point decrease down the group.
o They are shiny and silvery solids.
o They are very soft and can be easily cut with a knife or razor.
o They are good conductors of electricity and heat.
7.4 Group VII: Halogens

Group VII Halogens form diatomic molecules with a single covalent bond
Trends of Group VII Halogens include:

o The melting and boiling point increases down the group.
Fluorine and Chlorine are gaseous at room temperature
Bromine is liquid at room temperature
Iodine and Astatine are solids at room temperature
o The colours of the Halogens get darker down the group.
Fluorine is pale yellow
Chlorine is yellowish green
Bromine is reddish brown
Iodine and Astatine are black
o The Halogens get less reactive down the group
Fluorine is the most reactive, and astatine is the least reactive
Group VII Halogens are strong oxidizing agents
Halogens undergo displacement reactions.

o A halogen in a salt can be displaced by a more reactive halogen
For example; Fluorine is the most reactive, and astatine is the least reactive, hence the
astatine in an astatine salt can be displaced by fluorine gas
2 NaAt(s) + F2(g) → 2 NaF(s) + At2(s)
Physical properties of Group VII Halogens include:

o They have low boiling and melting points.
o They do not conduct heat or electricity in any state.
o They are sparingly soluble in water
o They are soluble in organic solvent like CCl4.
Some uses of Halogens

o Fluoride is used in toothpaste to prevent tooth decay
o Chlorine and Iodine is used to kill bacteria
o Iodine is needed by the human body for proper thyroid gland function
Chapter 8
Metals
8.1 Physical Properties of Metals
High Boiling and Melting point.
o General exception to these are Mercury and Group I and Group II Metals
Good Conductor of Heat and Electricity
o Due to sea of delocalized electrons
Malleable (Ability of being flattened) & Ductile (Ability to be pulled into wires)
o Due to metallic bonding, in which the layers of atoms can easily slide over each other.
8.2 Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of metal with another element
o This second element may be both either a metal or a non metal
Pure metals are usually too soft to be used.
Alloys strengthens metals to be used by disrupting the orderly arrangement of the metal atoms with
foreign atoms of different sizes.
Some metals, like iron, oxidize or rusts easily.
o Hence alloys of these metals may be used in place of the metals due to their resistance to
oxidization or corrosion.
Examples:
Alloys Constituent Elements Uses

Bronze Copper and Tin Trophies
Brass Copper and Zinc Musical Instruments and Electrical plug pins
Pewter Tin, Antimony and Copper Dinnerware like plates and teapots
Industrial Steel Iron and Carbon Scaffoldings
Stainless Steel Iron, Chromium and Nickel Cutlery and surgical instruments
Chromium Steel Iron and Chromium Ball Bearings
High Speed Steel Tungsten and Vanadium High Speed Drills
8.3 Reactivity Series

Metals differ greatly in their chemical reactivity
Very reactive metals are unstable as a metal, but form very stable compounds
o These metals are not found uncombined in nature
Less reactive metals are more stable as a metal.
o These metals can be found uncombined in nature
Most Reactive
Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminum Carbon Zinc Iron
K Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe
Potato Salad Can Make A Cunning Zebra Itchy
Tin Lead Hydrogen Copper Mercury Silver Gold
Sn Pl H Cu Hg Ag Au
These Large Helicopters Can Make Some Giddy

Least Reactive
8.4 Chemical Reactions of Metal
All metals undergo displacement reactions
o A more reactive metal is able to displace a less reactive metal from its compounds
o E.g. Displacement of the less reactive copper by the more reactive zinc
Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → Cu(s) + ZnSO4 (aq)
o E.g. Displacement of the less reactive lead by the more reactive magnesium
Mg(s) + PbO (s) → Pb(s) + MgO (s)
Most Metals can react with water to produce hydrogen gas and either hydroxides or metal oxides.
o E.g. Reaction of Sodium with cold water
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g)
o E.g. Reaction of Aluminum with steam
2Al(s) + 3H2O(l) → Al2O3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
Most Metals can react with acids to produce salts and hydrogen gas
o E.g. Reaction of Calcium with Hydrochloric Acid
Ca(s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) H2 (g)
Metals Reaction with Water Reaction with Acids
Potassium K
Reacts vigorously with cold water to Reacts explosively with acids to produce
produce hydroxides and hydrogen gas salts and hydrogen gas
Sodium Na
Reacts slowly with cold water to produce Reacts vigorously with acids to produce
Calcium Ca hydroxides and hydrogen gas salts and hydrogen gas
Reacts rapidly with warm acids to

Magnesium Mg produce salts and hydrogen gas
Reacts with Steam to produce metal oxides
Aluminum Al and hydrogen gas
Zinc Zn
Reacts slowly with hot acids to produce
Iron Fe salts and hydrogen gas
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Copper Cu
Does not react to water or steam
Mercury Hg
Does not react with acids
Silver Ag
Gold Au
8.5 Chemical Reactions of Metal Compounds
The oxides of the less reactive metals can be reduced by carbon to produce the metal & CO2 only.
o E.g. Reduction of Zinc oxide
C(s) + 2ZnO(s) → 2Zn(s) + CO2 (g)
The oxides of the less reactive metals can be reduced by hydrogen to produce the metal & H 2O only.
o E.g. Reduction of Lead oxide
PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb (s) + H2O (l)
Some of the carbonates of the less reactive metals can be decomposed upon heating.
o E.g. Decomposition of Copper Carbonate
CuCO3(s) → CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
o E.g. Decomposition of Silver Carbonate
2Ag2CO3(s) → 4Ag (s) + O2 (g) + 2CO2 (g)
Reduction of Oxides Reduction of Oxides Decomposition of Metal

Metals
by Carbon by Hydrogen Carbonates
Potassium K
Does not decompose
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca Does not reduce Does not reduce
Magnesium Mg
Aluminum Al
Metal carbonate decomposes
Zinc Zn
upon heating into metal oxides
Iron Fe and carbon dioxide gas
Tin Sn
Metal Oxides get reduced Metal Oxides get reduced
Lead Pb
by carbon to form metal by hydrogen to form
Copper Cu and carbon dioxide only metal and water only
Mercury Hg Carbonate decomposes upon
Silver Ag heating into metal, O2 and CO2
Gold Au gas
8.6 Extraction of Metals

Metals high up in the reactivity series do not exist in the free state, but can be found in the form of
metal ores or metal salts
o These ores are normally in the form of oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
o Some common ores include
Metal Ore Compound in Ore

Aluminum Bauxite Aluminum Oxide
Iron Haematite Iron (III) Oxide
Zinc Zinc Blende Zinc Sulphide
Very reactive metals form very stable compounds, hence they can only be extracted by electrolysis.
o All metals above carbon on the reactivity series can only be extracted by electrolysis.
Less reactive metals can be extracted through reduction by carbon, hydrogen or more reactive metals
o All metals below carbon on the reactivity series can only be extracted through reduction
Metals with low reactivity can be found usually in the free state, or can be extracted through heating.
o This refers to metals like mercury, silver and gold.
8.7 Extraction of Iron
Iron is extracted from haematite (Fe2O3) through reduction in a blast furnace.
1. Haematite (Iron (III) Oxide), Limestone (Calcium Carbonate) and Coke (Carbon) are fed into the
blast furnace
2. Hot air is fed into the bottom of the furnace
3. The Coke burns in the hot air to form carbon dioxide.
C (S) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
4. The carbon dioxide is further reduced to carbon monoxide
CO2 (g) + C (S) → 2CO (g)
5. The carbon monoxide reduces the haematite to iron
CO (g) + Fe2O3 (s) → 2Fe (s) + CO2 (g)
6. The molten iron form is filled with sand particles, which can be removed using the limestone
7. The Limestone is decomposed by heat to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3 (g) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
8. The calcium oxide reacts with the sand to form slag (calcium silicate)
CaO (g) + SiO2 (s) → CaSiO3 (s)
9. The slag is less dense than iron. Hence it floats on the molten iron & is removed from the top tap
10. The molten iron is removed from the bottom tap
8.8 Recycling of metals
Metal ores resources are finite and limited. Hence it is important to recycle metals
Some advantages of recycling include
o Recycling saves energy required to extract metals from ores
o Recycling reduce emission of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, produced in the extraction of
metals like iron from ores
o Recycling preserves scarce non-renewable raw materials
o Recycling reduces environmental air pollution and water pollution.
o Recycling reduced the amount of land required for the disposal of metals through landfills
o It is cheaper to recycle some metals like aluminum, than to extract them from the earth's crust
Some disadvantages of recycling include
o Recycling is a time consuming process
o Recycling takes up a high amount of effort and human resources.
8.9 Rusting of Iron

In the presence of water and oxygen, Iron rusts
Some methods of preventing rust include:
o Coating the iron with a substance to prevent air and water from coming into contact with the metal
surface. These substances include
Paint
Oil or grease
Electroplating the iron with a less reactive metal like tin or copper
o Sacrificial protection.
Chapter 9
The Environment
9.1 Air
Air comprises of
o ≈ 78% Nitrogen Gas (N2)
o ≈ 21% Oxygen Gas (O2)
o ≈ 1% Argon Gas (Ar)
o Very small amounts of Carbon Dioxide and other rare gases.
9.2 Carbon Cycle & the Greenhouse Effect

The carbon cycle shows how carbon is circulated around the world
o All living creatures, plants, animals and humans, release carbon dioxide as part of respiration
o All living creatures, plants, animals and humans, also release carbon dioxide through decay and
decomposition
o Plants consume carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
o Animals and Humans consume carbon in the form of food (be it in the form of both plants or other
animals)
o Animals and Humans release carbon in the form of methane
These two gases, Carbon Dioxide and Methane, are major contributors to the green house effect.
Greenhouse gases, such as methane and carbon dioxide, are responsible for the green house effect,
which traps heat in our earth's atmosphere.
The green house effect is essential to sustaining life as the earth would otherwise be too cold to
survive.
However, too much greenhouse gas leads to global warming, which results in
o Melting of polar caps
o Rising sea levels causing floods in low lying land
o Changing weather patterns such as increase in rainfall in some areas, and possibly causing
floods
o Changing weather patterns such as decrease in rainfall in some areas, resulting in an increase in
number of deserts, as well as possible famine due to crop distruptions.
Some causes of the increase of Greenhouse gases are

o Increase in use of fossil fuel
o Deforestation
o Decay of vegetation due to deforestation
o increased farming of rice fields
9.3 Carbon Monoxide

Besides carbon dioxide, the burning of fossil fuels also produces Carbon Monoxide, especially when
there is insufficient oxygen.
o The major source of carbon monoxide is from the burning of petrol in vehicles
Carbon Monoxide is harmful as it is a poisonous gas
o It binds with the haemoglobin in our blood and prevents it from carrying the oxygen that the body
needs.
The release of Carbon Monoxide can be reduced by the use of catalytic converters in vehicles.
o The catalytic converter converts the carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.
9.4 ChloroFluoroCarbons (CFCs)

The earth is protected by a layer of ozone which absorbs dangerous Ultra-Violet rays from the sun.
o The UV rays would otherwise cause severe damage to vegetations, as well as higher risk of skin
cancer.
The ozone layer is constantly being destroyed by CFCs used in aerosols, refrigerators and cleaning
solvents
As a result of this depletion, use of CFCs is banned in many countries
9.5 Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphuric Acid
Sulphur Dioxide is a strong Reducing Agent
o It is a good bleaching agent (The reducing properties reduces the coloured dyes)
o It is a good disinfectant (The reducing property effectively kill bacteria)
o It is a good food preservative (The reducing property effectively kill bacteria)
o It is used to manufacture Sulphuric Acid
Sulphuric Acid is a strong mineral acid

o It is used to make fertilizers
o It is used to make detergents
o It is used to make dyes
o It is used as en electrolyte in car batteries
Although Sulphur Dioxide has many uses, it is also a serious pollutant when released to the
environment
o As it is water soluble, it can dissolve to form acid rain
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(aq)
o Acid rain is harmful to the environment as it

Corrodes metal structures like bridges and vehicles
Corrodes limestone buildings
Endangers marine life as many aquatic life cannot survive in acidic waters
Reduces the pH of soil, which causes plant life to easily die
o Sulphur Dioxide also irritates the eyes and cause breathing difficulties
The main source of Sulphur Dioxide is from the combustion of fossil fuels
o Factories burning fossil fuels containing sulphur impurities
o Petrol and diesel engines burning fossil fuels containing sulphur impurities
Volcanos are also another secondary source of Sulphur Dioxide
We can cut down the emission of Sulphur Dioxide by

o Not using fossil fuels containing sulphur impurities
o Spray factory exhaust chimneys with CaO or Ca(OH) 2 to absorb the Sulphur Dioxide
CaO(s) + SO2 (g) → CaSO3 (s)

Ca(OH)2 (s) + SO2 (g) → CaSO3 (s) + H2O(g)
o Solid calcium hydroxide or calcium oxides can be added to water bodies and soil to counter the
effects of acid rain
9.6 Nitrogen Oxide and Nitrogen Dioxide

At high temperatures, the nitrogen and oxygen in the air combine to form nitrogen oxide and/or
nitrogen dioxide.
o These high temperatures can be due to lightning, forest fires, or at industrial factories and cars.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO(g)
2NO(g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
These oxides are air pollutants as they can

o Damage lungs
o React with other air pollutants to form ozone, which irritates eyes and damage vegetation
o Dissolve in water to form acid rain
9.7 Summary of Air Pollutants
Pollutant Source Hazard Preventive measures
CO - Cars internal It is a poisonous gas that - Install catalytic converters in cars
combustion engine combines with haemoglobin, - Reduce number of cars on road
Carbon - Forest fires reducing the efficiency to - Create efficient engines to ensure
Monoxide transport oxygen, leading to complete combustion
cell death.
SO2 - Combustion of - Lung irritant - Prevent using fuels containing

fossil fuels - Eye irritant sulphur impurities, e.g. coal
Sulphur Dioxide containing sulphur - Acid rain - Use hydrated CaO/ Hydrated
impurities Ca(OH)2 to absorb SO2 before it’s
- Volcanic eruptions released into the atmosphere
- Add CaO to soil and water bodies
to neutralize acid rain
NO & NO2 - Lightning activity - Eutrophication - Install catalytic converters in cars

- Forest fires - Lung damage - Design car engines which run at
Oxides of - Internal - Acid rain lower temperatures
Nitrogen combustion engines - Add CaO to soil and water bodies
- Power stations to neutralize acid rain
Methane - Decomposition of - Highly Flammable - Cattle and other ruminant animals

vegetable matter - greenhouse gas should be given improved diet
- Rice field - Animal manure and rotting
- Cattle ranching vegetation can be used as biomass
- Natural gas fuel
- Mines
Unburnt - Internal - Carcinogenic - Install catalytic converters in cars

hydrocarbons combustion engines - Forms photochemical smog - Reduce number of cars on road
- Greenhouse Gases - Create efficient engines in cars to
contributing to global warming. ensure complete hydrocarbon
combustion
Ozone - It is formed when - It reacts with unburnt

an electrical spark hydrocarbons to form
passes through air. photochemical smog that
causes headache, eye, nose
and throat irritation.
- It corrodes and kills plants
and trees
CFCs - CFC based - Destroys the Ozone layer - Use CFC-free products
aerosol products
Dust and - Building work - Irritate lungs, causing

Smoke - Mining activities bronchitis and other lung-
- Forest fires related diseases.
- Incomplete
combustion of fuels.
Lead - Combustion of - when breathed in can build

compounds leaded petrol in car up inside the body and are
engines toxic and poisonous
- lead compounds - Causes lead poisoning which
are added to petrol leads to brain damage
to make it heavier
so that it does not
ignite too soon.
9.8 Treatment of Water
The main steps in the treatment of raw water are:
o The water is first screened to remove large solids impurities
Alum is added to cause fine suspended particles to clump together and settle in the
sedimentation tank
Lime is added to reduce acidity
o Addition of activated carbon to remove foul smells and taste
Filtration removes any remaining solid particles
o Chlorination is carried out to disinfect the water by killing the harmful bacteria
Fluoride is sometime added to prevent tooth decay
Sand and
Raw water is Mixing Sedimentation Clear water
Gravel filter
screened Chamber Tank tanks
beds
• Lime and Alum is • Activated Carbon is • Chlorine and

added added fluoride is added
Clean water can also be prepared through desalination

o Desalination is the process of removing dissolved salts from seawater
Two methods of desalination commonly used:

o Distillation: Seawater is evaporated and the pure water vapour formed is condensed
o Reverse Osmosis: Pure water is extracted from seawater using a semi-permeable membrane
under high pressure
9.9 Control of pH in agriculture

Most plants need a soil pH of 6.5 to 7.5 to grow well
If the ground is too acidic, slaked lime - Ca(OH)2 can be added to neutralise the acid.
o This process is called liming the soil
o Slaked lime is used as it is cheap and easily available
o Slaked lime is sparingly soluble. Once the acid is neutralized, the excess base will remain as a
solid in the soil and not dissolve to make the soil too alkaline.
Chapter 10
Organic Chemistry
10.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry is the study of Carbon based compounds
o Except for Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide and metal Carbonates
Most organic compounds also have hydrogen, and some also have oxygen.
o Organic compounds with carbon and hydrogen atoms are called hydrocarbons
Important reminder: Carbon Atoms only can form 4 bonds around each one
In organic chemistry, there are many compounds with similar chemical properties, and have a general
formula
o This family of compounds is known as a homologeous series
o All compounds in a homologus series typically have a common functional group, and differ by a -
CH2 unit.
o Compounds in a homologeous series have similar chemical properties but different physical
properties like boiling and melting points
24 Main homologeous series to be taught include

o Alkanes
Has no functional group
Has the suffix -ane
Has the general formula of CnH2n + 2
o Alkenes
has a double bond between 2 carbon atoms
Has the C=C functional group
Has the suffix -ene
Has the general formula of CnH2n
No. Of Carbons
1 2 3 4
Meth- Eth- Prop- But-
Methane Ethane Propane Butane
Alkanes -ane
CnH2n + 2
CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10
Functional
Groups
Ethene Propene Butene
Alkenes -ene
CnH2n
C2H4 C3H6 C4H8
10.2 Petroleum and Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of many thousands of different hydrocarbons with different properties.
o To make crude oil useful, batches of similar compounds with similar properties need to be sorted
and separated by fractional distillation.
o In fractional distillation, the crude oil is heated to make it vaporise. The vapour is then cooled.
o Different fractions of the oil are collected at different temperatures.
The larger hydrocarbons are not as useful as the smaller hydrocarbon

o Cracking is a process that can be used to break larger hydrocarbons into smaller ones
o Cracking is done by passing the vaporised hydrocarbon over a solid catalyst
10.3 Isomerism
Organic compounds with same chemical formula but different structural formula are known as
isomers
Example 1: Isomers of Butane Chemical Formula: C4H10
Example 2: Isomers of Butanol Chemical Formula: C4H9OH
Example 3: Propane Chemical Formula: C3H8
(EXAMPLE OF WHAT'S NOT A SET OF ISOMERS)

ALL 3 are the same structure
10.4 Alkanes
Alkanes are organic compounds with only Carbon and Hydrogen atoms with NO Functional groups
Alkanes have the general formula of CnH2n + 2
Alkanes are generally unreactive.
Methane Ethane Propane Butane
CH3CH2CH2CH3
Or
HCH3 CH3CH3 CH3CH2CH3
CH3CHCH3
CH3
10.4a Combustion
Alkanes undergo Combustion
o Alkanes burn in Oxygen to form Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapour
Example 1: Combustion of Methane, CH4
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Example 2: Combustion of Butane, C4H10
2C4H10 + 13O2 → 8CO2 + 10H2O
10.4b Substitution Reaction

In the presence of light, Alkanes undergo Substitution reaction with halogens
o Observation: The coloured halogens will decolourise
Example 1: Substitution Reaction of Methane, CH4 with chlorine gas, Cl2
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl

Example 2: Substitution Reaction of Butane, C4H10 with bromine, Br2
C4H10 + Br2 → C4H9Br + HBr
Note: The substitution reaction could proceed further
C4H10 + Br2 → C4H9Br + HBr

C4H9Br + Br2 → C4H8Br2 + HBr
C4H8Br2 + Br2 → C4H7Br3 + HBr
10.5 Alkenes
Alkenes are organic compounds with a double bond between 2 carbon atoms
Alkanes have the general formula of CnH2n
Alkenes are unsaturated organic compounds (Has 1 or more double bonds)
o Alkanes are saturated organic compounds (Has no double bonds)
Ethene Propene Butene
H2C=CHCH2CH3 Or
Or CH3CH=CHCH3
H2C=CH2 H2C=CHCH3
H2C=CCH3
CH3
10.5a Combustion
Alkenes undergo Combustion
o Alkenes burn in Oxygen to form Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapour
Example 1: Combustion of Butene, C4H8
C4H8 + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 4H2O
10.5b Substitution Reaction

In the presence of light, Alkenes can undergo Substitution reaction with halogens
10.5c Addition Reaction with Halogens

Alkenes can undergo addition reactions with halogens in the absence of light
Example 1: Addition of aqueous bromine, Br2 to Ethene, C2H4
C2H4 + Br2 → C2H4Br2
Note: This can be used as a test to differentiate Alkanes from Alkenes. Alkenes can decolourise bromine
in the absence of light, while Alkanes cannot decolourise bromine in the absence of light
Example 2: Addition of aqueous bromine, Br2 to Butene, C4H8
C4H8 + Br2 → C4H8Br2

Example 3: Addition of chlorine gas, Cl2 to Butene, C4H8
C4H8 + Cl2 → C4H8Cl2
10.5d Addition Reaction with Hydrogen Gas
Alkenes can undergo addition reactions with Hydrogen Gas
o This process is known as hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is used to change vegetable oil into margarine
Hydrogenation is used to change Alkenes to Alkanes
o
Reaction Conditions: 200 C with Nickel Catalyst
Example 1: Addition of Hydrogen Gas, H2 to Ethene, C2H4

o
Temperature: 200 C
Catalyst Used: Nickel Catalyst
C2H4 + H2 → C2H6

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5. When measuring Temperature: Maximum upper limit for Alcohol Thermometer is

Filtration Used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid

Crystallization Used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid

Distillation Used to separate a liquid from a soluble solid

Fractional Distillation Used to separate a liquid from a mixture of Miscible Liquids*

Sublimation Used to separate a sublimable solid from a mixture of solids

Gas Solubility Density

Important Points/Concepts to remember:

1. A Pure Substance melts and boils at a fixed and constant temperature

2. Impurities decreases the melting point of a substance

3. Impurities increases the boiling point of a substance

Methods to check the purity of a substance

1. Melting Point Determination

2. Boiling Point Determination

1. Chromatography can be used to determine the purity of a substance

a. Only one spot is seen - A Pure Substance (one solute in sample)

1.5 Tests for Gases

Gas Symbol Properties Litmus Test Splint Test Limewater test

Colourless & Relights a

Carbon Colourless & Turns moist Blue Forms a White

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Volume Fixed Volume Fixed Volume No Fixed Volume

Shape Fixed Shape No Fixed Shape No Fixed Shape

Compressibility Incompressible Negligibly compressible Very compressible

Particles are very Particles are closely Particles are very

Very strong forces Strong forces of Very weak forces

Important Explanation: Melting

Important points to include:

1. Between points a and b, the substance is in the Solid state

Difference between Boiling & Evaporation

Particle Relative Charge Relative Mass Location

1. Atomic Number (or Proton Number) → The number of Protons in an atom

Proton Number of Nucleon Number of

1. Electrons in an atom are arranged in energy shells

Electronic Configuration & Dot-and-cross Diagram Examples

Element Electronic Configuration Dot-and-cross Diagram

3.3 Formation of Ions

3.6 Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

Physical Properties of Ionic Explanation in terms of their structure and

Physical Properties of Simple Explanation in terms of their structure and

Simple Covalent Compounds The inter-molecular forces of attraction are very

Simple Covalent Compounds There are no mobile ions or electrons in simple

4.2 Balancing Equations (With state symbols)

4.4 Mole Concept

Example 1: Calculate the number of moles in a 142.0g sample of Chlorine gas.

Molar Mass of Chlorine gas (Cl2) = 2 x 35.5g

Number of moles of Cl2 present =

Molar Mass of NaCl = 23.0g + 35.5g

Number of moles of Cl2 present =

Screened Methyl Orange

Acids are substances that produces H+ ions in Water.

6.4 Reactions of Acids

Reaction of Acids with Bases

HX(aq) + ZOH(aq) → ZX(aq) + H2O(l)

Reaction of Acids with Metals

2 HX(aq) + 2 M(s) → 2 MX(aq) + H2(g)

Reaction of Acids with Carbonates

2 HX(aq) + ZCO3(aq) → ZX2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Acids Formulae Cation Anion

6.5 Bases and Alkalis

6.6 Reactions of Bases