APNI KAKSHA 1

Importance of Chemistry?
Identifying the weather patterns, Fertilizers, Acids, Salts, dyes, Polymers, Soaps, Detergents,
Metals, Alloys, other chemicals organic and inorganic.
Chemistry
➢ It is the branch of science that deals with the study of composition, structure, properties and
changes that matter undergoes.
What is matter?
➢ Anything that has mass and occupies space is known as matter.

States of Arrangement Intermolecular Volume Shape

Matter forces

Solid Highest

Liquid Moderate

Gases Least

Molecules

 
solid liquid gas
cool cool

Composed of two or Matter Constituent particles with

more pure substances. same chemical nature

Mixtures Pure Substances

Homogenous Heterogenous Elements Compounds

Mixtures Mixtures
H, C, N Glucose C6H12O6
Completely mixed Not uniform Elements with fixed
(Uniformly distributed) through out ratio / composition
➢ Sugar solution is water ➢ Mixture of salt and sugar
➢ Air ➢ Grains and pulses.

APNI KAKSHA 2
 Molecule?
When two or more atoms of
atom
Molecule
different elements combine
together in a definite ratio

= H2

= O2

Water Carbondioxide
(H2O) (CO2)

Properties of matter and their measurements

Matter

Colour Physical Properties Chemical Properties Composition

Odour Combustibility

MP, BP Reactivity

❖ Measurements:
➢ International system of units (SI)
Le system International ‘d’ units (SI)
Base physical Quantity Symbol for quantity Name of SI unit Symbol for SI (unit)
Length l Metre M
Mass m Kilogram Kg
Time t Second S
Electric current I Ampere A
Thermo. Temperature T Kelvin K
Amount of substance n Mole mol
Luminous intensity I Candela cd

APNI KAKSHA 3
 ➢ Some important prefixes in SI system.

10–12 10–9 10–6 10–3 10–2 10–1 10 102 103 106

pico nano micro mili centi deci deca hecto kilo Mega

❖ Mass and weight:

➢ Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it.
➢ Weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
Unit = kg.

Analytical balance

Note
Volume: Amount of space occupied by a substance
1L = 1000 mL
3 3 3 3
Unit = (length) SI unit = m / cm / dm ⸪ 1 cm3 = 1 mL
⸫ 1L = 1000 mL
= 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3

1 cm

10 cm
= 1 dm
Some laboratory equipment used to calculate volume.

Burrete Pipette Measuring cylinder Volumetric flask.

APNI KAKSHA 4
Density: Mass per unit volume.

M Kg
ie. D = = or kg m–3 or g cm–3
V m3
Temperature: [°C (degree celsius), °F (degree Fahrenheit) & k (kelvin)]
Temperature in k = Temperature in °C + 273.15
Relation: °C & °F
5 9
ues °C = (°F – 32) or °F = (°C) + 32
9 5
Q. (1) Convert into °F
(a) 25°C at room temperature
9
Sol. °F = (°C) + 32
5
Q. (b) 37°C, human body temperature
9
Sol. Hint: °F = (°C) + 32
5
Q. (2) Suppose you are in India and you land in USA and temperature is 60°F. Is it cold or hot?
5
Sol. Hint: °C = (°F – 32)
9
Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy: If the average value of different measurements is close to the correct value, it is
accurate. Individual number should not be close to each other.
Precision: If the value of different measurements is close to each other is close and also to their
average value, it is said to be precise.

Average

Correct
volume Average

Both accurate Poor Accurate Good Accurate Poor Accurate,

precise Good Precision Poor Precision Precision

Significant Figures
The total no. of digits in a number including the last digit whose value is uncertain is called the
number of significant figures.

Rules For Determining the No. of S.F.

Rule I: All non-zero digits as well as the zeros between the non-zero digits are significant.

APNI KAKSHA 5
 Ex. 576 → 3, 5004 → 4, 0.48 g → 2, 2.05 → 3
Rule II: ‘O’ to the left of first non-zero digit in a number are not significant.
Ex. 0.05 → 1, 0.0045 → 2
Rule III: A number ending with ‘O’ which are to the right side of the decimal point, then they are
significant.
Ex. 5.0 → 2, 2.500 → 4, 0.0200 → 3
Rule IV: If a number ends in zero’s but these zeros are not to the right of the decimal point, they
may and may not be significant.
10500 have 3, 4, 5
1.05 × 104 → 3, 1.050 × 104 → 4, 1.0500 × 104 → 5 (Practice Question in the End, Q.1)

Q. Find the significant figures?

(1) 6.005 → 4 (2) 6.022 × 1023 → 4
(3) 8000 → 4 (4) 0.0025 → 2
(5) π → infinite ie 22/7 = 3.142851…… (6) 18.5 + 0.4235 → 18.9 → 3
(7) 14 × 6.345 = 88.83 → 4

Scientific Notations

(1) If the decimal point is shifted to the right add that no of shifts equivalent to 10–1.
342.502 can be written as 3.42802 × 10–2.
Ex. 35.421 → 354.21 × 10–1 (10–1×1)
If the decimal point is shifted to the left add. That no. of shifts equivalent to (101).
Ex. 35421 → 3542.1 × 101 (101×1)
(2) Addition and Subtraction:
Power of 10 must be same
Ex: 3.421 × 104 + 3.425 × 103
(3) Multiplication Division

10x – 10y = 10x+y 10x  10y = 10x–y

3.21 × 10–5 × 3.21 × 102 = 10.31 × 107 3.21 × 105  3.21 × 102 = 1 × 103.

Rounding off:
(1) If the right most digit to be removed is σ > 5. The the preceding number is increased by 1.

APNI KAKSHA 6
 98.97 → (> 5)
⸫ 98.98
(2) If the right most digit to be removed is less than 5 the preceding no is not changed.
98.92 → (> 5)
⸫ 98.9
(3) If the right most digit to removed is 5. Then the preceding no is not changed, if its an even no.
Ex: 95.25 → 95.2
95.35 → 95.4
Dimensional analysis unit factor method:
Info asked = Info given × unit factor
Unit factor → 1 inch = 2.54 cm.

1in 2.54
=1 & =1
2.54 1
⸫ Numerator & Denominator denote equivalent quantities.

2.54
Ex: 4 inch to cm? 4 in × = 10.2 cm. NCERT
1
24 60 60
Ex: 1 day = 24 hr → ⸪ 1 hr = 60 min → and 1 min = 60 sec →
1 1 1
24 60 60
⸫ 3 days = 3    = 259200s.
1 1 1
Laws of chemical combination
(1) Law of conservation of mass: In all chemical and physical changes, the total mass of reactants
is equal to that of product.
Ex: When water undergo physical change.

Water ⎯→ ice.
Xg = Xg
Law of conservation of mass and energy.
A + B → C + energy
According to Einstein Uncle
E = Δmc2
ie mass is converted to energy.

APNI KAKSHA 7
(2) Law of constant composition or definite proportion.
A chemical compound is always found to be made up of the same elements combined together in
the same fixed proportion by mass.
Ex: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 ↑
C + O2 → CO2
Limitations: Law is not applicable if an element exists in different isotopes which may be
individual in the formation of compound.
If C – 12 C – 14.
Then C : O C:O
12 : 32 14 : 32
Q. 6.48 g of Pb combine directly with 1.002 g of oxygen to form PbO2. Also PbNO3 forms PbO2
and the % of oxygen present in PbO2 is 13.38 % show that it follow law of constant composition?
Case I Case II
Pb + O2 → PbO2 ⸫ O2 is 13.38%
6.4 + 1.002 → 7.49 ⸫ Law

1.002
⸫ 100 = 13.38%
7.49
(3) Law of multiple proportion
When two elements combine to form two or more chemical compounds, the masses of one element
which combine with a fixed mass of other, bear a sample ratio to one another.
Ex: CO : C O
Parts: 12 16
CO2 : C O2
Parts: 12 32
Example: Carbon is found to form two oxides with 42.9% and 27.3% of C respectively:
Show that they obey law of equivalent proportion.
1st oxide 2nd oxide
Carbon 42.9% 27.3% Similarly, in 2nd oxide
Oxygen 57.1% 72.7% 1 part of oxygen will combine with
27.3
57.1 parts of oxygen combine with 42.9 parts of C = 0.37
72.7

APNI KAKSHA 8
 42.9
⸫ 1 part of oxygen will combine with = 0.75 ⸫ the ratio of masses of C and O is 0.75 : 0.37
57.1
⸫ whole no ratio
⸫ Law obeyed
Example: Two oxides of metal contains 27.6% and 80% of oxygen respectively of formula for the
first oxide is M3O4, find the second.
Oxide 1 Oxide 2
M3O4 MxOy
Oxygen: - 27.6% Oxygen: - 30 %
Metal: - 72.4% Metal: - 70 %
↓ ↓
3M ?x

3  70 4
⸫x= = 2.9 atoms of M. ⸫  30 = 4.35
72.4 27.6
Similarly, ⸫ 2.9 : 4.35
27.6 parts of O → 4 ‘O’ 1 : 1.5 ie 2 : 3 ⸫ M2O3
30 parts of O → ?
(4) Gay-Lussac’s law of Gaseous Volumes.
When gases react together, they always do so in a simple ratio to one another and to the volume of
product (if gas) at similar temperature and pressure.
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl (g).
1 1 2 → Vol
(5) Avogadro’s Law:
Equal volumes of all gases. Under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal
no.of moles.
Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrochloric acid
1V 1V → 2V
ie. 1 mole 1 mole 2 mole.

Daltons atomic theory

(1) Matter is made up of extremely small particles called atoms.
(2) Atoms of given element are identical is all respect.
(3) Atoms of different element are different in all respect.

APNI KAKSHA 9
 (4) Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Atomic mass: The average relative mass of atoms of an element as compared with an atom of
carbon –12 taken as 12.
1 amu. = 1.660506 × 10–24 g

Mass of an atom of the element

Relative atom mass =
1
 Mass of an atom of carbon (C − 12)
12
Now amu has been replaced by µ known as unified mass.
i =n


% abundance of atomic mass of 1st isotope
Average atomic mass =
i =1
100

Atomic mass of isotope  % abundance + Atomic mass of isotope  % abundance

=
100
Gram atomic mass
Atomic mass of a substance expressed in grams.
Molecule mass:
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic mases of the elements present in a molecule.
Formula mass:
In case of ionic compound, formula of the compound does not represent the ratio of different ions
in the compounds. This is called a formula unit.
Formula mass of a compound is obtained by adding atomic mass of all the atoms in a formula
unit of a compound.
Ex: Formula mass of NaCl.
= 23µ + 35µ = 58.5 µ
Q. Calculate the molecular mass of glucose (C6H12O6) molecule.
Sol. Molecular mass of glucose (C6H12O6)
= 6(12.011 u) + 12(1.008 u) + 6(16.00 u)
= (72.066 u) + (12.096 u) + (96.00 u) = 180.162 u

Mole concept and molar masses

One mole is defined as that amount of a substance that contains as many particles or entities as
there are atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C isotope.
Ex: A mole of oxygen molecule =
6.022 × 1023 molecule of oxygen or 2 × 6.022 × 1023 atoms of oxygen.

APNI KAKSHA 10
Concept of atomic and molecular mass
1
Atomic mass: It is the no that indicates how heavy an atom of an element is with respect to th
12
mass of an atom of 12C.

Mass of an atom of an element

⸫ Atomic mass =
1
th of mass of 12C atom.
12
We know, 1 mole of an element is the atomic mass of that element.
⸫ 12g of 12C is 1 mole of 12C
⸫ 6.023 × 1023 atoms of 12C weighs 12g
⸫ 1 atom of 12C weighs?
12
ie grams
6.023 1023

1
⸫ th of 1 atom of 12C weighs?
12

1 1  12  1
ie × [Wt of 1 atom] =  23 
= = 1.66 10−24 grams = 1 amu.
12 12  6.023 10  6.023 10 23

Example:
Atomic number
11
Na
23 Atomic
mass (amu.)
GAM?
⸫ 1 atom of Na weighs 23 amu.
Gram Atomic Mass:
⸫ 1 atom of Na weighs 23 × 1.66 × 10–24
It is given in terms of grams
Now,
and is also total mass of 1
23
6.023 × 10 atom of Na weighs? mole of element.
ie (6.023 × 1023) × 1.66 × 10–24 × 23

(
ie 6.023 1023  ) 1
 23
( 6.023 10 )
23

These 23 grams of Na is called as GAM.

Mole Concept
What is a mole?
Mole is just a unit for counting entities ex. atoms, molecules, electrons, ions etc.
APNI KAKSHA 11
 Definition:
The amount of substance that contains as many particles or entities as there are atoms in exactly
12 g of C-12 isotope.
Basic fundamentals of mole:
➢ Mole of any substance contain 6.023 × 1023 particles of that substance.
➢ It is the SI unit for the amount of substance.

Brahamastra
1 Mole = molar mass = Avogadro’s number = 6.023 × 1023 = 22.7 L (STP) = 22.4 L (NTP)

Note:
Mass of a substance (g)
Number of moles (n) =
Molar mass of substance

Q. If we have 2.5 moles of NH3 in a container, how many molecules of NH3 we have?
Sol. We know,
1 mole of NH3 = 6.023 × 1023 molecules
⸫ 2.5 mole of NH3 → ?

2.5  6.023 1023

⸫ = 1.5 × 1024 molecules
1
(2) 2 mole of H2SO4 have how many molecules
1 mole H2SO4 → 6.023 × 1023 molecules
2 mole H2SO4 → ?
⸫ 6.023 × 1023 × 2 = 12 × 1023 molecules
Q. Calculate mass of 1 atm. of oxygen is gram?
Sol. 1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 atm. = 16 grams = GAM. of oxygen
⸫ 1 atom of oxygen = ?
GAM 16
⸫ = = 2.65 × 10–23 g
NA 6.022 10 23

Q. Calculate mass of one molecule of NH3.

Sol. 1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 molecules = Molar mass
⸫ 6.022 × 1023 molecules = 17 g

APNI KAKSHA 12
 ⸫ 1 molecule → ?
17
⸫ = 2.82 × 10–23 g.
6.022 1023

Q. Calculate the actual mass of water molecule in grams?

Sol. 6.023 × 1023 molecules = 18g.
18
⸫ 1 molecule = = 2.99 × 10–23 g.
6.023 10 23

Percentage composition
Percentage composition of the compound is the relative mass of each of the constituent element in
100 parts of it.
Mass of that element in one mole of that compound
Mass % of Element =
Molar mass of compound
Ex: H2O
Molar mass = 18g

2 100 16
Mass % of ‘H’ = = 11.1% ; Mass % of O = 100 = 88.9%
18 18
Q. Calculate % of sulphur in H2SO4. (98µ)
Mass of 'S'
Sol. % of sulphur = 100.
MM of H 2SO4

32
= 100 = 32.1%
98
Q. Calculate % of carbon in ethanol? (46µ) ethanol: C2H5OH

Mass of 'C '

Sol. % of carbon = 100.
MM of ethanol

2 12
= = 0.52 100 = 52% (Practice Question in the End, Q.4, 5)
46
Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula
An empirical formula of a compound may be defined as the formula which gives the simplest
whole number ratio of atoms of the various elements present in the molecule of the compound.
The molecular formula of a compound may be defined as the formula which gives the actual
number of atoms of various elements present in the molecule of the compound.
For example, the molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6 and empirical formula is CH2O (which
shows that C, H and O are present in the simplest ratio of 1 : 2 : 1. Relation between the two
formulae:

APNI KAKSHA 13
Molecular formula = Empirical formula × n

Molecular formula mass

Where, n = 1, 2, 3 ….. n =
Empirical formula mass

Steps for writing Empirical and Molecular formula

A compound contains 4.07% hydrogen, 24.27% carbon and 71.65% chlorine. Its molar mass is
98.96 g. What are its empirical and molecular formulas? NCERT

Step 1. Conversion of mass percent to grams.

Since we are having mass percent. It is convenient to use 100 g of the compound as the starting
material. Thus, in the 100 g sample of the above compound, 4.07 g hydrogen is present, 24.27 g
carbon is present and 71.65 g chlorine is present.
Step 2. Convert into number moles of each element
Divide the masses obtained above by respective atomic masses of various elements.

4.07 g
Moles of hydrogen = = 4.04
1.008g

24.27 g
Moles of carbon = = 2.021
12.01g

71.65g
Moles of chlorine = = 2.021
35.453g

Step 3. Divide the mole value obtained above by the smallest number
Since, 2.021 is smallest value, division by it gives a ratio of 2 : 1 : 1 for H : C : Cl.
In case the ratio are not whole numbers, then they may be converted into whole number by
multiplying with a suitable coefficient.
Step 4. Write empirical formula by mentioning the number after writing the symbols of
respective elements.
CH2Cl is, thus, the empirical formula of the above compound.
Step 5. Writing molecular formula
(a) Determine empirical formula mass.
Add the atomic masses of various atoms present in the empirical formula.
For CH2Cl, empirical formula mass is
12.01 + 2 × 1.008 + 35.453 = 49.48 g
(b) Divide molar mass by empirical formula mass.

APNI KAKSHA 14
 Molar mass 98.96g
= = 2 = (n)
Empirical formula mass 49.48g

(c) Multiply empirical formula by n obtained above to get the molecular formula.
Empirical formula = CH2Cl, n = 2.
Hence, molecular formula is C2H4Cl2.
Q. What is the simplest formula of the compound which has the following percentage composition-
Carbon 80%, Hydrogen 20%, if the molecular mass is 30, calculate its molecular formula?
Sol. Calculation of empirical formula

Element % age Atomic Constant No. of moles Sample Simplest

mass in sample ratio whole no.
ratio
C 80 12 80 g 80 6.66 1
= 6.66 =1
12 6.66
H 20 1 20 g 20 20 3
= 20 =3
1 6.66
⸫ Empirical formula is CH3
Calculation of molecular formula Empirical formula mass = 12 × 1 + 1 × 3 = 15
Molecular mass 30
n= = =2
Empirical formula mass 15

Molecular formula = Empirical formula × 2 = CH3 × 2 = C2H6

Q. A compound on analysis gave the following results C = 54.54%, H = 9.0% and vapour density
of the compound = 88. Determine the molecular formula of the compound.
Sol. Percentage of Oxygen
100 – (54.54 + 9.09) = 36.37%

Element Percentage Atomic Weight Relative no. of atoms Ratio

C 54.54 12 54.54/12 = 4.53 4.53
=2
2.27
H 20 1 9.09/1 = 9.09 9.09
=4
2.27
O 36.37 16 36.37/16 = 2.27 2.27
=1
2.27
⸫ Empirical formula is C2H4O
Empirical formula weight = 44
176
Molecular weight = 2 × 88 = 176, n = =4
44
So, molecular formula = 4 × E.F. = 4(C2H4O) = C8H16O4

APNI KAKSHA 15
 Stoichiometry of chemical reactions
In a balanced chemical equation, quantitative relationship between various reactants and
products in terms of moles, masses, molecules and volume. It is termed as stoichiometry or
stoichiometry coefficients.

Ex: CaCO3 + 2HCl ⎯⎯

→ CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 ↑

1 mole 2 mole 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole

= 100 g = 73 g = 111 g = 18 g = 44 g

1 mole of   2 mole  1 mole of  1 mole of  1 mole of 

ie   reacts with of HCl  to give CaCl  H O  CO 
CaCO3     2   2   2 

100g of  73g of  111g of  18g of   44g of 

CaCO  reacts with  HCl  to give CaCl  H O  CO 
 3     2   2   2 

Note: Actual yield of the product in any reaction is usually less than the theoretical yield
value of certain side reactions

Actual yield
⸫ % yield = 100
practical yield

How to solve the stoichiometry questions?

(1) Write down the balanced chemical equation.
(2) Write the respective no of moles of reactants and products.
(3) In case of gases, write 22.4 L at STP in place of 1 mole.
(4) Apply unitary method and get your answer.
The problems involving these calculations are of three types
(1) Mass – Mass relationship
(2) Mass – Volume relationship
(3) Volume – Volume relationship
Type 1
Q. Calculate the amount of water produced by the combination of 16 g of methane?

Sol. CH4 + 2O2 ⎯⎯

→ CO2 + 2H2O

1 mole (CH4) ⎯⎯
→ 2 mole (H2O)

ie 16g 36 g
(2) How many moles of methane are required to produce 22g of CO2 after combustion?
APNI KAKSHA 16
 CH4 + 2O2 ⎯⎯
→ CO2 + H2 O

1 mole 1 mole
= 16 g = 44 g

⸫ 44 g produced by ⎯⎯
→ 1 mole of

CO2 CH4

1
⸫ 22 g produced by ⎯⎯
→ ?  22 = 0.5mole
44
Type 2
Q. What volume of CO2 measured at 27°C and 746-7 mm pressure obtained by treating 10.0 g pure
marble with dilute HCl.
Sol. CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
100 g 22.4 L = 22400 ml
10 g ?
2240 0
⸫ 10 g of molecule will be produced: 10 = 2240 ml at STP.
10 0
Type 3
Question: What volume of oxygen is required to affect complete combustion of 200 cm3 of
acetylene and volume of CO2 formed?

2C2H2 + 5O2 ⎯⎯
→ 4 CO2 + 2H2O

2 Vol 5 Vol 4 Vol

200 cm3?
5
⸫  200 = 500 cm3
2
Now,

2 Vol ⎯⎯
→ 4 Vol

C2H2 CO2

4
200 cm3 ⎯⎯
→ ? CO2 =  200 = 400 cm3
2
(Practice Question in the End, Q.2, 9 and 10)

APNI KAKSHA 17
 Limiting Reagent
In a chemical reaction, one of the reactant is present in larger amount than the other as required
the amount of the product thus formed depends on the reactant which has reacted completely.
This reactant which reacts completely in the reaction is the limiting reagent, while the
remaining reactant is the excess reagent.

Q. 1N2 + 3H2 ⎯⎯
→ 2NH3
Sol. 2 moles of N2 & ½ moles H2 are taken in the vessel, how many grams of NH3 are formed?

1 mole N2 ⎯⎯
→ 3 mole H2 (Practice Question in the End, Q.2 and 10)

2 mole N2 ⎯⎯
→ ?

3 × 2 = 6 mole H2
⸫ 6 moles are not available ⸫ H2 is the limiting reagent.
⸫ Comparing with limiting reagent ie H2

3 mole H2 ⎯⎯
→ 2 mole NH3

1 2
2 1 1
Mole H2 ⎯⎯
→ ? = moles = 17 = 5.6g
3 3 3
Percentage
W
(1) Percentage by mass: % or mass fraction ie. the mass of solute in grams present in 100 g
W
of solution.

W
ie. 10% aq. NaOH = 10g of solute in 100 g of solution
W

⸫ WH 2O = W – w = 90 g

Note: The quantity is independent of Temperature.

W
Q. We have 23% aq. urea. How many grams of urea is required to prepare 5 kg of aq. urea
W
W
Sol. 23% aq. urea.
W

= 23 g of urea ⎯⎯
→ 100 g

? ⎯
⎯ 5000 g

APNI KAKSHA 18
 500 0  23
= 1150 g
10 0
Also, solvent = solution – solute = 5000 – 1150 = 3850 g
Concentration terms
(1) Molarity
It is defined as the no. of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre of solution.

No. of moles of solute mole

Molarity (M) = =
Volume of solution (L) L

⸫ Unit = moles/L or mol L–1

W V(ml)
⸫n= and V(L) =
m 1000
Substituting in (1)

W/m W 1000
Molarity = = (Practice Question in the End, Q.3 and 8)
V(ml) /100 M  V(ml)

Q. Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its 4 g in enough water to
form 250 ml of the solution.
Sol. Since molarity (M)
No. of moles of solute
=
Volume of solution in litres

Mass of NaOH / Molar mass of NaOH 4g / 40g 0.1mol

= = = = 0.4 mol–1 = 0.4 M
0.250 L 0.250 L 0.250 L

Note that molarity of a solution depends upon temperature because volume of a solution is
temperature dependent.
(2) Mole fraction:
Ratio of no. of moles of a particular component.
Let A and B are two substances with no. of moles nA and nB

no of moles of A nA
⸫ mole fraction of A = xA = =
No. of moles of solution n A + n B

no of moles of B nB
⸫ mole fraction of B = xB = = .
No. of moles of solution n A + n B

Note: XA + XB = 1 ⎯⎯
→ Always

APNI KAKSHA 19
 Sum of mole fraction will always be equal to 1. Also it is independent of temperature as these is
no volume terms.
Q. A solution is prepared by adding 360 g of glucose to 864 g of water. Calculate X glucose.
Sol. (M. M of glucose) = 180 g.

360 864
No. of moles of glucose = =2 No. of moles of water = = 48 .
180 18
G.M 9.8
No. of moles = = = 0.1mol
M.M 9.8
Moles of solute 0.1
⸫ Molarity = = = 0.1 M.
Volume of solution in (L) 1
(3) Molality:
It is defined as no. of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent

No of moles of solute mol

Molality (m) = =
mass of solvent in kg kg

Unit: mol/kg or mol kg–1.

Note: Molality of a solution does not change with temperature since mass remains unaffected with
change in temperature. Molarity of a solution depends on temperature as volume is temperature
dependent.
1000
Also, m =
mass solvent (g)
Q. The density of 3 M solution of NaCl is 1.25 g mL–1. Calculate the molality of the solution.
Sol. M = 3 mol L–1
Mass of NaCl in 1 L solution = 3 × 58.5 = 175.5 g
Mass of 1 L solution = 1000 × 1.25 = 1250 g (since density = 1.25 g mL–1)
Mass of water in solution = 1250 – 75.5 = 1074.5 g
No of moles of solute 3mol
Molality = = = 2.79 m
Mass of solvent in kg 1.0745 kg
Often in a chemistry laboratory, a solution of a desired concentration is prepared by diluting a
solution of known higher concentration. The solution of higher concentration is also known as
stock solution. Note that the molality of a solution does not change with temperature since mass
remains unaffected with temperature.
Notes End

APNI KAKSHA 20
 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. How many significant figures are present in the following? [NCERT Exercise]
(a) 0.0025 (b) 208
(c) 5005 (d) 126,000
(e) 500.0 (f) 2.0034
Sol: (a) 0.0025: 2 significant numbers.
(b) 208: 3 significant numbers.
(c) 5005: 4 significant numbers.
(d) 126,000:3 significant numbers.
(e) 500.0: 4 significant numbers.
(f) 2.0034: 5 significant numbers.
Q2. Calculate the amount of carbon dioxide that could be produced when
(i) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in air. [NCERT Exercise]
(ii) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in 16 g of dioxygen.
(iii) 2 moles of carbon are burnt in 16 of dioxygen.
Sol:
(i) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in air.
C + O2 → CO2
1 mole of carbon reacts with 1 mole of O2 to form one mole of CO2.
Amount of CO2 produced = 44 g
(ii) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in 16 g of O2.
1 mole of carbon burnt in 32 grams of O2 it forms 44 grams of CO2.
44 16
Therefore, 16 grams of O2 will form = 22 grams of CO2.
32
(iii) 2 moles of carbon are burnt in 16 g of O2.
Here again, dioxygen is the limiting reactant. 16 g of dioxygen can combine only with 0.5 mol
of carbon. CO2 produced again is equal to 22g.
Q3. What is the concentration of sugar (C12H22O11) in mol L–1 if its 20 g are dissolved in
enough water to make a final volume up to 2L? [NCERT Exercise]
Sol: Molarity (M) is as given by,

APNI KAKSHA 21
 Number of moles of solute
=
Volume of solution in Litres

Mass of sugar 20 g
Molar mass of sugar 342 g 0.0585 mol
= = = = 0.02925 mol L–1.
2L 2L 2L

Therefore, Molar concentration = 0.02925 mol L–1.

Q4. A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with chloroform,
CHCl3, supposed to be carcinogenic in nature. The level of contamination was 15 ppm
(by mass). [NCERT Exercise]
(i) Express this in percent by mass.
(ii) Determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
Sol: (i) 1 ppm = 1 part out of 1 million parts.
Mass percent of 15 ppm chloroform in H2O
15
= 100 =  1.5 × 10–3 %
106

15 /119.5
(ii) Molarity = −3
= 1.25 10−4
10 10
6

Q5. Calculate the mass per cent of different elements present in sodium sulphate (Na2SO4).
Sol: Now for Na2SO4. [NCERT Exercise]
Molar mass of Na2SO4 = [(2 × 23.0) + (32.066) + 4(16.00)]
= 142.066 g
Mass of that element in the compound
Formula to calculate mass percent of an element = 100
Molar mass of the compound

46.0g
Therefore, mass percent of the sodium element: = 100 = 32.379 = 32.4%
142.066g

32.066g
Mass percent of the sulphur element: = 100 = 22.57 = 22.6%
142.066g

64.0g
Mass percent of the oxygen element: = 100 = 45.049 = 45.05%
142.066g

Q6. Which one of the following will have the largest number of atoms?
(i) 1 g Au (s) [NCERT Exercise]

APNI KAKSHA 22
 (ii) 1 g Na (s)
(iii) 1 g Li (s)
(iv) 1 g of Cl2 (g)

1
Sol: (i) 1 g of Au (s) = mol of Au (s)
197

6.022 1023
= atoms of Au (s) = 3.06 × 1021 atoms of Au (s)
197
(ii) 1 g of Na (s)

1 6.022 1023
= mol of Na (s) = atoms of Na (s)
23 23
= 0.262 × 1023 atoms of Na (s)
= 26.2 × 1021 atoms of Na (s)

1
(iii) 1 g of Li (s) = mol of Li (s)
7

6.022 1023
= atoms of Li (s)
7
= 0.86 × 1023 atoms of Li (s)
= 86.0 × 1021 atoms of Li (s)

1
(iv) 1 g of Cl2 (g) = mol of Cl2 (g)
71
(Molar mass of Cl2 molecules = 35.5 × 2 = 71 g mol–1)

6.022 1023
= atoms of Cl2 (g)
71
= 0.0848 × 1023 atoms of Cl2 (g)
= 8.48 × 1021 atoms of Cl2 (g)
Therefore, 1 g of Li (s) will have the largest no. of atoms.
Q7. What will be the mass of one 12C atom in g? [NCERT Exercise]
Sol: 1 mole of carbon atoms
= 6.023 × 1023 atoms of carbon
= 12 g of carbon

APNI KAKSHA 23
 12 g
Therefore, mass of 1 atom of 12C = = 1.993 × 10–23 g
6.022 10 23

Q8. Calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous HCl to give CaCl2 and CO2 according to the
reaction, CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (I)
What mass of CaCO3 is required to react completely with 25 ml of 0.75 M HCl?
Sol: 0.75 M of HCl [NCERT Exercise]
≡ 0.75 mol of HCl are present in 1 L of water
≡ [(0.75 mol) × (36.5 g mol–1)] HCl is present in 1 L of water
≡ 27.375 g of HCl is present in 1 L of water
Thus, 1000 mL of solution contains 27.375 g of HCl
Therefore, amt of HCl present in 25 mL of solution

27.375g
=  25 mL = 0.6844 g
1000 mL

Given chemical reaction,

CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
2 mol of HCl (2 × 36.5 = 73 g) react with 1 mol of CaCO3 (100 g)
Therefore, amt of CaCO3 that will react with 0.6844 g

100
=  0.6844g = 0.9375 g
73
Q9. Chlorine is prepared in the laboratory by treating manganese dioxide (MnO2) with
aqueous hydrochloric acid according to the reaction:
4 HCl (aq) + MnO2(g) → 2H2O (l) + MnCl2 (aq) + Cl2 (g)
How many grams of HCl react with 5.0 g of manganese dioxide? [NCERT Exercise]
Sol: 1 mole of MnO2 = 55 + 2 × 16 = 87 g
4 mole of HCl = 4 × 36.5 = 146 g
1 mole of MnO2 reacts with 4 mol of HCl
Hence,
146 g
5 g of MnO2 will react with: × 5 g HCl = 8.4 g HCl
87 g

Therefore, 8.4 g of HCl will react with 5 g of MnO2.

APNI KAKSHA 24
Q10. Dinitrogen and dihydrogen react with each other to produce ammonia according to the
following chemical equation:
N2 (g) + H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g) [NCERT Exercise]
(i) Calculate the mass of NH3 produced if 2 × 103 g N2 reacts with 1 × 103 g of H2?
(ii) Will any of the two reactants remain unreacted?
(iii) If yes, which one and what would be its mass.
Sol: (i) 1 mol of N2 i.e., 28 g reacts with 3 moles of H2 i.e., 6 g of H2

6
⸫ 2000 g of N2 will react with H2 =  200g = 428.6 g
28
Thus, N2 is the limiting reagent while H2 is the excess reagent 2 mole of N2 i.e., 28 g of N2
produces NH3 = 2 mol = 34 g

34
Therefore, 2000 g will produces NH3 = × 2000 g = 2428.57 g
28
(ii) H2 will remain unreacted
(iii) Mass left unreacted = 1000 g – 428.6g = 571.4 g

Ab Phod DO!

APNI KAKSHA 25