UNIT I - Fundamental Concepts in Chemistry, Grade 11

Introduction
The applications of chemical knowledge in daily lives
 drugs to fight diseases
 pesticides to protect crops and our health
 fertilizers to grow abundant food
 fuel for transportation
 clothes to provide comfort
 building materials for housing
 plastics for diverse uses and much more
The scope of chemistry
Chemistry is
 a branch of natural science
deals with the study of matter and the changes it undergoes
 mainly concerned with the composition, structure and properties of
matter and changes that occur in matter
Two of the changes that occur in matter are:-
1) Physical changes:- the involved substances do not change their
identities (easily reversed).
Examples: Change of state, dissolving table salt in water, etc
2) Chemical changes:- one substance is transformed into another as a
result of combination or
dissociation of atoms (usually accompanied by heat change).
Examples: Oxidation of carbon, fermentation, souring of milk, etc
Physical properties can be divided into two broad categories:
Extensive physical properties:- Properties that depend on the amount
(quantity) of sample. They can
vary from one sample to another.
Examples: Length, diameter, mass, pressure, volume, electrical
resistance, etc
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 Intensive physical properties:- Properties that do not depend on the
amount (quantity) of the substance
present. They do not vary from sample to sample. They are useful in
distinguishing between different
substances.
Examples: Colour, density, hardness, melting point, etc
Major fields of chemistry
Inorganic chemistry
 the study of the elements and their compounds, except carbon and
its compounds
 the study of non - carbon containing compounds
 investigates the characteristics of substances such as non - living
matter and minerals found in the earth's crust
Organic chemistry
 the study of carbon compounds (hydrocarbons and their
derivatives), except carbides, cyanides, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, etc
 the chemistry of carbon and few other elements like hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and halogens
Physical chemistry
 the study of properties, transformation, and the interrelationship
of energy and matter
A chemical system can be studied from:-
1) the microscopic point of view:- makes explicit use of the concept
of molecules
2) the macroscopic point of view:- studies large scale properties of
matter (without the explicit use of
the concept of molecules)
Analytical chemistry

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  the study of the qualitative identification and the quantitative
determination of the composition of matter
 involves separating, identifying and determining the relative
amounts of components in a sample of matter
Qualitative analysis:- reveals the chemical identity of the species in
a sample
Quantitative analysis:- establishes the relative amount of one or
more of species in numerical terms
Biochemistry (bridges chemistry and biology)
 involves the study of the molecules and the chemical reactions of
life
Measurements and units in chemistry
Measurement:- is the act of finding the magnitude of some quantities
in terms of a previously defined unit.
Two things to be considered during measurement:-
 the magnitude of the measured quantity
 the reliability of the measurement
The international system of units (SI units)
 a set of units and notations that are standard in science
 a modernized version of the metric system
All measurements consist of
 a scalar (numerical) quantity
 a unit designation
Example - An object which is two meters long: Two is a scalar
quantity, Meter is the unit designation
Basic SI units
Two systems of units: The cgs system = centimeter - gram - second
The mks system = meter - kilogram - second

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SI consists of seven base units. All other units of measurements are
derived from base units.
Physical quantity SI base unit Symbol
of unit
Mass Kilogram Kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Mass (not affected by gravity, unlike weight)
 the quantity of matter an object possesses
 measured with analytical balance

Length
SI unit: Meter (m) In laboratory, centimeter (cm) and millimeter
(mm) are commonly used
On the sub - microscopic level, micrometer ( μ
m) and nanometer (nm) are used Time
The SI unit is Second (s). For short times, millisecond (ms),
microsecond ( μs), nanosecond (ns), picosecond (ps) are used. For
long time intervals, minute (min), hour (hr), day (d) and year (y).
Temperature
 the amount of hotness or coldness of a body
 a measure of the average kinetic energy of motion of a single
particle in a system
 the property that determines the direction of heat flow
 measured using thermometer

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Heat flows from a warmer to a colder object. For example, if you
touch a hot test tube heat will flow from the test tube to your hand.
The temperature of the warmer object drops and that of the colder
object increases, until finally the two objects are at the same
temperature (thermal equilibrium)
Temperature scales
 the Celsius (centigrade) scale, 0C - most familiar
 the Fahrenheit scale, 0F
 the Kelvin scale, K - the SI base unit
Relationship between the temperature scales
0 5 9
C = 9 (0F - 32) 0
F= 5
0
C + 32 K = 0C + 273.15
The Kelvin scale assigns a value of zero Kelvin (0K) to the lowest
possible temperature which is called absolute zero and corresponds
to -273.150C.
Examples
1. The daily average temperature predicted for Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, is 200C. What is the
predicted temperature in 0F and K?
Solution
0 9 0 0 9
F= 5 C + 32 ⟹ F= ( 5 x 20) + 32 = 680F K = 0C + 273 =
200C + 273 = 293K
2. A temperature of 1310F was reached at Dalol, Ethiopia, in 1940
G.C. What is this temperature in
0
C and K?
Solution
0 5 5 5
C = 9 (0F - 32)⟹ 0C = 9 (131 - 32) = 9 (99) = 550C, K = 0C +
273 = 55 0C + 273 = 328K
Mole

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A mole of any substance (atoms, molecules or ions) represents 6.023
x 1023 particles of that substance. It is also known as Avogadro's
number (Avogadro's constant), No
Derived SI units
Force
 the product of mass and acceleration
Force = mass x acceleration = kg x m/s2 = kgms-2 (SI unit of
force), called Newton (N)
1N = 1 kgms-2
Volume
 the amount of a substance occupied by a solid, a liquid or a gas.
 can be measured using graduated (measuring) cylinder, a
pipette or a burette (For volume of a liquid). A volumetric flask
is used to take measured volume of a liquid.
1L = 1000cm3 = 1000mL, 1L = 1dm3, 1dm3 = 1000cm3 =
1000mL, 1m3 = 1000L
The volume of a solid object with a rectangular shape:, V =
length x width x height
Density
 the amount of mass in a unit volume of matter (always measured
at a specific temperature)
mass m
Density = volume or ρ = v
Units: g/cm3, kg/m3, g/mL
Example
1.00g of water occupies a volume of 1.00cm3. Calculate its density.
Solution
m 1.00 g
ρ = v = 1.00 cm3
= 1.00gcm-3
Concentration

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  the amount of a solute present in a given quantity of solvent or
solution.
Some ways of expressing the concentration of a solution: Molarity,
Molality, Normality, Mole
fraction, Percentage composition, etc.
Molarity
 the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
number of moles of solute
Molarity (M) = Volume ∈liter of solution
Other units: mol dm-3, mol L-1
Pressure
 force per unit area over which the force is exerted
Force F
Pressure = area P= A
The SI unit of pressure: N m–2, called Pascal (Pa) 1 Pascal (1
–2
Pa) = 1 N m
Non-SI units: millimeter of mercury (mmHg), torr, atmosphere
(atm)
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa
Summary
Quantity Definition of quantity
Derived SI unit
Area Length squared
m2
Volume Length cubed
3
m
Density Mass per unit volume
kgm-3
Speed Distance per unit time
-1
ms

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 Acceleration Speed per unit time
ms-2
Force Mass times acceleration
kg.ms-2 (Nm-2)
Pressure Force per unit area
kg/m.s2 (Pa)
Energy Force times distance
kg.m2/s2 (J)

Common prefixes used in SI units

 Prefixes are used to indicate decimal multiples or fractions of the
base units.
 The international system(SI unit) uses a series of prefixes to
indicate decimal fractions or multiples
of various units by powers of 10. And powers of 10.
 All numbers can be expressed in the form of a × 10b, where ‘a’ is
a number between 1 and 10, and the exponent ‘b’ is an integer.
This feature makes it easy to convert from one unit to another.
Some common SI prefixes
Prefix Meaning Symbol
Multiple/Fraction
Tera Trillion T 1012
Giga Billion G 109
Mega Million M 106
Kilo Thousand k 103
Deci Tenths of d 10-1
Centi Hundredth of c 10-2
Milli Thousandth of m 10-3
Micro Millionth of μ 10-6
Nano Billionth of n 10-9

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 Pico Trillionth of p 10-12

Dimensional analysis
 refers to converting a measurement from one unit to another by
using a conversion factor
Conversion factor
 a fraction whose numerator and denominator contain the same
physical quantity expressed in different units.
numera tor unit
Conversion factor = denominator unit
Numerator unit - unit of desired quantity Denominator unit -
unit of original quantity
Some common conversion factors
1g 1000 mg
1. mg to g: 1000 mg g to mg: 1g
1 hr 60 min
2. min to hr: 60 min hr to min: 1 hr
1L 1000 mL
3. mL to L: 1000 mL L to mL: 1 L
1 mole
4. No of molecules to no of moles: 6.02 x 1023 mol ecules
6.02 x 1023 molecules
No of moles to no of molecules: 1 mole
1 km 1000 m
5. m to km: 1000 m km to m: 1 km
Example
The length in centimeters of an object that is 8.50m long is given by :
1000 cm
No of centimeters = 8.50m x 1m = 850cm
Uncertainty in measurements
In scientific work, there are two kinds of numbers.
1. Exact numbers: whose values are known exactly? They have
defined values or are integers that
result from counting number of objects.

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 2. Inexact numbers: whose values have some uncertainties?
Numbers obtained by measurement are always inexact. Uncertainties
always exist in measured
Quantities.
The most important causes of uncertainty are:-
• The person doing the measurement
• The measuring device
• The environment where the measurement is being made
• The variability in the item being measured.
Making a measurement usually involves comparing the item you are
measuring with a
unit or a scale of units. It is often impossible to obtain the exact value
of the quantity measured, unless
all the numbers are exact integers.
Precision and accuracy in measurements
 are used to express uncertainties in measurements
 describe the reliability of measurements
Precision
 (agreement) the closeness between the measured values of the
same quantity.
 a measure of how clearly individual measurements agree with
one another.
 is good (or high) if each of the measurements is close to the
average of the series.
 is low (or poor) if there is a wide deviation from the average
value
The precision of a set of measurements refers to the degree of
reproducibility among the set.
Accuracy

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  refers to the closeness of a measurement to its true value (how
closely individual
measurements agree with the correct or true value).
The accuracy of a set of measurements refers to the closeness of the
average of the set to the "correct" or "true" value.
Measurements of high precision are more likely to be accurate than
are those of poor precision, but even highly precise measurements are
sometimes inaccurate. The precision of a result is a measure of the
certainty of the value. The result is quoted as a plus or minus (±)
value. For example the accepted value of the universal gas constant
(R) is 8.314 Jmol-1K-1.
One student might quote a result of 8.314±0.03 Jmol-1K-1
Another student gives a value of 8.513±0.0006 Jmol-1K-1
The result of the former student is more accurate (close to the true or
accepted value)
The result of the later student is more precise (has smaller
uncertainty)
Example
A laboratory instructor has given a sample of amino acid powder to
four students A,B,C,D . Each student is asked to weigh the sample
and record his/her results. The true or accepted value is 8.72g. Their
results for three trials are as follows.
Trial Student A Student B Student C
Student D
1 8.72g 8.50g 8.50g
8.41g
2 8.74g 8.77g 8.48g
8.72g
3 8.70g 8.83g 8.51g
8.55g

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 1. Calculate the average mass from each set of data, and determine
which set is the most accurate.
2. Which set of data is the most precise? Is the set the most accurate?
3. Which set of data is the least accurate? Is the set the least precise?

Solution
1. Student Average
A (8.72g + 8.74g + 8.70g)/3 = 8.72g)
B (8.50g + 8.77g + 8.83g)/3 = 8.70g)
C (8.50g + 8.48g + 8.51g)/3 = 8.50g)
D (8.41g + 8.72g + 8.55g)/3 = 8.56g)
It can be seen that the average mass of student A is exactly equal to
the true value. Therefore student "A" is the most accurate.
2. The measurements of student "C" are close to each other and his
measurements are the most
precise. It is not the most accurate.
3. The measurements of student "C" give the least accurate data
(whose average is 8.50g) far from the true value. No, it is the most
precise.

The precision of measurements can be evaluated in terms of average

deviation and relative average deviation from the average values.

Note: The lower values for average deviation and relative average
deviation indicate more precision
i.e, less uncertainty.
For student A: /8.72 – 8.72/ + /8.74 – 8.72/ + /8.70 – 8.72/ =
0.04

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 Average deviation = 0.04/3 = 0.013
Relative average deviation = 0.013/8.72 x 100 = 0.15
Exercise
Can you calculate the average deviations and the relative average
deviations of students B, C, and D?

Random errors and systematic errors

An error (experimental error): a deviation of a measured value
(average measured values) from the true (accepted value). It is stated
as a positive quantity (absolute value) whether the measured value is
higher or lower than the true value.
E = / T - X/, where E = error, T = true value, X = measured
value
The percent error of a measurement can be calculated as:
E
% error = T x 100
Random errors
 make a measurement less precise, but not in any particular
direction.
 errors which vary in sets of readings taken for the same
measurements.
 the actual values may be either greater or smaller than the values
one records.
 may be positive or negative.
 arise mostly from in adequacies or limitations in the instruments.
Systematic errors
 errors which remain consistent in sets of readings taken for the
same measurements.
 produce values that are either entirely higher or lower than the
actual values.

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  do not depend on how much the experimenter is skilled, but is
due to the in accuracy of instruments or the design of an
experiment.
 always affect results in particular directions, and skew the
accuracies of the experiments in those directions.
 make all the readings taken either higher or lower than the true
values.
 can lead to inconsistent results.
Decimal Places
 refers to the number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
 each successive position to the right of a decimal point has
denominator increased by a
power of ten. For example, 0.087 is a number given to three
decimal places, and in 0.087, 0 is
the first decimal place, 8 is the second, 7 is the third.
 a point or dot (•) used to separate the whole number part from
the fractional part of a number is called a decimal point.

To express a value to the nth decimal place, look at the values of the (n +
1)th digit, as stated in the following rules.
1. If the (n + 1)th digit is 4 or less, leave the nth digit unchanged. For
instance, 369.648 rounds to 369.6, if
we want to round off to one decimal place.
2. If (n + 1)th digit is greater than 5 round up the nth digit. For instance,
936.758 can be rounded to

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 936.76, if we want to express the result up to two decimal places.
3. If the digit to be removed is 5, the preceding number increases by one
unit if it is odd and remains
unchanged if it is even. For example, 17.75 rounds to 17.8, but 17.65
rounds to 17.6. Note that, if 5 is
followed only by zeros, the left-most digit is unchanged. But if the 5
is followed by non-zeros, the
final digit is increased by 1. For example, 17.6500 rounds to 17.6, but
17.6513 rounds to 17.7.
Examples
1. Round 6.3274 to two decimal places
2. Round 0.4365 to 1 decimal place
3. Round 74.574 to two decimal places
Solution
1. The third decimal number, 7, is bigger than 5, so we add 1 to the
second decimal number, 2, and drop
the rest of the decimal numbers. The answer is 6.33.
2. The second decimal number, 3 is less than 5, so we add nothing to
the 4 and we drop the rest of the
decimal numbers. The answer is 0.4.
3. The second decimal number, 7 is odd, so we add 1 to get 6, and drop
the rest of the decimal numbers.
The answer is 74.6.
Significant figures
 digits that correctly indicate the precision of a measurement.
 numerical figures (digits) of reported measurements that denote
actual physical amounts.
 in recording measurements, the last number recorded is said to
be significant.

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
 Rule 1. All non- zero numbers are significant (meaning they
count as sig figs)
 Example: 613 has three sig figs
 Example 123456 has six sig figs
 Rule 2. Zeros located between non-zero digits are
significant (they count)
 Example: 5004 has four sig figs
 Example: 602 has three sig figs
 Example: 6000000000000002 has 16 sig figs!
 Rule 3. Trailing zeros (those at the end) are significant only
if the number contains a decimal point; otherwise
 they are insignificant (they don’t count)
 Example1 : 5.640 has four sig figs
 Example2 120000. has six sig figs
 Example 3 120000 has two sig figs – unless you’re
given additional information in the problem
 Rule 4. Zeros to left of the first nonzero digit are
insignificant (they don’t count); they are only placeholders!
 Example: 0.000456 has three sig figs
 Example: 0.052 has two sig figs

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 Example:
0.000000000000000000000000000000000052 also has two
sig figs!



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 
 show both the limits of accuracy and where the uncertainty
begins. For this reason, it is important to indicate the margin of
error in measurement by clearly indicating the number of
significant figures, which are the meaningful digits in a
measured or calculated quantity.
Number of significant figures
 refers to the precision of a measured quantity , and equals the
number of digits written, includes the last one, even though the
last value is uncertain.
Note: The last in a significant figure is uncertain because it reflects
the limit of accuracy.
Rules to determine the number of significant figures
1. If the zeros precede the first non-zero digit, they are not
significant. Such zeros locate the decimal
point. They define the magnitude of measurement. For example,
0.004 m has one significant
figure, and 0.00016 m has two significant figures.
2. If the zeros are between non-zero digits, they are significant. For
example, 204408 kg has six
significant figures while 0.05504 has four significant figures.
3. If the zeros follow non-zero digits, there is ambiguity if no
decimal point is given. For example, if
a volume is given as 200 cm3, there is no way of expressing if the
final two zeros are significant.
But if the volume is given as 200 cm3, zeros after a non-zero digit
preceded by a decimal point
make all figures significant. Thus, 200 cm3 has three significant
figures. If it is given as 200.0 cm3,
it has four significant figures.

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4. Non-zero digits are always significant.
Note: - Terminal (final) zeros are not significant on integers
Egs. Consider the numbers: 80, 300, 9000. Each number has
one significant figure.
- All digits are significant except zeros at the beginning of a
number.
Egs. 8.51cm, 0.851cm, 0.00851cm, each has three significant
figures.
- Terminal zeros ending at the right of the decimal point are
significant.
Egs. 7.00cm, 7.10cm, 70.0cm, each has three significant
figures.
More examples
How many significant figures are there in
1. 204kg Three, zeros between non - zero digits are significant
2. 0.0005 One, zeros preceding the first non- zero digit are not
significant.
3. 0.0802cm Three, for the reasons explained in rules (1) and (2).
4. 90560N Ambiguous (four or five). The final zero may or may
not be significant. The first four
digits including the first zero are significant.
Scientific notation
 the ambiguity in significant figures can be avoided by expressing
the measurements in scientific notation.
 a way of expressing large or small numbers as factors of the
powers of 10. The exponents of 10 can be used to make the
expression of scientific measurements
- more compact
- easier to understand
- simpler to manipulate.

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 For example, the mass of an electron is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000
000 000 000 91 g, and the value of Avogadro’s number is 602, 000,
000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 mol–1. In scientific notation, these
values can be expressed as 9.1 × 10–28 g and 6.02 × 1023 mol–1
respectively.
To express numbers in scientific notation, we use the form a × 10b,
where a is a decimal number
between 1 and 10 (but not equal to 10), and is known as the digit
term, and b is a positive or
negative integer or zero and is called the exponent.
To express a number in scientific notation, count the number of
places you must move the decimal
point in order to get ‘a’ between 1 and 10. Moving the decimal
point to the right (if the number is
less than 1) indicates a negative exponent, and moving the
decimal point to the left (if the number is
greater than 1) indicates a positive exponent.
Examples
Use scientific notations to express
1. 204kg: 2.04 x 102kg (just count how many places to the left you
have to shift the decimal to give
a number between 1 and 10, and this gives the exponent)
2. 0.004g: 4.0 x 10-3g (just count how many places to the right you
have to shift the decimal to give
a number between 1 and 10, and this gives the negative
exponent)
3. 292689km: 2.92689 x 105km
4. 0.0802cm: 8.02 x 10-2cm
How uncertainties (ambiguities) can be removed in a measurement:
1. By expressing measurements in some large units

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 Example: 1800kg can be expressed as
a. 1.800kg with four significant figures
b. 1.80kg with three significant figures
c. 1.8kg with two significant figures
2. By expressing the measurements in scientific notations
(exponential terms)
a. 400cm can be expressed as 4.0 x 102cm with two
significant figures
b. 18,000g can be expressed as 1.80 x 104g with three
significant figures
c. 300,000, 000m/s can be expressed as 3.00 x 108m/s
with three significant figures
Proper answers for the results of addition and subtraction of
numerical values
 When adding or subtracting numbers, there should be as many
decimal places in the answers as there are in the measurement
with the least number of decimal places.
 For addition and subtraction, the answer should contain no
more digits to the right of the decimal point than any individual
quantity. i.e use the least number of decimal places.
Examples
1. 121.2 + 1.21 + 0.1234 = 122.5, The measurement with the least
number of decimal places is
121.2 (one decimal place)
2. 107.34 + 5.6 = 112.9, The measurement with the least number of
decimal places is 5.6 (one
decimal place)
3. 2.39 - 0.2345, 2.16, The measurement with the least number of
decimal places is 2.39 (two

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 decimal places)
4. 184.2 + 2.324 = 186.5, The measurement with the least number
of decimal places is 184.2 (one
decimal place)
5. 49.146 + 72.13 - 9.1434 = 112.13, The measurement with the
least number of decimal places is
72.13 (two decimal places)
Proper answers for the results of multiplying and dividing of
numerical values
 When multiplying or dividing numbers, there should be as
many significant figures in the answers as there are in the
measurement with the least number of significant figures.
 For multiplication and division, a result can only be as accurate
as the factor with the least number of significant figures that
goes into its calculation. i.e use the least number of significant
figures.
Examples
1. What is the area of a rectangle that is 1.23cm wide and
12.34cm long?
Area = length x width = 12.34cm x 1.23cm = 15.1782cm2 =
15.2 cm2
2. Perform the following calculations
2.137 x 5.62 77.1 x 751.2
a) 2.2425 = 5.36 b) 760.0 = 76.

Chemistry as an experimental science

The scientific method
 the creative process of answering scientific questions.
 a statement of the steps that we follow as we logically
approach a problem.

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  involves making observations, collecting information/data,
seeking patterns in the observations, formulating hypothesis to
explain the observations, and testing the hypothesis by further
experiments. If a hypothesis successfully posses many tests, it
becomes a theory (tested explanation of a hypothesis).
Steps in scientific method

The steps in scientific method

Observation
 the first step in scientific method
 the reproducibility of the results can be observed by
performing experiments.
Experiment
 a well defined , controlled procedure carried out so that others
may duplicate the results.
Data
 a piece of information we obtain from experiments.
Qualitative data: observations do not have numbers associated
with them.
Quantitative data: provide us with numbers or amounts.
Scientific law
 a concise verbal statement or a mathematical equation that
summarizes a broad variety of observations and experience.
 a general statement that summarizes facts that come from
many experiments.

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 Examples: the law of gravity, the law of conservation of mass,
etc
Hypothesis
 a tentative explanation of a law
 a new and untested theory
Note: If a hypothesis is tested by repeated experiments and is not
disproved, then it develops
into a theory.
Theory
 a hypothesis that continually withstands tests
 an explanation of the general principles of certain
phenomena that has considerable evidence or facts to
support it.
When a theory is proven incorrect by experiment, it is either
rejected or modified taking into account all the experimental
observations.
A law often serves as a concise summary of a large number of
facts and a theory is a general principle that explains those facts.
Some experimental skills in chemistry
Experimental skills
 planning
 implementing
 analyzing evidence and drawing conclusions
 evaluating evidence and procedures
Major skills that are developed in a laboratory environment
are:
 skills in the safe handling of chemicals.
 skills required for conducting the standard laboratory
procedures involved in synthetic and analytical work.

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  skills in monitoring, by observation and measurement, of
chemical properties,
events or changes, and the systematic and reliable
recording and documentation.
 competence in planning, design and execution of practical
investigations.
 skills in the operation of standard chemical instrumentation.
 ability to interpret data.
 ability to conduct risk assessments.
Chemistry laboratory apparatus
Different sets of apparatus are:
1. Reaction vessels, e.gs. Beakers, flasks, boiling tubes and test
tubes.
2. Measuring equipments, e.gs., Pipettes, burettes, balances and
thermometers.
3. Support and heating devices, e.gs. Stand and clamp, tripod and
gauze, spirit burner and Bunsen
burner.
Chemistry laboratory safety rules
 protect your eyes
 wear appropriate protective clothing
 wear shoes that cover your feet
 tie back loose hair
 do not eat and drink in the laboratory
 do not smell any chemicals in the laboratory
 do not suck the solutions in the pipette by mouth
General precautions
 Wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the laboratory
 Know the hazards of the materials being used

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  When lighting the Bunsen burner, first light the match stick then
turn on the gas
 Know how to interpret data
 Read the labels on the reagent bottles carefully
 Never add water to concentrated acid solutions. Instead, as you stir,
add the acid slowly to water
 For minor skin burns, immediately plunge the burned portion into
cold water and inform the teacher
 If you get any chemical in your eye, immediately wash the eye with
the eyewash
 fountain and notify the teacher
 Work with volatile chemicals under a fume hood
 Never look directly into a test tube. View the contents from the side
 Carry out only the experiments assigned by your teacher
 Never place chemicals directly on the pan balances
 Get acquainted with the location and proper usage of the safety
equipments like eye wash fountain,
safety shower, fire extinguisher, emergency exits
 Be cautious of glassware that has been heated. Handle hot
glassware with gloves or beaker tongs
 Point test tubes that are being heated away from you and others
 Check glassware for stars or cracks
 Never remove chemicals from the laboratory
 Never work alone in the laboratory
Demonstrate safe behavior
 Obey all safety instructions given by your teacher or found in you
experimental procedure

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  Clean up spills immediately if you know. If you are uncertain how
to clean up a spill or if a large spill occurs, notify your teacher
immediately
 Before leaving the lab be sure to replace the lids to all containers,
return equipment and chemicals to their proper places and clean up
your work area
 Know how to dispose off waste.
 Remember that the lab is a place for serious work! Careless
behavior may endanger yourself and others and will not be
tolerated!
 Know how to respond to an emergency
 Report any accidents or unsafe conditions immediately!
 You should always read the experiment in advance.
Writing a Laboratory Report
A laboratory report is a written composition of the results of an
experiment. Each report must include:
title, objective, materials and (equipment), procedure, observation,
result, discussion, and conclusion.
1. Title
2. Objective
3. Materials and equipment
4. Procedure
5. Data/Observations
6. Result and Discussion
7. Conclusion

Review questions
I. Answer the following questions
1. Oil floats on the surface of water, but mercury sinks. Explain
why.
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 2. Calculate the density of a metal object with a volume of 20.2 cm3
and a mass of 159g.
3. Ethanol is used in alcoholic beverages and has a density of
0.879g/mL. What volume (in liters)
of ethanol would have a mass of 500g?
4. Calculate the density of a rectangular block of a metal whose
length is 8.335cm, width is 1.02cm,
height is 0.982cm and mass is 62. 3538g.
5. Convert
a) 1.2cm to μm e) 0.005cm to m
b) 86ng to mg f) 3ML to L
c) 6.75m3 to μL g) 75mL to L
d) 25km to m h) 250cm3 to L
6. If a man has a mass of 115 pounds, what is his mass in grams (1l
b = 453.6g)
7. The distance between carbon atoms in diamond is 154pm.
Convert this distance to millimeters
8. A piece of aluminum foil is 8.0 x 10-5cm thick. What is its
thickness in micrometers?
9. Three students A, B, and C weighed the same object having an
actual mass of 22.30g using two
different balances. Each student made five trials as tabulated
below.
Student Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Trial 4 Trial 5
A 22.41g 22.39g 22.38g
22.39g 22.43g
B 21.97g 21.98g 21.97g
22.00g 21.97g

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 C 22.55g 22.44g 22.28g
21.89g 22.99g
a) What type of experimental error (random or systematic) prevails
in the measurements of students
A, B, and C?
b) Calculate the relative average deviation (RAD) for each student's
measurements.
c) Which student was most precise?
d) Which student was least precise?
e) Calculate the percent error for the measurements of each student.
f) Which student was most accurate?
g) Which student was least accurate?
10. How many significant figures are there in
a) 0.0004802 b) 6,834 c) 52,100
11. A calculator display shows the result of a calculation to be
67340.468. How many significant
figures are there?
12. Round off each of the following to three significant figures
a) 20605g b) 0.04090ml c) 9756m
d) 1.675s
13. Express the result of adding
a) 856.6g and 23.869 b) 0.203cm and 22.7mm to the correct
number of significant figures
14. Perform the following calculation: 8.735g + 2.3g + 93.683g (to
the correct number of significant
figures)
15. Perform the following: a) 37m x 2.340m x 0.52m b) 62.89m ÷
4.7m
16. For 2.05 x 102A0, what is the equivalent expression in meters?

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 17. What is the difference between an accepted value and an
experimental value?
18. A student working in a laboratory added water to sulphuric acid.
Then an accident occurred on
his face. What procedure did he miss? What should the student
do in order to overcome the
accident?
19. What are the most important causes of uncertainty?
20. What is the difference between a scientific law and a theory?
II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
21. The branch of chemistry that deals with the study of properties,
transformation and
interrelationship of matter and energy is
A. physical chemistry C. analytical chemistry
B. organic chemistry D. inorganic chemistry
22. Which of the following is a fundamental physical quantity?
A. Density B. Area C. Mass
D. Volume
23. At what temperature does the Fahrenheit scale reads exactly
twice of the Celsius reading?
A. 40 B. 80 C. 120
D. 160
24. The derived SI unit of density is
A. g/L B. kg/m3 C. kg/L
D. g/cm3
25. Which of the following is NOT a measuring equipment?
A. Flask B. Burette C. Balance
D. pipette
26. In order to advance to a level of a theory, a hypothesis should

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 A. report the past experience C. be repeatedly
confirmed by experimentation
B. be a fully functional experiment D. be obviously
accepted by most people
27. In which of the following numbers are all the zeros significant?
A. 100.090090 B. 0.1000 C. 0.143290
D. 00.0030020
28. All of the following are intensive properties of a substance
EXCEPT
A. Electrical conductivity C. Boiling point
B. Mass D. Density
29. A student determined the mass of a sample to be 11.98g. What is
the percentage error involved
in this experiment, if the exact mass of the sample is 12.008g?
A. 0.016% B. 0.16% C. 1.6%
D. 16%
30. Given X = (231.42 + 1.234 + 0.233) ÷ (321.123 + 20.1342), the
value of "X" in the correct
significant figures is
A. 0.682 B. 0.6824 C. 0.68245
D. 0.682448

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