Analytical Chemistry

Modules 2. Measurements in Analytical Chemistry

Learning Objectives
1. Explain the process of measurement;
2. Identify the three basic parts of a quantity;
3. List the seven base units of measurement;
4. Identify some derived units;
5. Describe the properties and units of length, mass, volume, density, temperature,
and time; and
6. Perform basic unit calculations and conversions in the metric and other unit
systems.

Units of Measurement
Analytical chemistry is inherently a quantitative science. Analytical chemists make
measurements and perform calculations. Measurements are quantitative observations.
Every measurement provides three kinds of information: the size or magnitude of the
measurement (a number); a standard of comparison for the measurement (a unit); and
an indication of the uncertainty of the measurement. While the number and unit are
explicitly represented when a quantity is written, the uncertainty is an aspect of the
measurement result that is more implicitly represented and will be discussed later.
Unfortunately, many different units may be used to express the same physical
measurement. For example, the mass of a sample weighing 1.5 g also may be expressed
as 0.0033 lb or 0.053 oz. For consistency, and to avoid confusion in 1960, an international
agreement was reached specifying a particular choice of metric units for use in scientific
measurements. These preferred units are called SI units, after the French Système
International d’Unités. This system has seven base (fundamental) units as shown in Table
2.1 from which all other units are derived. Table 2.2 provides a list of other important
derived SI units, as well as a few commonly used non-SI units.

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Table 2.1 SI Fundamental Units of Measurements

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Temperature Kelvin K
Time Second s or sec
Amount of substance Mole mol
Electric current Ampere A or amp
Luminous intensity Candela cd

Table 2.2 Other SI and Non-SI Units

Quantity Non-SI Unit Symbol Equivalents SI Units

Length angstrom Å 1 Å = 1 × 10–10 m

Force newton N 1 N = 1 m ⋅ kg/s2
Energy, work ,
Joule J 1 J = 1 N ⋅ m = 1 m2 ⋅ kg/s2
heat
Power watt W 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 m2 ⋅ kg/s3

Charge coulomb C 1C=1A⋅s

1 V = 1 W/A = 1 m2 ⋅ kg/(s3 ⋅
Potential volt V
A)
pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 kg/ (m ⋅ s2)
Pressure
atmosphere atm 1 atm = 101,325 Pa
degree Celsius oC °C = K – 273.15
Temperature
degree Fahrenheit oF °F = 1.8(K – 273.15) + 32

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Length

The standard unit of length in both the SI and original metric systems is the meter
(m). A meter was originally specified as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the North Pole
to the equator. It is now defined as the distance light in a vacuum travel in 1/299,792,458
of a second. A meter is about 3 inches longer than a yard (Figure 2.1); one meter is about
39.37 inches or 1.094 yards. Longer distances are often reported in kilometers (1 km =
1000 m = 103 m), whereas shorter distances can be reported in centimeters (1 cm = 0.01
m = 10−2 m) or millimeters (1 mm = 0.001 m = 10−3 m).

Figure 2.1 The relative lengths of 1 m, 1 yd, 1 cm, and 1 in. are shown (not actual
size), as well as comparisons of 2.54 cm and 1 in., and of 1 m and 1.094 yd.

Mass

The standard unit of mass in the SI system is the kilogram (kg). A kilogram was
originally defined as the mass of a liter of water (a cube of water with an edge length of
exactly 0.1 meter). It is now defined by a certain cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy, which
is kept in France. Any object with the same mass as this cylinder is said to have a mass
of 1 kilogram. One kilogram is about 2.2 pounds. The gram (g) is exactly equal to 1/1000
of the mass of the kilogram (10−3 kg).

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Temperature

Temperature is an intensive property that measures the hotness or coldness of an

object. The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K). The IUPAC convention is to use kelvin
(all lowercase) for the word, K (uppercase) for the unit symbol, and neither the word
“degree” nor the degree symbol (°). Zero on the Kelvin scale is the temperature at which
all thermal motion ceases, a temperature referred to as absolute zero. On the Celsius
scale, absolute zero has the value -273.15 °C. The degree Celsius (°C) is also allowed in
the SI system, with both the word “degree” and the degree symbol used for Celsius
measurements. Celsius degrees are the same magnitude as those of kelvin, but the two
scales place their zeros in different places. Water freezes at 273.15 K (0 °C) and boils at
373.15 K (100 °C) by definition, and normal human body temperature is approximately
310 K (37 °C). The conversion between these two units and the Fahrenheit scale (shown
in Figure 2.2 ) will be discussed later in this chapter.

Figure 2.2 Relationship between the Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit temperature scales

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Time

The SI base unit of time is the second (s). Small and large time intervals can be
expressed with the appropriate prefixes; for example, 3 microseconds = 0.000003 s = 3
× 10−6 and 5 megaseconds = 5,000,000 s = 5 × 106 s. Alternatively, hours, days, and
years can be used.

Derived SI Units

We can derive many units from the seven SI base units. The SI base units are
used to formulate derived units. A derived unit is obtained by multiplication or division of
one or more of the base units. We begin with the defining equation for a quantity and,
then substitute the appropriate base units. For example, speed is defined as the ratio of
distance traveled to elapsed time. Thus, the derived SI unit for speed is the SI unit for
distance (length), m, divided by the SI unit for time, s, which gives m/s, read “meters per
second.”

Two common derived units in chemistry are those for volume and density. We can
use the base unit of length to define a unit of volume. Volume is computed by the formula
length (m) multiplied by width (m) multiplied by height (m), thus the SI unit for volume is
cubic meter (m3). The units of density are defined by the base units of mass and length.
The density of a substance is the ratio of the mass of a sample of the substance to its
volume. The SI unit for density is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m 3).

Volume

Volume is the measure of the amount of space occupied by an object. The

standard SI unit of volume is defined by the base unit of length. The standard volume is
a cubic meter (m3), a cube with an edge length of exactly one meter. To dispense a cubic
meter of water, we could build a cubic box with edge lengths of exactly one meter. This
box would hold a cubic meter of water or any other substance. A more commonly used
unit of volume is derived from the decimeter (0.1 m, or 10 cm). A cube with edge lengths

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of exactly one decimeter contains a volume of one cubic decimeter (dm3). A liter (L) is the
more common name for the cubic decimeter. One liter is about 1.06 quarts. A cubic
centimeter (cm3) is the volume of a cube with an edge length of exactly one centimeter.
The abbreviation cc (for cubic centimeter) is often used by health professionals. A cubic
centimeter is equivalent to a milliliter (mL) and is 1/1000 of a liter.

Density

We use the mass and volume of a substance to determine its density. Thus, the
units of density are defined by the base units of mass and length. The density of a
substance is the ratio of the mass of a sample of the substance to its volume. The SI unit
for density is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3). For many situations, however, this as
an inconvenient unit, and we often use grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3) for the
densities of solids and liquids, and grams per liter (g/L) for gases. Although there are
exceptions, most liquids and solids have densities that range from about 0.7 g/cm 3 (the
density of gasoline) to 19 g/cm3 (the density of gold). The density of air is about 1.2 g/L.
shows the densities of some common substances. While there are many ways to
determine the density of an object, perhaps the most straightforward method involves
separately finding the mass and volume of the object, and then dividing the mass of the
sample by its volume. In the following example, the mass is found directly by weighing,
but the volume is found indirectly through length measurements.

Exponential Notation

Exponential notation is used to express very large and very small numbers as a
product of two numbers. The first number of the product, the digit term, is usually a
number not less than 1 and not equal to or greater than 10. The second number of the
product, the exponential term, is written as 10 with an exponent. Some examples of
exponential notation are:

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1000 = 1 × 103

100 = 1 × 102

10 = 1 × 101

1 = 1 × 100

0.1 = 1 × 10−1

0.001 = 1 × 10−3

2416 = 2.416 × 1000 = 2.416 × 103

0.143 = 1.43 × 0.1 = 1.43 × 10−1

The power (exponent) of 10 is equal to the number of places the decimal is shifted
to give the digit number. The sign of the exponent is positive if the decimal place is moved
from right to left and negative if otherwise. Just take note that the number of significant
figures does not change when a decimal number is expressed in scientific notation.

Prefixes in SI Measurement
With SI units, prefixes are used to indicate decimal fractions or multiples of various
units. For example, the prefix milli- represents a 10-3 fraction, one-thousandth, of a unit:
A milligram (mg) is 10-3 gram (g), a millimeter (mm) is 10-3 meter (m), and so forth as
shown in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Prefixes used in measurements

Prefixes Abbreviation Meaning Equivalents SI Units

Peta P 10 15 1 petameter (Pm) = 1 x 1015 meter

Tera T 10 12 1 terameter (Tm) = 1 x 1012 meter
Giga G 10 9 1 Gigameter (Gm) = 1 x 10 9 meter
Mega M 10 6 1 Megameter (Mm) = 1 x 10 6 meter
Kilo k 10 3 1 kilometer (km) = 1 x 10 3meter
Hecta h 10 2 1 hectameter (hm) = 1 x 10 2 meter

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 Analytical Chemistry

Deka da 10 1 1 dekameter (dam) = 1 x 10 1 meter

Deci d 10 -1 1 decimeter (dm) = 1 x 10 -1 meter
Centi c 10 -2 1 centimeter (cm) = 1 x 10 -2 meter
Milli m 10 -3 1 millimeter (mm) = 1 x 10 -3 meter
Micro µ 10 -6 1micrometer (µm) = 1 x 10 -6 meter
Nano n 10 -9 1 nanometer (nm) = 1 x 10 -9 meter
Pico p 10 -12 1 picometer (pm) = 1 x 10 – 12 meter
Femto f 10 -15 1 femtometer (fm) = 1 x 10 -15 meter
Atto a 10 -18 1 attometer (am) = 1 x 10 – 18 meter
Zepto z 10 -21 1 zeptowatt (zm) = 1 x 10 – 21 meter

Uncertainty in Measurement
Two kinds of numbers are encountered in scientific work: exact numbers (those
whose values are known exactly) and inexact numbers (those whose values have some
uncertainty). Numbers obtained by measurement are always inexact. The equipment
used to measure quantities always has inherent limitations equipment errors), and there
are differences in how different people make the same measurement (human errors).
Suppose five students with five balances are to determine the mass of the same
cellphone. The ten measurements will probably vary slightly for various reasons. The
balances might be calibrated slightly differently, and there might be differences in how
each student reads the mass from the balance. Uncertainties always exist in measured
quantities.

All digits of a measured quantity, including the uncertain one, are called significant
figures. A measured mass reported as 2.5 g has two significant figures, whereas one
reported as 2.2409 g has five significant figures. The greater the number of significant
figures, the greater the precision implied for the measurement. The following are rules
used in counting significant figures.

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1. All non zero numbers are considered significant.

Examples: 15236 ml - 5 significant figures
12.55 g - 4 significant figures
2. Zeroes can be significant or not significant depending on its location in a
number.

a. Leading Zeroes are zeroes before a non-zero and are always considered
not significant.
Examples: 0.0025 g - 2 significant figures
0.755 L - 3 significant figures

b. Captive Zeroes are zeroes between two non zero and are always
considered significant.
Examples: 101 g - 3 significant figures
8092 mg - 4 significant figures

c. Trailing Zeroes are zeroes after all non zero number and
c1. significant if place in the right of a decimal place
Examples: 1.000 g - 4 significant figures
0.2050 L - 4 significant figures

c2. not significant if found in the right of a non zero but to the left
understood decimal place.
Examples: 100 g - 1 significant figure
58600 mL - 3 significant figures

3. Exact numbers are numbers obtained through counting. The number of

significant figures in exact numbers is infinite.
Examples: 12 apples - infinite
50 students - infinite

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Significant Figures and Exponential Notation

Exponential notation can be used to indicate whether end zeros are significant.
For example, a mass of 10,300 g can be written to show three, four, or five significant
figures depending on how the measurement is obtained:

Significant Figures and Common Logarithms

For the common logarithm of a measured quantity, the number of digits after the
decimal point equals the number of significant figures in the original number. For example,
if 23.5 is a measured quantity (three significant figures), then log 23.5 = 1.371 (three
significant figures after the decimal point).

Temperature Readings and Significant Figures

Standard operating procedure in reading a thermometer is to estimate the

temperature to the closest degree, giving a degree reading having an uncertainty in the
“ones place.” This means that Celsius or Fahrenheit temperatures of 100, 200, 300, etc.,
are considered to have two significant figures even though no decimal point is explicitly
shown after the zero. A temperature reading of 1000C or 1000F is considered to possess
three significant figures.

Significant Figures in Calculations

Apply the following rule when carrying measured quantities through calculations.
The least certain measurement limits the certainty of the calculated quantity and thereby
determines the number of significant figures in the final answer. To keep track of
significant figures in calculations, we will make frequent use of two rules: one for addition
and subtraction, and another for multiplication and division.

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1. For addition and subtraction, the result has the same number of decimal places
as the measurement with the fewest decimal places. When the result contains
more than the correct number of significant figures, it must be rounded off.

135.621 s 3 decimal places

0.33 s 2 decimal places
21.2163 s 4 decimal places
Sum 157.167 s 3 decimal places
Final Answer 157.17 s 2 decimal places

2. For multiplication and division, the result contains the same number of
significant figures as the measurement with the fewest significant figures. When
the result contains more than the correct number of significant figures, it must
be rounded off.

When rounding off numbers look at the leftmost digit to be removed. If the left most
digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number is retained. Thus, rounding off 78.235
to three significant figures gives 78.2. If the left most digit removed is 5 or greater, the
preceding number is increased by 1. Thus, rounding off 68.255 to three significant figures
gives 68.3, and rounding 3.76 to two significant figures gives 3.8.

Finally, to avoid “round-off” errors in calculations invest in a good scientific

calculator that allows you to perform lengthy calculations without recording intermediate
values. When the calculation is complete; the final answer can be rounded to the correct
number of significant figures using rounding off rules. When a calculation involves two or
more steps and you write answers for intermediate steps, retain at least one non
significant digit for the intermediate answers. This procedure ensures that small errors
from rounding at each step do not combine to affect the final result. When using a
calculator, you may enter the numbers one after another, rounding only the final answer.
Accumulated rounding-off errors may account for small differences among results you
obtain and answers given in the text for numerical problems.

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Precision and Accuracy

The terms precision and accuracy are often used in discussing the uncertainties
of measured values. Precision is a measure of how closely individual measurements
agree with one another. Accuracy refers to how closely individual measurements agree
with the correct, or “true,” value. The dart analogy in Figure 2.1 illustrates the difference
between these two concepts.

Figure 2.1 Precision and accuracy

Dimensional Analysis
In dimensional analysis, units are multiplied together or divided into each other
along with the numerical values. Equivalent units cancel each other. Using dimensional
analysis helps ensure that solutions to problems yield the proper units. Moreover, it
provides a systematic way of solving many numerical problems and of checking solutions
for possible errors.

Conversion Factors
The key to using dimensional analysis is the correct use of conversion factors to
change one unit into another. A conversion factor is an equality of the same quantity
expressed in different units. For example, 2.54 cm and 1 in. are the same length: 2.54
cm = 1 in. This relationship allows us to write two conversion factors:

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We use the first factor to convert inches to centimeters. For example, the length in
centimeters of an object that is 8.50 in. long is

In general, we begin any conversion by examining the units of the given data and
the units we desire. We then ask ourselves what conversion factors we have available to
take us from the units of the given quantity to those of the desired one. When we multiply
a quantity by a conversion factor, the units multiply and divide as follows:

If the desired units are not obtained in a calculation, an error must have been made
somewhere. Careful inspection of units often reveals the source of the error.

For temperature scales conversion make use of formula defines their relationship.
Let’s solve this problem. The body temperature of a person with a high fever is found to
be 104oF. What is this temperature equivalent to on the following scales?

a. Celsius scale

b. Kelvin scale

Solution:

a. Let us substitute the value 104 for oF is substituted into the equation

Solving for oC will give us,

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b. Using the answer from part a and the equation

the Kelvin temperature is 313 K,

K= 40 + 273 = 313 K

Density as a Conversion Factor

Density can be used as a conversion factor that relates the volume of a substance
to its mass. This use of density enables us to calculate the volume of a substance if we
know its mass. Conversely, the mass can be calculated if the volume is known. Density
conversion factors, like all other conversion factors, have two reciprocal forms.

Let us solve this problem. Blood plasma has a density of 1.027 g/mL at 25oC. What
volume, in milliliters, does 125 g of plasma occupy?

Solution:

Step 1: The given quantity is 125 g of blood plasma. The units of the desired
quantity are milliliters. Thus the starting point is

125 g = ? mL

Step 2: The conversion from grams to milliliters can be accomplished in one step
because the given density, used as a conversion factor, directly relates
grams to milliliters. Of the two conversion factor forms

the latter is used because it allows for cancellation of gram units, leaving

milliliters.

Step 3: Doing the necessary arithmetic gives us our answer:

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 Analytical Chemistry

Note that even though the given density contained four significant figures, the
correct answer is limited to three significant figures. This is because the other given
number, the mass of blood plasma, had only three significant figures.

Guide Questions
1. Define measurement.
2. What are the three basic parts of a measurement?
3. List the seven base units of measurement.
4. Identify some derived units.
5. Complete the following table by filling in the “blanks” in each row with the name of
the metric unit, the property being measured (mass, length, volume), and/or the
abbreviation for the metric unit. The first row has been completed as an example.

Abbreviation of the Metric

Metric Unit Property being Measured
Unit
Meter Length m
microliter
Temperature K
millisecond
Mole
Electric current mA

6. Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following measured

values.
a. 23,009 c. 0.3330 e. 73.000 g. 3200
b. 0.00231 d. 73,000 f. 0.40040 h. 0.0001

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 Analytical Chemistry

7. Round off each of the following measured values to three significant figures.
a. 456.455 c. 0.31111
b. 4.56455 d. 0.31151

8. Which number in each pair of numbers is the larger of the two numbers?
a. 1.0 x 10−3 or 1.0 x 10−6
b. 1.0 x 103 or 1.0 x 10−2
c. 6.3 x104 or 2.3 x 104
d. 6.3 x 10−4 or 1.2 x 10−4

9. Carry out the following multiplications and divisions, expressing your answer in
scientific notation to the correct number of significant figures.

10. An oven for baking pizza operates at approximately 5250F. What is this
temperature in degrees Celsius?

Answer to Guide Questions

1. Measurement is a quantitative observation about the properties of matter.
2. Every measurement consists of three parts: the number, the unit and the
uncertainty, which happen to be not commonly used in industry but of greater
importance in researches. For example, the mass of a 25 microscope slides with
dimension 26 mm x 75 mm x 0.8 mm is 360. ±05 grams.
3. The seven base units of measurement are shown in the Table 2.1 in this module:

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Table 2.1 SI Fundamental Units of Measurements

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Temperature Kelvin K
Time Second s or sec
Amount of substance Mole mol
Electric current Ampere A or amp
Luminous intensity Candela cd

4. Some derived units are m3 for volume, kg/ m3 for density, and m/s for speed.
5.

Property being Abbreviation of the

Metric Unit
Measured Metric Unit
Meter Length m
microliter volume µL
Kelvin Temperature K
millisecond time ms
Mole Amount of substance mol
milliampere Electric current mA

6. The number of significant figures in each of the following measured values is as

follows.
a. 23,009 = 5 c. 0.3330 = 4 e. 73.000 = 5 g. 3200 = 2
b. 0.00231 = 3 d. 73,000 = 2 f. 0.40040 = 5 h. 0.0001 = 1

7. The rounded off value of the given measured values to three significant figures is
written in red ink.

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 Analytical Chemistry

a. 456.455 456 c. 0.31111 0.311

b. 4.56455 4.56 d. 0.31151 0.312
8. The larger of the two numbers in each pair of numbers is rewritten in red ink.
a. 1.0 x 10−3 or 1.0 x 10−6 1.0 x 10−3
b. 1.0 x 103 or 1.0 x 10−2 1.0 x 103
c. 6.3 x104 or 2.3 x 104 6.3 x104
d. 6.3 x 10−4 or 1.2 x 10−4 6.3 x 10−4

9. After performing the operations required, answer in scientific notation to the correct
number of significant figures is given below.
a. 5.50 x 1012
b. 1.5 x 104
c. 2.0 x 10-7
d. 1.2 x 106
10. Let us use the formula given below to convert the given temperature in Fahrenheit
scale to degrees Celsius.

Key Points
Measurement
Base Units
Conversion Factor
Derived Units
Fundamental Units
Scientific Notation
Significant Figures
Rounding Off Rules
Dimensional Analysis
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Assessment

Make sure to finish and submit Activity 2 and Activity 3.

References

Brown, T., LeMay, E., Bursten, B., Murphy, C., Woodward, P., Sloltztus, M., and
Lufaso, M. (2015). Chemistry: The Central Science. 14th ed. USA: Pearson
Chemistry Education.

Flowers, P., Theopold, K., and Langley, R. (2015). Chemistry. Retrieved from:
https://openstax.org/details/books/chemistry-2e. CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Harvey, D. (2020). Analytical Chemistry 2.1. Retrieved from :

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry. CC BY-NC-SA
3.0

Skoog, D. A., West, D. M., Hooler, F. J., and Crouch, S.R. (2004). Fundamentals of
Analytical Chemistry. 8th ed. Thomson Brooks/Cole

Stoker, S.H. (2013). General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry. (6th ed.). USA:
Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.

Timberlake, K. C. (2015). Chemistry: An introduction to General, Organic and

Biological Chemistry. (12th ed.). London: Pearson Education Limited

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