Units and Measurements

1.0 Introduction
Measurements and standardization are essential facets of Science, Engineering and
Technology.
The unit of measurement of a physical quantity is the standard reference which is used
for comparison of the given physical quantity. Depending on the physical quantities the
units are classified in two types.

1.1 Fundamental (base) and derived physical quantities

The physical quantities which can exist independently are called fundamental (base)
quantities. For example: length, mass, time, temperature etc. Units of fundamental
(base) quantities are called fundamental (base) units. They can neither be derived from
one another, nor can be further resolved into other units. Physical quantities which can
be derived from fundamental (base) quantities are called derived quantities. For
example, speed which can be derived from distance and time, is a derived quantity.
Force, density, area are some other examples of derived quantities. Units of derived
quantities are called derived units.

1.2 Systems of Units

To measure the fundamental base quantities length, mass and time, there are three Systems of
Units. These systems are called F.P.S. system (British system), C.G.S. system (Metric system)
and M.K.S. system. The basic units in these are given in table 1.1.
Units
System
Length Mass Time
F.P.S. foot pound second
C.G.S. centimeter gram second
M.K.S. meter kilogram second

1.3 SI Units
Different standard units were selected for International acceptance. To make it easier for
communication without any confusion throughout the globe, an international body
known as General Conference on Weight and Measures (conference general des Poids
at measures in French language C.G.P.M) was entrusted with authority to specify the
standard units. Accordingly, this body devised a system of units know as the
International System of Units. This is abbreviated as SI but not SI system as SI it self
denotes international system. [There should be no full stop in between S and I or after
SI]. The units in SI are called SI Units.

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In SI, there are seven fundamental (base) physical quantities, length, mass, time, electric
current, thermodynamic temperature, luminous intensity and quantity of substance. In
addition to these, two more physical quantities, plane angle and solid angle are
introduced as supplementary fundamental quantities. Fundamental (base) quantities,
their units and symbols are given in table 1.2. (a) & (b)

Table 1.2 (a) Seven Fundamental base Quantities in SI

Fundamental base
Unit Symbol
Quantity
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic
kelvin K
temperature
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Quantity of substance mole mol

Table 1.2 (b) Two Supplementary Fundamental base Quantities in SI

Fundamental base
Unit Symbol
Quantity
Plane angle Radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr

1.4 Rules for writing units in SI

Full names of units even if they are named after scientists should not be written with
initial capital letter. For example unit of force is mentioned as Newton but not as
Newton. But symbols for a unit named after a scientist should have a capital letter. For
example ‘N’ for newton, ‘W’ for watt and ‘A’ for ampere and ‘J’ for joule, etc. Symbols
of other units are written as small letters; ‘m’ for meter, s for second etc. Full stop or
punctuation marks should not be used after symbol of unit.
Example: 10kg but not 10kg. 10mm but not 10 m.m. Symbols for units should not take
plural form. For example, 50 meters is 50 m but not 50 ms. Similarly 5 newtons is not 5
Ns but 5 N only.

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1.5 Definitions of Seven Fundamental Base Units in SI
(i) Length:
Length is measured in meters.
One meter is the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wave lengths in vacuum of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the levels 2P6 and 5d5 of Krypton 86 atom.

Symbol/Dimension: “L”
Unit : M.K.S. System : Meter (m)
C.G.S. System : Centimeter (cm)
F.P.S. System : Foot (Ft)

Example:
The length of a Roller Hearth Furnace = 10.8 m = 1080 cm = 35.433 Feet
The length of enamel annealing furnace = 6m = 19.68 feet
1cm = 0.0328 feet, 1m = 3.28 feet
In 3 Dimensional space length is interpreted as Length, Width, Height (Thickness).

Example:
The length of a CRGO cut lamination is given in millimeters.
Dimensions of CRGO laminations are
Length x Width x Height (thickness) = 700mm x 100mm x 0.27mm (Thickness of
CRGO laminated sheet)
The width of amorphous ribbon given in inches (F.P.S. system) is converted into metric
system.
Available widths are:
1) 5.6” = 142.24 mm (1” = 25.4 mm)
2) 6.7” = 17.018 cm (1” = 2.54cm)
3) 8.4” = 0.2134 m (1” = 0.0254 m)

1 mil = 0.025 mm
1 micron = 0.001mm
1 mil = 25 microns

Example
The thickness of insulation with Kraft Paper, Enamel Dotted paper is given in mils.
Insulation thickness is 2 layers of 2 mil thick.
2 mil = 2 x 0.0025 = 0.005 cm
= 2 x 0.025 = 0.05 mm
= (2 x 0.025)/0.001 = 50 Micron
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(ii) Mass:
Mass is measured in kilograms.
The Mass of the international prototype kilogram is a block of Platinum preserved at
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, France.

Symbol: “M”
Unit: M.K.S. System : Kilogram
C.G.S. System : Gram
F.P.S. System : Pound

Example:
The mass of transformer is given in kilograms.
Mass of transformer = 2200 kg = 2.205 x 2200 = 4851 Pounds
The Mass of a carrier is given in Tons.
The net weight of the carrier = 200 Tons.

(iii) Time:
Time is measured in seconds.
One Second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between two hyper fine levels of ground state of the Caesium 133 atom.

Symbol: “t” Dimension: “T”

Unit: Seconds
Example:
In induced Over Voltage Withstand test 3 kV voltage is applied for 60 seconds.
The time taken for the cutting of a CRGO lamination is 3 seconds.
The time taken for the assembly of core is 45 minutes.
The time taken for preheating of coils is 8 hours.

(iv) Electric Current:

Current is measured in amperes.
One Ampere is the current which is maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length of negligible circular cross section and one metre apart in vacuum
produces a force equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton.

Symbol: “I” Dimension: “A”

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Unit: Ampere (A)

Example:
The D.C. Current rating in the Continuous Annealing Furnace in AMT plant
= 2000 Amps.
The current rating of Butt Welding in Conductor Plants is 44 Amps.

(v)Temperature:
Temperature is measured in Kelvin.
One Kelvin is the fraction of 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature of
the triple point of water.

Symbol: “T” ; Dimension: “K”

Unit: Kelvin 0K, Centigrade 0C, Fahrenheit 0F

Example:
Vacuum drying oven temperature is 95°C = 203°F = 368°K
Flash Point of transformer oil = 140°C
Pour Point of transformer oil = -6°C
The temperature of Pot Annealing furnace for 4.5 mm x 1.5 mm
Conductor is 200°C

Problem – 1: Convert 92° F into centigrade degrees

Solution:
Where,
C = Temperature in degrees Centigrade
F = Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
Where: F = 92° (given)
C = (F – 32) x = (92 – 32) x

= 60 x = = 33.33°C

Problem – 2: Convert 80°C into Fahrenheit

Solution:
Where,

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F = Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
C = Temperature in degrees Centigrade
C = 80°C (given)
F= C + 32

= (80) + 32 = 144 + 32 = 176°

(vi) Luminous Intensity:

Luminous intensity is measured in Candela.
The luminous intensity in the perpendicular direction of a surface of 1/600000 sq. Mt of
a black body at the temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure of 101.325
Newton per sq. mtr is termed as Candela.

Symbol: “I”
Unit : Candela Cd

(vii) Amount of Substance:

Amount of substance is measured in moles.
One Mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon – 12. The elementary
entity must be specified and may be an atom, an ion etc.

Symbol: “m”
Unit : Mole

1.6 Two Supplementary Fundamental Base Quantities in SI

(i) Angle:
Radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to
radius.

Symbol: “θ”
Unit : Radian
2∏ radian = 360°

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 1 radian = 360/2∏ = 57°17’ 44”

(ii) Solid Angle:

Steradian is the angle subtended at the centre of sphere of radius one metre by its
surface of area of one square meter.

Symbol: “Sr”
Unit : Steradian

2.0 Derived units in SI

The units of some derived quantities are expressed as functions of fundamental (base)
units. For example, volume is measured in m 3. Force is kg ms-2 and energy is kg m2 s-2.
For the sake of convenience special names are given to some derived units. Many
derived units are given names of scientists who did appreciable research in that branch
of physics. For example, units of frequency is given the name hertz, magnetic induction
has unit tesla. In Table 1.3 some derived units and their symbols are given.

Table 1.3 Special derived units and symbols

Physical quantity Derived units in SI Symbol
Force newton N
Energy joule J
Power watt W
Pressure pascal Pa
Frequency hertz Hz
Electrical potential volt V
Charge coulomb C
Capacitance farad F
Magnetic flux weber Wb
Self inductance henry H
Magnetic induction tesla T
Luminous flux lumen L

2.1 Multiples and submultiples of SI Units

To measure very low or very high values of physical quantities, prefixes are used to
represent them. For example 10-3 m is written as 1 milli meter, 10 -9 second is written as

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nano second and 106 watt is written as 1 Mega watt. The prefixes used to represent
multiples and submultiples of SI units are given in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Multiples and Submultiples of SI units

Multiplication Multiplicatio
Prefix Symbol Prefix Symbol
factor n factor
10-1 deci d 101 Deca da
10-2 centi c 102 Hecto h
10-3 milli m 103 kilo k
10-6 micro μ 106 Mega M
10-9 nano n 109 Giga G
10-12 pico ρ 1012 Tera T
10-15 femto f 1015 Peta P
10-18 atto a 1018 Exa E

2.2 Dimensions
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (exponents) to which the
fundamental (base) quantities are raised to represent that physical quantity. Usually we
use square bracket around the physical quantity or its symbolic representation to
denote that we are dealing with dimensions. For example we denote area by [L 2],
density by [ML-3], velocity by [LT-1], force by (MLT-2].

2.3 Dimensional Formulae and Dimensional Equations

The fundamental physical quantities; namely, mass, length and time; temperature,
electric current are indicated by the symbols [M], [L], [T], [K], [I] or [A] etc. respectively.
Such a symbolical representation of a physical quantity with appropriate powers for M,
L, T, K and I or A is called dimensional formula of that physical quantity.
For example:
Area = length x breadth
As length and breadth are measured in units of length
[Area] = L x L = [L2]
Volume = Length x breadth x height
[Volume] = [L x L x L} = [L3]

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Here 3 is the dimension of length in volume. If the physical quantity is expressed with
proper dimensions in fundamental quantities then that expression is called its
dimensional formula.
Thus dimensional formula of volume is [M0 L3 T0].
Similarly Density = Mass/Volume = M/L3
= [ML-3]
Dimensional formula of density is [M2 L-3 T0]
When the dimensional formula of a physical quantity is expressed in the form of an
equation by writing the physical quantity on the left hand side and its dimensional
formula on right hand side, then the resultant equation is known as dimensional
equation of the physical quantity.
For example, velocity = [M0 L1 T-1] is the dimensional equation for velocity.
That is [v] = [M0 L1 T-1].
Similarly, for Force [F] = [M1 L1 T-2]
Usually power (exponent) 1 is omitted.
Thus [d] = [ML-3 T0], [v] = [M0 LT-1] [F] = (MLT-2].
Again, quite often, the term raised to power (exponent) zero is omitted because that
physical quantity is not present there. Thus
[d] = [ML-3], [v] = [LT-1], [a] = [LT-2].
Dimensional formulae of some physical quantities are given in table 1.5

Table 1.5 Dimensional formulae of some physical quantities

S.N Dimensional
Physical quantity Expression Units
o formula
1 Density (D) Mass/Volume [ML-3 T0] kg m-3
2 Relative density Density of substance/ [M0 L0 T0]
(specific gravity) Density of water Dimensionless -
3 Frequency (f) No. of vibrations/time [M0 L0 T-1] Hz
4 Angle Arc/radius [M0 L0 T0] rad
Dimensionless -
5 Velocity (v) Displacement/time [M0 LT-1] ms-1
6 Angular velocity (ω) Angle/time [M0 L0 T-1] rad s-1
7 Acceleration (a) Change in velocity/time [M0 LT-2] ms-2

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 8 Angular acceleration ∆ω/∆t [M0 L0 T-2] Rad s-1
9 Linear momentum Mass x velocity [MLT-1] kg ms-1
10 Angular momentum Momentum x arm [ML2 T-1] kg m2s-1
11 Force (F) Mass x acceleration [MLT-2] N
12 Moment of force Force x arm [ML2 T-2] kg m2s-2
(torque)
13 Impulse Force x time [MLT-1] Ns or kg ms-1
14 Pressure Force/Area [ML-1 T-2] Nm-2 or Pa
15 Work Force x Distance [ML2 T-2] Nm or J

Kinetic Energy, [ML2 T-2] J

mv2

Gravitational mgh [ML2 T-2] J

Potential Energy
16 Gravitational constant Force x (Length)2/(mass)2 [M-1 L3 T-2] Kg-1 m3 s-2 or
Nm2 kg-2
17 Planck’s constant (h) Energy/Frequency [ML2 T-1] Kg m2s-1 or Js
18 Power Work/time [ML2 T-3] W or Js-1
19 Moment of Inertia Mass x (Distance) 2 [ML2 T0] kg m2
20 Stress Force/Area [ML-1 T-2] Nm-2 or Pa
21 Strain Change in Length/ [M0 L0 T0]
Original length Dimensionless -
22 Modulus of Elasticity Stress/Strain [ML-1 T-2] Nm-2 or Pa
23 Velocity gradient Change of velocity/ [M0 L0 T-1] s-1
distance
24 Coefficient of Tangential Stress/ [ML-1 T-1] Kg m-1 s-1
viscosity Velocity gradient or Nm-2 s
or Pa s
25 Surface Tension Force/Length [ML0 T-2] kg s-2 or Nm-1
26 Specific heat Energy/Mass x Temp [M0L2T-2K-1] J kg-1 K-1
27 Latent heat Energy/Mass [M0 L2 T-2] J kg-1
28 Pole strength Magnetic moment/ [M0LT0I] Am
Magnetic length
29 Magnetic Moment Pole strength x length [M0L2T0I1] Am2
30 Electric potential Work/charge [M L2 T-3 I-1] JA-1 s-1 or Volt
or V
31 Boltzmann constant Energy/Temp [M L2 T-2 K-1] J K-1

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2.4 Examples
2.4.1Rectangle:

Example: Determine the area of a rectangular CRCA sheet of length 100mm and
width 35mm.
Solution: Area = l x b = 100 x 35 = 3500 mm2

2.4.2 Square:

Example: Determine the area of square piece of HRCA sheet of side 70mm.
Solution: Area = s x s = 70 mm x 70 mm = 4900 mm2

2.4.3 Trapezium:

Example: Determine the area of “P” blade used in the PQRS core assembly
having a length of 626mm and width or height of 110 mm.
Solution:
Length of the “P” blade, b = 626mm
Width of the “P” blade, h = 110mm
a = b – 2 x h = 626 – 2 x 110 = 406mm
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Area of the “P” blade = (1/2) (a +b) h
= (1/2) (626 + 406) x 110 = 56760 mm2

2.4.4 Triangle:

Example: Calculate area of the “V” – notch

scrap during the cutting of “R” blade having
the following dimensions:

Solution:

Area of “V” – notch =

(1/2) 110 x 55 = 3025 sq mm

2.4.5 Parallelogram:

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Example:
Area of B – lamination of CRGO having a length of 700mm and width of 100mm
is 700 x 100 = 70000 sq mm.

2.4.6 Circle:

Example:
Find the area of bottom cover of single phase cylindrical tank having a radius of
250 mm at the rotary shearing operation
Solution:
Radius of the bottom cover = 250 mm
Area = ∏ x (250)2 = 196349.5409 sq mm.

2.4.7 Cylinder:

Example:
Determine the surface area of conservator tank having a length of 1250 mm and a
radius of 305 mm.
Solution:
Length of the tank = 1250mm
Radius of the tank = 305mm
Lateral surface area of the tank = 2∏rl
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 = 2 x ∏ x (305/1000) x (1250/1000)
= 2.395 sq m
Bottom surface area of the tank =∏r2
= ∏ x (305/1000)2 = 0.292 sq m.
Total surface area of the tank with out Top Cover is = 2∏rl + ∏r2
= 2.688 sq m.

2.4.8 Ring: (Perma Wood Ring)

Area of the perma wood ring = ∏ (R22 – R12)
Example: A perma wood ring has an inner radius of 50mm,
outer radius of 75mm then the area of the perma wood ring.

Solution:
Area of the perma wood ring = ∏ (R22 – R12)
= ∏ [(75)2 – (50)2]
= 9817.5 sq. mm
2.4.9 Cube:
Volume of a cube of side “a” cm = a3 cu. Cm

Example: A Perma Wood block of side ‘4’ cm has a volume

of 64 cu. cm

2.4.10 Cuboid:
Volume block of cuboid = l x h x w

Surface area of cuboid: (i) 2 x l x h

(ii) 2 x l x w
(iii) 2 x h w
Total surface area = (i) + (ii) + (iii) = (mm2)
Volume of cuboid = l x h x w (mm3)

2.4.11 Cylinder:
Volume of a cylinder is ∏r2l (c.c)
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Example: Determine the capacity of the conservator tank having length of 1250mm and
radius of 305mm.
Solution: Length of the conservator = 125cm
Radius of the conservator = 30.5cm
Volume of the conservator = ∏r2l
= ∏ 125 x (30.5)2 c.c
= 365 (1 litre = 1000 c.c.)
= 365 litres

2.5 Density:
Density of substance is defined as its mass per unit volume.

Symbol: “ρ”
Unit: C.G.S. System : Gram/cubic centimetre
M.K.S. System : Kilogram/Cubic metre

Example: The C.R.G.O sheet of mass 153 grams has a volume of 20 c.c., its Density is
7.65 gm/c.c.

2.6 Force:
Force acting on a body is the product of mass of the body and its acceleration.

Symbol: “F”
Unit: M.K.S. System : Newton
C.G.S. System : Dynes
Dimension = M1 L1 T-2
Conversion: 1 Newton = 105 Dynes.

Shearing Force / Cutting Force:

The force necessary to bring about rupture of the material depends primarily upon the
shearing strength max and stressed section/stressed area and secondly upon the shape,
condition and position of the blades.
It is that force which has to act on the stock material in-order to cut the blank or
slug.
The capacity of the press to be used for a particular tool depends upon this force.
Example:

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Determine the Shearing Force or Press Force required to shear a 60mm x 60mm, 2mm
thick CRCA sheet into the following dimension. (Shearing Strength  max = 360 N/sqmm)

Force Calculation:
Press Force = L x S x
max
L = Cut Length = 15 + 10 + 30 + 10 + 15 + 60 + 15 + 10 + 30 + 10 + 15 + 60
+2 x 1 x 2 + (45+15) x 2 = 412.56 mm
S = Thickness = 2 mm
max = 360 N/sq mm
Press Force = 412.56 x 2 x 360 = 297043.2 N
= 297.04 KN
2.7 Pressure:
Pressure: is defined as the average force applied per unit area at the particular region of
a liquid or a gas.
Symbol: “P”
Unit: M.K.S. System : kg/cm2, N/m2, Pascal
F.P.S. System : Pounds/inch2
C.G.S. System : Dynes/cm2
Example:
The air pressure in leak test of three phase transformer is 0.8 Kg/cm2
If a force F is applied on a surface area
of a sq.cm, then the Pressure = Force/Area.

A force of 2N is acting on a surface of area.

10 sq. m then the pressure = 0.2 Nm-2

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Vacuum:
Bar Atmospheric pressure Torr
1.0132 1 760 mm
1.3332 x 10-3 1.315 x 10-3 1

1 Torr = 1/760 = 1.315 x 10-3

5 Torr = 5/760 = 6.5 x 10-3
29 Torr = 38 x 10-3

2.8 Work:
When an external force acts on a system or body and cause a displacement, work is said
to be done by the force. This is called external work.

Work = (Force). (Displacement) = F . S Symbol: “W”

Unit: M.K.S. System : N-m , Kg-m2/sec2
C.G.S. System : gm-cm2/sec2

Example: What is the work done when a CRCA sheet is sheared by a shearing force
of 40 N press whose shut height is 275 mm?
Solution: W=FxS
= 40 x 275 x 10-3 = 11 N-m
Electrical Metric HP = 735 watts
Motor power in F.P.S system = 746 watts

2.9 Energy:
The capacity to perform work is Energy.
Symbol: “E”
Unit: S.I. System : Joules
C.G.S. System : Ergs.
1 Erg. = 10 joules
-7

2.9.1 Kinetic Energy:

Energy possessed by virtue of its motion is called Kinetic Energy:
K.E. = (1/2) m x v2
Example: A CRCA sheet of dimensions 12500mm x 200mm x 2mm is moving on a
corrugation line with a velocity of 30 m/sec. What is the kinetic energy?
Solution:
K.E. = (1/2) m x V2
= (1/2) 12500 x 200 x 2 x 10-3 x 7.85 x 10-3 x 900
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 = 17662.5 joules.
2.9.2 Potential Energy:
Energy possessed by virtue of its position is called Potential Energy.
P.E. = m g h
Example: A transformer tank of 250 Kg is lifted by a crane to a height of 10m. What is
the Potential Energy?
Solution:
Potential Energy = m g h
(Where g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2)
= 250 x 9.81 x 10 = 24525 joules

2.9.3 Heat Energy:

The energy that exchanges between the system and its surroundings due to
difference in temperature is called Heat Energy.
When work is done on a system, its internal energy increases so one method of
increasing the internal energy is to perform mechanical work.
The energy which is transferred by a non-mechanical way is called heat energy.
During this process there should be temp difference between systems.

Symbol: “H”
Unit: M.K.S. System : Joule (J)
C.G.S. System : Calorie (Cal)
1 Calorie = 4.186 Joule
2.9.4 Energy Conversions:
Energy can be converted from mechanical to electrical and vice versa. Energy is a
common underlying entity. Hence variables are convertible from one form of energy to
another without any loss or gain within a closed system.

Various Quantities in Different Forms of Energy

Form of Energy Quantities
Mechanical Energy, Force, Matter, acceleration, velocity, momentum, pressure,
time, potential energy, kinetic energy.
Thermal Heat, temperature, enthalpy, entropy, energy
Electrical Energy, work, power, current, voltage, power factor, resistance,
charge, potential, reactive power.
Chemical Molecular weight, substance, hydrogen ion concentration (pH), heat
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 of chemical reaction.

In SI the unit Joule (J) is recommended as a standard unit for various forms of energy.
This simplifies the calculations.
1 J = 1 Ws = 1 Nm Ws = watt second
Ns = newton meter
J = Joule - SI unit for energy and work
Mechanical Electrical Thermal
1 Nm 1 Ws 1j

More than fifty percent of commercial energy is transmitted and supplied through
electrical power system. Hence the following units based on SI are most widely used
practical units though they are not listed in the base/derived energy units of SI.
1 kWh = 1 kilowatt.hour = 103 watt hour
= 103 x 3600 watt. Second = 3600000 joules

1 kWh = 860kcal 1cal = 4.19J 1 kgm = 9.81 J

2.9.5 Addition of Energy

All energy, whether mechanical work, heat, electrical energy etc. can be measured with
one of the standard units, for example in joule or in kilowatt hour. Energies measured
in the same unit can be added or subtracted. Energy divided by time gives ‘Power’.

Example:
A system is supplied with 10 kWh of electrical energy, 10 BTU of thermal energy, 5 kgm
of mechanical energy. What is the total energy in the system?
10 kWh = 10 x 3.60 x 106 J = 36, 000, 000 J
10 BTU = 10 x 1.055 x 103 J = 10, 550 J
5 kgm = 5 x 9.807 J = 49 J
Total energy in the system = 36010599 J

2.10 Heat Capacity or Thermal Capacity:

The Heat Capacity of a system is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
the system through 1° C (or) 1K

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 When heat dQ is added to a system, if the rise in its temperature is dT, its heat
capacity = dQ/dT.
Heat Capacity = Heat energy/Temperature difference.
Unit: S.I. System : joules K-1
C.G.S. System : Calorie°C-1
Example:
A roller hearth furnace requires 170 kW of power for 6 hours to raise its temperature
from 30°C to 53°C. What is the heat capacity of the furnace?

Heat capacity = Heat Energy/Temperature Difference

= 170 x 6 x 860.5/500 K Calorie°C-1
= 1755.42 K Calorie°C-1 (1 kilowatt-hr = 860.5 K calorie)
= 170 x 6 x 3.6 x 106/500 Joules K-1
= 7.344 x 106 Joules K-1 (1 kilowatt-hr = 3.6 x 106 Joules)

2.11 Coefficient of Linear Expansion: (α)

The Coefficient of Linear Expansion of the material of a solid is the ratio of increase in the
length per one degree centigrade rise of temperature to its original length.
Example: A steel tape is correct at 0°C. If a distance of 1 Km is measured it at 40°C,
Determine the actual distance.
α = 11 x 10-6/°C.

Solution:
Initial length l1 = 1 Km = 1000 m
Initial temperature t1 = 0°C
Final temperature t2 = 40°C
Final length l2 = ?
l2 – l1 = α x l1 x (t2 – t1)
= 11 x 10-6 x 1000 x 40 = 44 x 10-2
l2 = 0.44 + 1000 = 1000.44 m

Example: A thermocouple has an initial length of 300 mm. The circuit breaker trips if
the length of the thermocouple becomes 300.25 mm. If the initial temperature in the
tank is 28°C, then what is the temperature at which the circuit breaker trips?

Solution:
Initial length l1 = 300 mm
Initial length l2 = 300.25 mm
Initial temperature t1 = 28°C
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Final temperature t2 = ?
Coefficient of Linear Expansion, α = 17.5 x 10-6/°C
l2 – l1 = l1 x α x (t2 – t1)
t2 – t1 = (l2 – l1)/ l1 x α
= (300.25 – 300)/(17.5 x 10-6 x 300) = 47.619°C
t2 = 47.619 + 28 = 75.619°C

Example: A circular plate has an area 100 cm at 0°C, at 50 °C, what is the increase in the
area if the coefficient of linear expansion of the material is 0.00008/C.
Solution:
Change in area ∆ = β s (t2 – t1)
Where s is the initial area
But β = 2 α
∆ s = 2α x s (t2 – t1) = 2 x 0.00008 x 100 x 50
The increase in area = 0.8 cm2

2.12 Coefficient of Volume or Cubical Expansion:

The Coefficient of Volume or Cubical Expansion of the material of a solid is the ratio of
increase in the volume per one degree centigrade rise of temperature to its original
volume.
Example: A Cylindrical tank of radius 160 mm and height 800 mm, is filled with oil
up-to a height of 650 mm at a temperature of 28°C. if the temperature inside the tank
rises to 80°C, determine the volume of oil inside the tank at this temperature. The
coefficient of linear expansion of transformer oil is 0.00078/°C.
Solution:
Radius of the tank = 160 mm
Height of the tank, H = 800 mm
Initial height of oil at 28°C h1 = 650 mm
Initial temperature of the oil, t1 = 28°C
Final temperature of the oil, t2 = 80°C
Coefficient of Linear Expansion α = 0.00078/°C

V2 – V1 = V1 (t2 – t1), where = 3α

V2 = V1 x [1 + 3α (t2 – t1)]
V1 = x 16 x 16 x 65 = 52276.10 cc.
Initial volume of oil – 52.276 litres
V2 = 52.276 [1 + 3α (80 – 28)]
V2 = 52.276 [1 + 3 x 0.00078 x 52]
= 58.637 Litres
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Increase in the volume of oil due to rise in the temperature is 6.36 Litres.

Example: A cube has side “a” and coefficient of linear expansion ‘α ’. If its
temperature is raised to 100°C. Find the percentage increase in volume.

Solution:
Initial length of the side = a
Initial volume V1 = a3
Increase in volume = V1 t = a3 (3α) 100
Factional increase in volume = a3 (3α) 100/a3 = 300α
Percentage increase in volume = 300α x 100 = 3 x 104 x α.
2.13 Viscosity:
The property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers a resistance to the relative motion
between its different layers is called Viscosity. The time required for a fixed volume of
liquid to flow through a glass tube.

2.14 Electric Flux:

The number of end charges of a unit charge or field lines passing through the surface in
an electric field is called Electric Flux.
Symbol: “ø” Unit: Coulombs

2.15 Electric Flux Density:

Electric Flux Density is the flux normal per unit area.
Symbol: “D” Unit: Coulomb/m2
Example: In the electric field of a paralled plate air capacitor the values of D and E
are 0.885 μ C/m2 and 105 N/C, respectively. If area of each plate is 1 sq.m, find i) electric
flux ii) value of absolute permittivity of free space.
Solution:
(i) Electric Flux, ø = D x A = (0.885 x 10-6) x 1
= 0.885 x 10-6 C

(ii) Electric Flux Density, D = ε0 εr E

ε0 = D/( εr E) (Since εr = 1 for air)
= 0.885 x 10-6/(1 x 105)
= 8.85 x 10-12 F/m

2.16 Electric Current:

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When an external force or potential difference is applied to the atoms, electrons in it
flow, constituting a current called Electric Current.
One ampere of current is said to flow through a wire if at any section one coulomb of
charge flows in one second.
Symbol: “I” Unit: Ampere
Example: A 60W light bulb has a current of 0.5A following through it. Calculate the
number of electrons passing through a cross section of filament.
Solution:
I = Q/T = ne/t
n = 0.5 x 1/(1.6 x 10-19) = 3.1 x 1018 electrons/sec.

2.17 Electric Current Density:

Electric Current Density is the current passing through unit area of cross section
normally.
Symbol: “” Unit: Ampere/Sq. m
Example:
If a current of 15 Ampere is flowing through a surface of area 5 sq.m current density is
15/5 = 3 Amps/Sq.m

2.18 Electric Potential:

Absolute Electric potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the work done in
bringing a positive charge of one coulomb from infinity to that point against the electric
field.
Electric potential, V = Workdone/Charge = W/Q
Electric potential is said to be 1 Volt if 1 joule of work is done to give it a charge of 1
coulomb.
Symbol: “V” Unit: Volt
Example: A charge of 4 coulombs is flowing between points A and B of a circuit. If
the potential difference between A and B is 2 volts, how many joules will be released by
part AB of the circuit?
Solution: The potential difference of 2 volts between points A and B means that each
coulomb of charge will give up an energy of 2 joules in moving from A to B. As the
charge released by the part AB of the circuit is = 4 x 2 = 8 Joules.

2.19 Electric Power:

The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called Electric Power.

Electric Power = Work done in electric circuit / Time

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The power consumed in a circuit is 1 watt if a potential difference of 1 volt causes 1
ampere current to flow through the circuit.
Symbol: “P”
Unit: M.K.S. System : JS-1, Watt
C.G.S. System : ErgS-1
Example: The rating of a machine is 2000 watts = 210 Erg/Sec.
(Since 1 Erg/Sec = 10-10 KW or 1 Watt = 107 Erg/sec)

Solution:
1 Watt hour (Whr) = 3600 Joules
1 Kcal = 4186 Joules
1 Horse Power = 735.5 J/s or Watt.
2.20 Resistance:
Resistance is the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow
of electricity through it. When the temperature increases the resistance also increases
and vice versa.
Symbol: “R”
Unit: Ohm, ‘Ω’ R = ρl/A
ρ = Specific Resistance
l = length of conductors
A = Area of cross section
Example: AN electric kettle takes a current of 12.5 amps at 240v. What is the
resistance of the heating element.
Solution: Resistance of the heating element,
R = V/I = 240/12.5 = 19.2Ω.
2.21 Resistivity:
Resistivity is defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a metre cube of that
material.
Symbol: “ρ” Unit: Ohm – metre (or) Ω-m.
Example: The aluminium conductor having a length of 2 Km. and a cross section of
22 mm . Find the resistance. Assume Resistivity of aluminium is 3.46 x 10-8 Ω-m
2

Solution: Length of the conductor, l = 2 km = 2000 m

Area of cross section, a = 22 mm2 = 22 x 10-6m2
R = ρl/a = 3.46 x 10-8 x 2200/22 x 10-6 = 3.14 ohms

2.22 Conductance:
Conductance of a material is a measure of inducement which it offers to the flow of
electrons through it. It is reciprocal of resistance.

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Symbol: “G” Unit: = Siemens, S (or) Mho

2.23 Conductivity:
Conductance between the opposite faces of a metre cube of that material is called
Specific Conductance or Conductivity.
Symbol: “σ” Unit: Siemens/metre, S/m

2.24 Capacitance:
The amount of charge required to create a unit potential difference between its plates is
termed as Capacitance. It is the property of a capacitor to store energy in an electric field.
Symbol: “C” Unit: Farad, F.

2.25 Inductance:
It is the ability of an electric circuit to produce an emf by electromagnetic induction
when the current in the circuit changes.
It is defined as the inductance of a circuit in which a counter emf of 1 volt is
generated when the current is charged as the rate of 1 ampere per second.
The unit of inductance is Henry.
e.m.f. induced in a coil:

E=-L

WhereL = inductance of the coil and

= rate of change of current.

Negative sign is for opposing nature of induced emf.

Example: A current falls in 0.2 seconds from 200 Amps to 50 Amps. It the inductance of
coil is 30 m H. find the e.m.f induced in the coil.

E=-L , Here = 150/0.2 = 750 Amp/Sec

Inductance L = 30 m H = 0.03 H.
E = - 0.03 x 750 = - 22.5 Volts.
- Ve sign shows that the induced voltage opposes the applied voltage.

2.26 Self Inductance:

The property of the coil due to which it opposes any increase or decrease of current or
flux through it is termed as Self Inductance. It is the E.M.F. induced in a coil due to the
change of its own flux linked with it.

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Symbol: “L” Unit: Henry.

2.27 Mutual Inductance:

The property of one coil (or circuit) to produce E.M.F. in a near by coil by induction
when the current in the first coil changes is termed as Mutual inductance.
Symbol: “M” Unit: Henry.

2.28 Magnetic Flux:

Magnetic Flux is the magnetic flow that exists in any magnetic circuit.
Symbol: “ø” Unit: Weber.
Weber is the magnetic flux which, links of a circuit of one turn produces in it an E.M.F.
of one volt as it is reduced to zero at a uniform rate in one second.

2.29 Magnetic Flux Density:

Flux passing per unit area through a plane at right angles to the flux is termed as
Magnetic Flux Density.
Symbol: “B” Unit: Weber/m2, Tesla

2.30 Magneto Motive Force:

Magneto Motive Force produces magnetic flux and corresponds to an electromotive force
in an Electric circuit.
Symbol: M.M.F. Unit: Ampere Turn.

2.31 Magnetic Field Strength / Magnetic Field Intensity:

Magnetic Field Strength at any point within a magnetic field is equal to the force
experienced by a N-pole of one Weber placed at that point. (OR)
Intensity at a point is the mechanical force which is exerted on unit pole placed at that
point in vacuum.
Symbol: “H” Unit: Newton/Weber, N/Wb (or AT/m).

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2.32 Reluctance:
Property of a material which opposes the creation of magnetic flux in it is termed as
Reluctance.
Symbol: “S” Unit: Ampere Turns/Wb.

2.33 Permeability:
The Permeability of a material is equal to the ratio of the flux density produced in that
material to the flux density produced in vacuum by the same magnetizing force.
Symbol: “μ” Unit: Henry/Metre

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