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Fundamental Quantity
A physical quantity which is the base and can not be derived from any
other quantity is called ‘fundamental quantity’.
Examples: Length, Mass, Time, etc.
Derived Quantity
A physical quantity which can be derived or expressed from base or
fundamental quantity / quantities is called ‘derived quantity’.
Examples: Speed, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum,
torque, energy, pressure, density, thermal conductivity,
resistance, magnetic moment, etc.
Fundamental Units
The units of the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental
or base units.
Derived Units
The units of the derived quantities which can be expressed from the
base or fundamental quantities are called derived units.
Mass M kilogramme kg
Time T second s
Electric Current A ampere A
Main units Thermodynamic K kelvin K
Temperature
Kilogramme
The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept at international Bureau of
Weights and Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889)
Second
The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium-133 atom. (1967)
Ampere
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight
parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,
and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2×10–7 newton per metre of length. (1948)
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Kelvin
The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water. (1967)
Candela
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a
source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012
hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt
per steradian. (1979)
Mole
The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as
many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogramme of
carbon-12. (1971)
ds
r
ds
dθ dθ =
r r
O
Solid angle
Solid angle ‘dΩ’ is the ratio of the intercepted area ‘dA’ of the spherical
surface described at the apex ‘O’ as the centre, to the square of its radius ‘r’.
Its SI unit is ‘steradian’.
dA
r
r
dΩ dA
dΩ =
r2
O
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IMPORTANT
(1) Even if a unit is named after a person the unit is not written in capital
letters. i.e. we write joules not Joules.
(2) For a unit named after a person the symbol is a capital letter e.g. for
joules we write ‘J’ and the rest of them are in lowercase letters e.g.
second is written as ‘s’.
(3) The symbols of units do not have plural form i.e. 70 m not 70 ms or
10 N not 10 Ns.
Example:
For very small distances or very large distances indirect methods are used.
1.Parallax method
D D
• Let us consider a far away planet ‘P’ at a
distance ‘D’ from our two eyes.
α = d/D
d=αD
and
cxt
S= where c = 3 x 108 m s-1
2
For visible light the range of wavelengths is from about 4000 Å to 7000 Å
(1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m). Hence an optical microscope cannot resolve
particles with sizes smaller than this.
The oleic acid drop spreads into a thin, large and roughly
circular film of molecular thickness on water surface.
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Then, we quickly measure the diameter of the thin film to get its
area A.
Suppose we have dropped ‘n’ drops in the water.
If this spreads to form a film of area ‘A’ cm2, then the thickness
of the film
Volume of the film nV
t= or t= cm
Area of the film 20 x 20 x A
These may vary from the size of the order of 10–14 m of the tiny nucleus of an
atom to the size of the order of 1026 m of the extent of the observable
Universe.
We also use certain special length units for short and large lengths which are
given below:
One unified mass unit is equal to (1/12) of the mass of an atom of Carbon-12
isotope (12C6 ) including the mass of electrons.
1 u = 1.66 × 10–27 kg
Range of Masses
In the cesium atomic clock, the second is taken as the time needed for
9,192,631,770 vibrations of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of cesium-133 atom.
The vibrations of the cesium atom regulate the rate of this cesium atomic
clock just as the vibrations of a balance wheel regulate an ordinary
wristwatch or the vibrations of a small quartz crystal regulate a quartz
wristwatch.
Accuracy:
The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured
value is to the true value of the quantity.
Precision:
Precision tells us to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured.
Example:
Suppose the true value of a certain length is near 2.874 cm.
The first measurement has more accuracy (because it is closer to the true
value) but less precision (its resolution is only 0.1 cm), while the second
measurement is less accurate but more precise. Home Next Previous
In general, the errors in measurement can be broadly classified as
I. Systematic errors
The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either
positive or negative.
Example:
(i)The temperature graduations of a thermometer may be inadequately
calibrated (it may read 104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP whereas it
should read 100 °C);
(ii)In a vernier callipers the zero mark of vernier scale may not coincide with
the zero mark of the main scale;
(iii) An ordinary metre scale may be worn off at one end. Home Next Previous
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure:
Example:
If you hold your head a bit too far to the right while reading the
position of a needle on the scale, you will introduce an error due to
parallax.
Example:
When the same person repeats the same observation, it is very
likely that he may get different readings every time.
Least count:
The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is
called its least count.
The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the
instrument.
Repeating the observations several times and taking the arithmetic mean of
all the observations, the mean value would be very close to the true value of
the measured quantity.
Note:
Least count error belongs to Random errors category but within a limited
size; it occurs with both systematic and random errors.
The errors in the individual measurement values from the true value are:
Δa1 = a1 - amean
Δa2 = a2 - amean
----------------
----------------
Δan = an - amean
The Δa calculated above may be positive or negative.
It is represented by Δamean.
Thus,
Δamean = (|Δa1|+|Δa2 |+|Δa3|+...+ |Δan|)/n
n
= ∑ |Δai|/n
i=1
Percentage error
When the relative error is expressed in per cent, it is
called the percentage error (δa).
Δamean
Percentage error δa = amean x 100%
Example:
Density is the ratio of the mass to the volume of the substance.
If there are errors in the measurement of mass and of the sizes or
dimensions, then there will be error in the density of the substance.
Let Z=A+B
When two quantities
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) + (B ± ΔB) are added, the
absolute error in the
= (A + B) ± (ΔA + ΔB) final result is the
sum of the
= Z ± (ΔA + ΔB) individual errors.
Let Z=A-B
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) - (B ± ΔB)
= (A - B) ± ΔA ± ΔB
= Z ± (ΔA + ΔB) (since ± and ± are the same)
± ΔZ = ± (ΔA + ΔB) When two quantities
are subtracted, the
or ΔZ = (ΔA + ΔB) absolute error in the
final result is the
sum of the
individual errors.
Rule:
When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the
final result is the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities.
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(c) Error of a Product:
Let Z=AxB
Z ± ΔZ = (A ± ΔA) x (B ± ΔB)
Z ± ΔZ = AB ± A ΔB ± B ΔA ± ΔA ΔB
Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB we have,
ΔZ ΔB ΔA ΔA ΔB
1± = 1± ± ±
Z B A AB
ΔZ ΔB ΔA ΔA ΔB
± = ± ± is very small and hence negligible
Z B A AB
When two quantities are
ΔZ ΔA ΔB multiplied, the relative error in
or = + the final result is the sum of the
Z A B relative errors of the individual
quantities.
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Error of a Product: ALITER
Let Z=AxB
Applying log on both the sides, we have
Differentiating, we have
ΔZ ΔA ΔB
= +
Z A B
(A ± ΔA) ΔZ ΔB ΔA
± = ± ±
Z ± ΔZ = Z B A
ΔB
B 1± ΔA ΔB
B 2
is negligible
B
(A ± ΔA) ΔB
-1 ΔZ ΔA ΔB
or = +
Z ± ΔZ = 1± Z A B
B B
When two quantities are
A ΔA ± ΔB divided, the relative error in the
Z ± ΔZ = ± 1 final result is the sum of the
B B B
relative errors of the individual
(by Binomial Approximation) quantities. Home Next Previous
Error of a Quotient: ALITER
Z = A x A x A x ………x A (p times)
ΔZ ΔA ΔA ΔA ΔA
= + + + ……… + (p times as per the
Z A A A A
product rule for errors)
ΔZ ΔA Note:
or =p If p is negative, |p| is taken because errors
Z A due to multiple quantities get added up.
Rule:
The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power p is the
p times the relative error in the individual quantity.
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(f) Error of an Exponent (Power): ALITER
ΔZ ΔA
= |p|
Z A
Ap x Bq
In general, if Z = , then
Cr
Note:
ΔZ ΔA ΔB ΔC
= p + q +r Cr is in Denominator, but the
Z A B C relative error is added up.
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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant
digits or significant figures.
Example:
(i) The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 2.36 s; the digits 2 and
3 are reliable and certain, while the digit 6 is uncertain. Thus, the measured
value has three significant figures.
Note:
A choice of change of different units does not change the number of
significant digits or figures in a measurement.
Eg. The length 1.205 cm, 0.01205, 12.05 mm and 12050 μm all have four SF.
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Rules for determining the number of significant figures
(i) All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter
where the decimal point is, if at all.
(iii) If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point but
to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
(iv) The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are
not significant.
(v) The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant.
Any given number can be written in the form of a×10b in many ways;
a×10b means "a times ten raised to the power of b", where the exponent b is
an integer, and the coefficient a is any real number called the significand or
mantissa (the term "mantissa" is different from "mantissa" in common
logarithm).
This form allows easy comparison of two numbers of the same sign in a, as
the exponent b gives the number's order of magnitude.
(1)Multiplication or division:
The final result should retain as many decimal places as are there
in the number with the least decimal places.
1.If the digits to be dropped are greater than five, then add one to the
preceding significant figure.
3.If the digit to be dropped is five, then the preceding digit will be left
unchanged if the preceding digit is even and it will be increased by
one if it is odd.
All the physical quantities can be expressed in terms of the seven base or
fundamental quantities viz. mass, length, time, electric current,
thermodynamic temperature, intensity of light and amount of substance,
raised to some power.
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which
the fundamental or base quantities are raised to represent that quantity.
Note:
Using the square brackets [ ] around a quantity means that we are dealing
with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity.
Example:
Dimensionless Quantity
Dimensionless quantity is a physical quantity which has no dimensions.
Dimensional Constant
Dimensional constant is a constant which has dimensions.
Example:
Example:
But, force and momentum can not be added because their dimensional
formulae are different and are [MLT-2] and [MLT-1] respectively.
[u] = [M0LT-1]
[v] = [M0LT-1]
[a] = [M0LT-2]
[s] = [M0LT0]
[M0LT-1]2 = [M0LT-1]2 + [M0LT-2] [M0LT0] (Note that the constant 2 in the term
‘2as’ does not have dimensions)
0 2 -2 0 2 -2 0 2 -2
[M L T ] = [M L T ] + [M L T ]
[m] = [ML0T0]
[v] = [M0LT-1]
[g] = [M0LT-2]
[h] = [M0LT0]
n1[M1aL1bT1c] = n2[M2aL2bT2c]
a b c
M1 L1 T1
n2 = n 1
M2 L2 T2
Smaller the unit bigger the magnitude of a physical quantity and vice versa.
For example, 1 m = 100 cm (m is the bigger unit and cm is the smaller one)
1 N = 105 dynes (Newton is bigger and dyne is smaller)
T = k l x my gz
[m] = [ML0T0]
[l] = [M0LT0]
[g] = [M0LT-2]
[T] = [M0L0T]
So that x = ½ , y = 0, z = -½
Then, T = k l½ g–½
l The value of k is 2π and l
Or T = k determined from other T = 2π
g g
methods.
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Demerits of Dimensional Analysis
The dimensional analysis can not be used in the following cases:
6.The equations having the relations other than products / quotients can
not be derived. Home Next Previous
Dimensional formulae for some physical quantities