12

General Physics 1
Quarter 1
Most Essential Learning Competencies:
• Solve measurement problems involving conversion of units, expression of measurements in
scientific notation
(STEM_GP12EU-Ia-1)
• Differentiate accuracy from precision (STEM_GP12EU-Ia-2)
• Differentiate random errors from systematic errors (STEM_GP12EU-Ia-3)
• Estimate errors from multiple measurements of a physical quantity using variance
(STEM_GP12EU-Ia-5)
• Differentiate vector and scalar quantities (STEM_GP12V-Ia-8)
• Perform addition of vectors (STEM_GP12V-Ia-9)
• Rewrite a vector in component form (STEM_GP12V-Ia-10)

MEASUREMENTS

Measurement is a process of comparing a known quantity like measuring device to an unknown

quantity, things, or objects to be measured. It is the process of determining how many times a
certain quantity is contained in a standard measuring device.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physical quantities are quantities that can be measured. A physical quantity possesses at least
two characteristics in common, a numerical value for the magnitude of the quantity and the unit of
measurement of the quantity. For example, the physical quantity mass can be quantified as n kg,
where n is the numerical value and kg is the unit.
1. Fundamental quantities are measured directly using measuring devices and tools.
a. Length (l) is a linear distance between two points. (base unit)
b. Mass (m) is the measure of the amount of matter in an object. (base unit)
c. Time (t) is an interval between two successive events. (base unit)
d. Temperature (T) is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is technically defined
as the average kinetic energy of molecules in the body.
e. Electric current (I) is the measure of electric flow from a negatively charged body to a
positively charged one.
f. Luminous intensity (E) is the amount of illumination received by an object.
g. Amount of substance (n) is the number of atoms or molecules that make up the
substance.

2. Derived quantities are quantities that result from the combination of two or more
fundamental quantities. Among them are:
a. Area (A) is the product of two measures of length.
b. Volume (V) is the amount of space occupied by matter; in solids, it is the product of
three measures of length.
c. Speed (s) is the ratio of distance traveled and time of travel.
d. Acceleration (a) is the rate of change in the velocity of a moving body.
e. Density (ρ) is the ratio of the mass of the body to the space that it occupies.
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 f. Pressure (P) is a push or force against each unit area of an object’s surface.
g. Others

SYSTEM OF UNITS

System of Units is a complete set of fundamental and derived units that is used to represent all
quantities. Any system of units is named in terms of the three fundamental units upon which it was
based.

1. Metric System of Measurements is a system of measurement based on the meter

unit. It is a decimal system where several multiples and submultiples of a measured
property may be expressed and differ from one another by powers of ten. It is called the
CGS system.
2. English System of Measurements is a system which uses the standard units of pound
(for mass), feet (for length) and second (for time). It also known as the FPS system.
3. SI Units (Système Internationale d’ Unitès) is formerly the MKS units of the metric
system. It is the modern form of the metric system and the most widely used system of
measurement. However, SI units also include four other base units: Ampere, Kelvin,
mole and candela.

Quantity Metric System SI Units English System

Length centimeter (cm) meter (m) foot (ft)
Mass gram (g) kilogram (kg) pound mass (lbm)
Time second (s) second (s) second (s)
0Celsius (0C) 0Farenheit (0F)
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Electric Current Ampere (A) Ampere (A) -
Luminous Intensity candela (cd) candela (cd) -
Amount of substance mole (mol) mole (mol) -

▪ In the metric system, the multiples and submultiples of the units are specified by Greek
prefixes. The following is a list of the most commonly used prefixes and their equivalent
values.

Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value

Yotta Y 124 Deci d 1-1
Zeta Z 121 Centi c 1-2
Exa E 118 Milli m 1-3
Peta P 115 Micro µ 1-6
Tera T 112 Nano n 1-9
Giga G 19 Pico p 1-12
Mega M 16 Femto f 1-15
Kilo k 13 Atto a 1-18
Hecto h 12 Zepto z 1-21
Deca da 11 Yocto y 1-24

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Examples:
1 Tm=1x1012 m
1 Gs=1x109 s
1 nL=1x10-9 L
1 mg=0.001 g

CONVERSION OF UNITS

Conversion Table
Mass Length Time Volume Temperature
0C=(0F-32)/1.8
1 g=1000 mg 1 cm=10 mm 1 min=60 sec 1 L=1000 ml
1 kg=1000 g 1 m=100 cm 1 hr=60 min 1 ml=1 cm3 0F=0Cx1.8+32

1 kg=2.2 lb 1 km=1000 m 1 day=24 hrs 1 L=1.06 qt K=0C+273

0C=K-273
1 lb=16 oz 1 m=3.28 ft 1 week=7 1 gal=3.79 L
1 m=1.09 yd days
1 in=2.54 cm 1 yr=365 days
1 ft=12 in
1 mi=1.61 km

▪ To convert one unit to another, dimensional analysis will be used. This method is illustrated
as follows:
a. Write the given unit and the desired unit.
Example: meters→centimeters
b. Determine the proportionality factor- ratio (fraction) whose numerator and
denominator have different units but refer to the same thing. A proportionality factor
is often called a conversion factor. Write the equivalence statement relating the
given unit to the desired unit.
1 meter=100 centimeters
c. Determine the conversion factors from the equivalence statement. Since 1 m=100
cm, then the conversion factors are:
1𝑚 100 𝑐𝑚
;
100 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑚
Choose the conversion factor that shows the given unit in the denominator and the
desired unit in the numerator.
d. Perform the conversion calculation. Multiply the given quantity by the appropriate
conversion factor.
given quantity x conversion factor

Examples:
1. 100 km= _____ mi
2. 900 sec= _____ hr
3. 15 in= _____ m
4. 98.6 0F= _____0C
5. -40 0C= _____0F
6. 50 0C= _____K
7. 35 mi/hr= _____m/s
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 8. 90 fs= _____s
9. 90 km= _____µm
10. 5.60 x106 m=_____nm

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Significant figures are the number of meaningful digits in a reported value.

Rules in Evaluating Significant Figures
1. Nonzero digits- all nonzero digits are significant.
Examples:
3.2 cm
1.45 m
2.216 g
2. Captive zeros- zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
Examples:
3.02 cm
1.405 m
2.2016 g
3. Leading zeros- zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant. They are
placeholders and are used to local a decimal point.
Examples:
0.32 cm
0.0145 m
0.002 216 g
4. Trailing zeros- zeros at the end of a number and to the right of a decimal point are
significant.
Examples:
3.20 cm
1.405 m
2.216 00 g
5. Final zeros- For whole numbers, zeros after nonzero digits are not significant unless a
decimal point or a bar on top of the zero is placed to indicate the zeros. Zero with bar line
means that it is the last significant figure of the digits.
Examples:
10 cm 1 000 mL 50.0 g
10 cm 5 000 g 3.0x104 g
100 mL 5 000. g

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Scientific notation is the simplest and easiest way of writing down very small and very large
numbers using powers of ten or in exponential notation. It follows this formula:
N x 10n
▪ N represents the significant digits in the measurement and is any number from 1 to10.

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 ▪ The exponent (n) tells the number of times the decimal point is moved from its original
place to the right or from the original place to the left.
▪ The exponent (n) is negative if the decimal point is moved from left to right and positive if
it is moved from right to left.
Examples:
1. 305 200 mL =
2. 0.000 020 6 cm =
3. 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 =
4. 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 909 g =

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or true value. The closer it is
to the true value, the more accurate a measurement is. Accuracy is expressed in terms of percent
error.
(𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 100
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

▪ True value is also known as the accepted value. Experimental value is the actual
measurement that you obtain using a measuring device. The lower the percent error, the
more accurate a measurement is.
Example:
The true value for the density of pure water is 1.0 g/mL. An experimental procedure involving three
trials found the average density of a sample of pure water to be 0.99 g/mL. How accurate are you
in your measurement? To answer this, determine the % error using the formula.

Precision refers to how close each measurement to one another.

Example:
Trial Density (g/mL)
1 0.99
2 0.98
3 0.99
*Since the numbers obtained are close to one another, the data are precise.

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EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

Two Types of Experimental Errors

1. Systematic errors will shift measurements from their true value by the same amount or
fraction and in the same direction all the time. These do not affect the reliability (since they
are always the same) but affect accuracy. These usually arise from problematic or
incorrectly used equipment, e.g. poor calibration.
2. Random errors will shift each measurement from its true value by a random amount and in
a random direction. These will affect reliability (since they are random) but may not affect
the overall accuracy of a result.

Sources of Systematic and Random Errors

Error Description Type

If a piece of equipment is not calibrated
Scale error correctly (e.g. wooden ruler has shrunk), all Systematic error
measurements will be offset by the same
fraction.
If a piece of equipment has an offset (e.g. a
Zero error mass balance shows a reading that is not
zero when there is nothing on it), all Systematic error
measurements will be offset by the same
amount.
If you make a measurement by comparing Systematic error if you always
Parallax error an indicator against a scale (e.g. reading a view the dial from the same
dial on a voltmeter or using a mercury angle. Random error if you
thermometer), the angle at which you view view the dial from a random
will affect the reading. angle each time.
Changes to the control
Errors arising Ideally, the control variables are kept variables can result in both
from the constant, but some may be beyond your systematic and random
environment control, e.g. air pressure, temperature, errors. One consistent change
humidity, vibrations. will give a systematic error.
Random changes will give
random errors.
If a measurement relies on your reaction
Reaction time time, then you may react too early or too Random error
late by different amounts of time.
If you are measuring something that falls
Measurement between two markings on a scale (e.g. you
errors from are using a ruler to measure something that Random error
insufficient is 10.25 mm long), you cannot measure its
precision precise value and will need to round it up or
down (does it look like 10 mm or 10.5
mm?).

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How to reduce systematic and random errors?
▪ Systematic error arises from equipment, so the most direct way to eliminate it is to use
calibrated equipment and eliminate any zero or parallax errors.
▪ Since random errors are random and can shift values both higher and lower, they can be
eliminated through repetition and averaging.

VECTORS

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Every quantity requires a statement of at least two things: first, a numerical specification or
magnitude and appropriate unit.
1. Scalar is a quantity that involves, other than a statement of unit, only a magnitude.
Quantities like time, distance, volume, speed, mass, area, length, temperature, distance,
work, and energy are scalars; none of them are associated with a direction.
2. Vector is a quantity that needs for its complete specification, direction and magnitude.
Quantities such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, impulse, gravity,
weight, and torque are vectors; each of them involves the idea of direction.

ADDITION OF VECTORS

Vector Representation
▪ A vector quantity has three important parts: arrowhead (indicates the direction of the
vector); length of the arrow (represents the magnitude of the vector); and tail (represents
the origin of the vector).
▪
Vector Addition
▪ Scalar quantities can be added arithmetically like ordinary numbers provided that scalar
quantities have the same units; that is, when we add 7 kg and 3 kg masses, the result will
always be 10 kg.
▪ Vectors cannot be added that way. The sum depends on the direction of the vectors.
▪ The sum of two or more vectors is represented by a single vector called resultant or
vector sum. It is a single vector which would have the same effect as all of the vectors
taken together.

Generally,
▪ The resultant of vectors in the same direction is equal to the sum of their magnitudes.
▪ The resultant of vectors in opposite directions on a straight line is equal to the difference in
their magnitude acting in the direction of the greater vector.

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 Examples:

▪ The resultant of vectors from different directions may be evaluated by means of other
techniques such as graphical, analytical, and component methods.
Examples:

Graphical Solutions
a. Polygon Method
▪ This method is graphical in nature where the vectors are drawn according to a
convenient scale in a head-to-tail sequence. The line joining the first tail and the
last head of the vectors drawn closes the polygon and represents the resultant of the
vectors being added.
▪ The angle made by the resultant with the x-axis is the overall direction of the original
vectors. This can be conveniently obtained using a protractor.
▪ Consider the following steps in adding vectors through polygon method:
1. Construct a reference frame.
2. Choose a suitable scale and designate the length of the vector arrows using
the scale to represent the given vectors.
3. From the origin of the reference frame, draw the arrow of the first vector you
are to add.

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 4. At the tip of the first arrow, construct an imaginary reference frame, and from
its origin, draw the second vector. Repeat the process until all the vectors
have been accounted for.
5. Close the polygon by joining the tail of the first vector and the head of the last
vector. Measure the length of the line and convert it to the vector unit. Using a
protractor, measure the angle it makes with the x-axis.
Note: The accuracy of the resultant obtained from this method depends on
how precisely the lines and angles were measured and drawn in the diagram.
Example:
A= 30 N, E
B= 20 N, 450 NE
C= 40 N, 600 NW

b. Parallelogram Method
▪ This is another graphical method of vector addition done by drawing a parallelogram
using two vectors as sides. The diagonal of the parallelogram from the same point of
origin represents the resultant of the vectors added.
▪ These are the steps to be followed when adding vectors using the parallelogram
method.
1. Similar to the polygon method, each vector is represented by an arrow
according to a chosen scale.
2. Draw the two vectors to be added, both from the origin of the reference frame.
3. From the tip of each vector, draw the “free vectors” parallel and equal to them
in order to form a parallelogram.
4. To get the resultant, draw the diagonal from the origin of the reference frame
to the intersection of the “free vectors.” Measure the angle that makes with the
x-axis.
5. If a third vector will be added, it is paired with the resultant of the first two
added earlier, following the same procedure.

Note: To get the resultant of more than two vectors, by this method, take the
two vectors at a time in a successive manner until all vectors are accounted
for. The total resultant is the resultant obtained after the construction of the
parallelogram using the preceding resultant and the last vector as sides.
Example:
A= 30 N, E
B= 20 N, 450 NE
C= 40 N, 600 NW

Analytical Solutions
a. Right Triangle Method
▪ If a right triangle is formed by the components of the resultant, the Pythagorean
Theorem can be used to determine any of the sides.
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
𝑎2 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑏 2

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 ▪ To find any or all of the side or angles of the right triangle, use the following
relationships:
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Examples:
1. An ambulance is driven 60 km West and then 30 km North from one hospital
to another. How far apart are the two hospitals?
2. What is the resultant displacement of Melvin if he walks 3 m, West and 2 m,
300 Northeast?
3. A hiker leaves the camp and hikes 11 km, north and then hikes 11 km, east.
Determine the resulting displacement of the hiker.

b. Any Triangle
▪ In any triangle, the sides obey two basic laws governing the relationships between
them and the angles:
a. Cosine Law
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 − 2𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶
𝑏2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
b. Sine Law
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
Examples:
1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant with respect to the first
vector.
Given:
a= 50N, East
b= 30N, 700 N of E
C= 1100
2. If you have walk 200 ft East and then 400 ft headed 600 North of East, what
could have been the shorter way you have walked? To what direction should
you head?

Component Method
▪ Also referred to as the rectangular resolution of vectors, this method is based on the
system of rectangular coordinates. It is done by resolving the vectors into their
horizontal and vertical components with reference to the x and y axis.
Examples:
1. On a training flight, a student pilot flies from Bayambang to Lingayen which is
45 km away and 850 North of West relative to the former, then flies again from
Lingayen to Urdaneta which is 60 km away and 200 North of East relative to
the former, then flies again from Urdaneta to SM Rosales which is 11 km

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 away and 530 South of East relative to the former. Calculate the distance and
direction which the pilot must fly to get back to Bayambang.
2. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the following
vectors:
A= 110N, 700 S of E
B= 75N, 300 S of W
C= 80N, 650 E of N
D= 50N, N

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Most Essential Learning Competencies:
• Describe motion using the concept of relative velocities in 1D and 2D (STEM_GP12KIN-
Ic20)
• Deduce the consequences of the independence of vertical and horizontal components of
projectile motion (STEM_GP12KIN-Ic22)
• Calculate range, time of flight, and maximum heights of projectiles (STEM_GP12KIN-Ic23)
• Infer quantities associated with circular motion such as tangential velocity, centripetal
acceleration, tangential acceleration, radius of curvature (STEM_GP12KIN-Ic25)
• Solve problems involving two-dimensional motion in contexts such as, but not limited to
ledge jumping, movie stunts, basketball, safe locations during firework displays, and Ferris
wheels (STEM_GP12KIN-Ic26)

KINEMATICS: MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

Classical mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of motion. It can be divided
into two areas: kinematics and dynamics.
▪ Kinematics deals with the description of the motion of bodies without regard to the forces
acting and causing motion.
▪ Dynamics includes the treatment of the causes of the changes in motion.

MOTION

▪ The term position refers to the location of an object. To designate the position of an object,
a reference point and a measurement scale are needed.
Examples:
The entrance to campus is 1.6 km from the intersection with a traffic light.
The book is 15 cm from the corner of the table.
The Cartesian coordinates of the point on a graph are (x, y) = (2.0 cm, 3.0 cm).
▪ If an object changes position, we say that motion has occurred. That is, an object is in
motion when it is undergoing a continuous change in position.
▪ Motion is described by using the fundamental units of length and time.

Types of Motion (based on the path traveled)

1. Translational/Rectilinear motion is a linear motion in which any line in a body moves so

that it remains at all times parallel to itself.

Types of Rectilinear Motion

a. Uniform Motion
▪ If a body moves equal distances for every interval of time, it said to have a
constant velocity and in uniform motion.
b. Accelerated Motion
▪ If a body covers unequal distances for every interval of time, it is said to be in
accelerated motion, where the velocity changes with respect to time.
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 c. Uniformly Accelerated Motion
▪ If a body maintains a constant change in its velocity in a given time interval
along a straight line, then the body is said to have a uniform acceleration.
▪ Specifically, it has the following features:
o Distances traveled after each interval of time are not equal.
o Distance is directly proportional to the square of the time.
o Acceleration is constant.
▪ It can be categorized into two: horizontal dimension and vertical
dimension (free fall).

2. Curvilinear motion is motion in two dimensions.

▪ Example: projectile motion

SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

Speed
▪ The average speed of an object is the total distance traveled divided by the time spent in
traveling the total distance.
▪ Distance is the actual length of the path that is traveled.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝑑
𝑣̅ =
𝑡
▪ Speed has the standard units of m/s. Other common standards are km/h and mi/h.
▪ For example, if a car travels a distance of 420 km in 5 hours, does it mean that the entire
trip takes place at a speed of 84 km/h?
▪ The car does not move with that speed during the entire trip since that car’s speed
increases or decreases as the road goes up and down, as the car overtakes slower
vehicles or when it stops at intersection. The average speed of 84 km/h tells us the average
rate of motion for the car’s entire trip but does not say very little about the variation of speed
during the trip.
▪ The instantaneous speed tells how fast an object is moving at a given instant. The speed
on an automobile speedometer (device that measures instantaneous speed) is a practical
example of instantaneous speed, or the speed of the car at a particular instant.
▪ An object moving at a constant speed in a single direction shows uniform motion.

Velocity
▪ Average velocity is the displacement divided by the total travel time. It is the speed of an
object in a particular direction.
▪ Displacement is the straight-line distance between the initial and final positions, with
direction toward the final position, and is a vector quantity.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑
𝑣̅ =
𝑡
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 ▪ The instantaneous speed at a given instant in time and having a direction corresponding to
that of an object’s motion at that instant is the instantaneous velocity.
Examples:
1. A traveler covers a distance of 1.5 km in 20 minutes. What is the average speed of the
traveler in km/h?
2. A girl walks a distance of 300 m with an average speed of 1.5 m/s. What time is required to
walk this distance?
3. The speed of light in space (vacuum) is c=3.00 x108 m/s. (The speed of light is given the
special symbol c). How many seconds does it take light from the Sun to reach the Earth if
the distance from the Sun to the Earth is 1.50 x108 km?

Acceleration
▪ Because velocity is a vector quantity, with both magnitude and direction, a change in
velocity involves either or both of these factors. Therefore, an acceleration may result from
(1) a change in speed (magnitude), (2) a change in direction, or (3) a change in both speed
and direction. When any of these changes occur, an object is accelerating.
▪ Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity. Taking the symbol Δ (delta)
to mean “change in,” the equation for average acceleration can be written as:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎̅ = =
∆𝑡 𝑡
▪ Negative acceleration is known as deceleration.
▪ The unit of acceleration in the SI is m/s2.

UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION (HORIZONTAL DIMENSION)

𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
2𝑎𝑑 = 𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
1
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 ± 𝑎𝑡 2
2
Where:
a= acceleration
vf= final velocity
vi= initial velocity
t= time
d= distance
Examples:
1. A jeepney from rest accelerates uniformly over a time of 3.25 seconds and covers a
distance of 15 m. Determine the acceleration of the jeepney.
2. A train accelerates to a speed of 20 m/s over a distance of 150 m. Determine the
acceleration (assume uniform) of the train.
3. An airplane from rest accelerates on a runway at 5.50 m/s 2 for 20.25 s until it finally takes
off the ground. What is the distance covered before takeoff?
4. A car starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate of 2.5 m/s 2 for 5 s. What is the
velocity of the car after 5 s?
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UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION (VERTICAL DIMENSION)- FREE FALLING BODIES

▪ When a falling body is free of all restraints- no friction, air, or otherwise, and falls under the
influence of gravity alone- it is said to be in a state of free fall.
▪ A free-falling body is a body in a rectilinear motion where the acceleration is constant and
is equal to the acceleration due to gravity of the earth (g).
Examples:
o Mango falling from a tree.
o A ball thrown upward.
o A person jumping from the 3-storey building.
o A spacecraft with propulsion.
o A pencil dropped by the student.
▪ Gravity is the force that causes things to fall towards the Earth. It is also called as the
“downward force.”
▪ The value of g varies slightly on the earth’s surface depending upon how far the object is
from the earth’s center. The average value of g is 9.8 m/s2.
▪ Considered as a body in uniformly accelerated motion, the equations for motion of free-
falling bodies are:
𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
2𝑔ℎ = 𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
1
ℎ = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 ± 𝑔𝑡 2
2
2ℎ
𝑡=√
𝑔
where:
g= acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
vf= final velocity
vi= initial velocity
t= time
h= height
▪ Note: The value of g assumes a negative sign if the object is rising (moving away from the
earth’s center) and assumes a positive sign if the object is falling (moving towards the
center of the earth).
Examples:
1. A ball was dropped from a cliff 40 m high. Disregarding air resistance, (a) how long did it
take the ball to reach the ground? (b) What was its velocity upon hitting the ground?
2. A stone was thrown vertically upward with a speed, as it leaves the hand of 45 m/s. Find (a)
the maximum height reached, (b) the time of ascend, and (c) the total time in air.
3. A ball was thrown vertically upward with an initial speed of 96 m/s. How high did it rise?
What was the velocity one second after it was thrown? Where was the ball 2 s after it was
thrown (measured above the ground)?
4. The Sears Tower in Chicago is 443 m tall. Suppose a book is dropped from the top of the
building. What would be the book’s velocity at a point 221 m above the ground? Neglect air
resistance.
5. The observation deck of the World Trade Center is 420 m above the street. Determine the
time required for a penny to free fall from the deck to the street below.
16
 KINEMATICS: MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

PROJECTILE MOTION
Projectile motion
▪ Motion of an object that is given an initial velocity and then allowed to move under the
influence of gravity
▪ It is a motion in two dimensions.
▪ It is a combination of horizontal and vertical components of motion which are independent
of each other.

Properties of a Projectile

A projectile is any object with an initial horizontal velocity whose acceleration is due to gravity
alone.
Examples:
o A football kicked by the striker.
o A cannonball fired from a cannon.
o A bullet fired from a gun.
o A disc thrown in the sport of discus throw.
o The flight of golf ball.
o A jet of water escaping from the hose.

a. Trajectory
▪ Curved path followed by the projectile
b. Time of flight
▪ Total time at which the projectile stays in the air
▪ The time it takes for the projectile to go up is equal to the time it takes for the
projectile to go down.
▪ The total time of flight of the projectile is equal to the sum of the time it takes for the
projectile to go up the trajectory and the time it takes for the projectile to go down the
trajectory.
c. Range
▪ Horizontal displacement covered by the projectile
▪ It is the longest horizontal distance covered by a projectile.
▪ The maximum range is attained when the projectile is launched at an angle of 450.
▪ Complementary angles result to the same range.
▪ For smaller angles, object remains in the air for shorter time.
▪ For bigger angles, object remains in the air for longer time.
d. Height
▪ Vertical displacement of the projectile
▪ It is the highest vertical distance attained by a projectile.
▪ At maximum height, the vertical velocity of the projectile is zero.

17
Types of Projectile Motion

1. Object thrown horizontally from a certain height (Half Projectile Motion)

▪ By virtue of its free-fall properties,

𝑔𝑡 2
𝑦= ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
2𝑦
𝑡=√ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑔

At any time t:
▪ The horizontal component of the velocity:
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0
(there is no acceleration along the horizontal because the motion is under the influence
of gravity).
▪ The vertical component of the velocity:
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡
▪ The actual velocity tangent to the path is:
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2
▪ The actual displacement which is the resultant of the x and y components is:
𝑑 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Examples:
1. A ping pong ball leaves a 0.60-meter high table with an initial horizontal velocity of 2.4 m/s.
Predict the (a) time required for the ball to fall to the ground and (b) the horizontal distance
between the table’s edge and the ball’s landing location.
2. A soccer ball is kicked horizontally off a 22.0 meters high hill and lands a distance of 35.0
meters from the edge of the hill. Determine the initial horizontal velocity of the soccer ball.

18
 3. Allen stands on a 27 m high cliff and throws a stone in the positive x direction (forward).
The stone lands at a distance of 35 m from the edge of the cliff. Calculate the horizontal
velocity with which the stone is thrown.

2. Object thrown at an angle above the horizontal (Full Projectile Motion)

▪ The velocity given to the projectile can be resolved into the x and y components:
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
▪ The vertical component causes the body to travel upward and stop then the projectile
reaches the maximum height as the object starts to fall. The equations for a projectile at
an angle are:
𝑣0 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2
𝑦=
2𝑔
2
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑥=
𝑔
2𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡=
𝑔

Examples:
1. A cannon was fired with a muzzle velocity of 200 m/s, mounted at an angle of 300 above
the ground. Calculate the (a) maximum height reached, (b) time of flight, and (c) range of
the projectile.
2. An object is launched at a velocity of 20 m/s in a direction making an angle of 25 0 upward
with the horizontal.
a. What is the maximum height reached by the object?
a. What is the total flight time of the object?
b. What is the horizontal range of the object?
19
CIRCULAR MOTION
▪ Circular motion is the motion of a body along a circle. Examples: motion of the moon
about the earth, artificial satellite orbiting earth, a stone which is tied to a rope and is
being swung in circles
▪ Rotational motion is the motion of a body turning about an axis. Examples: the
spinning top, earth’s rotation on its axis
▪ Period and frequency are physical quantities that are used to describe both circular and
rotational motion.
▪ The period T is the time required for an object to make one complete revolution. It can
be expressed in seconds, minutes, hours or years.
▪ The number of revolutions completed by the same object in a given time is called
frequency f. It can be expressed as per second, per minute, per hour or per year.
1
𝑓=
𝑇
Examples:
1. Tie a piece of chalk to one end of a 0.5 m string. Whirl the chalk in a vertical circle.
Consider a point on the circular path and count the number of revolutions that the chalk will
make in 15 s. You may use a stopwatch or any watch with a second hand. From the result
obtained, compute the number of revolutions it takes in 1 s and the time it will take the chalk
to make one complete revolution.
2. Suppose the rear wheel of a bicycle makes 5 revolutions in 1 minute. What is the frequency
and period of the bicycle wheel?

Uniform circular motion

▪ It is the motion of an object in a circle with a constant or uniform speed.
Examples:
o A car rounding a curve with constant radius at constant speed
o A satellite moving in a circular orbit
o An ice skater skating in a circle with constant speed
▪ In many situations, however, the speed is not constant, resulting in non-uniform
circular motion.
▪ The distance traveled by an object in one revolution along the circle is equal to the
circumference of the circle; that is: 𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟. The elapsed time is equivalent to the period
𝑑
T. By substituting these quantities into the equation 𝑣 = 𝑡 , the speed of an object moving
in a circle is given by the following equation:
2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
𝑇
▪ In terms of frequency,
𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑓.
Where v represents the speed, r represents the radius of the circle, T is the period and f
is frequency.
▪ The best word that can be used to describe the direction of the velocity vector is the
word tangential. The direction is always directed tangent to the circle and as the object
turns the circle, the tangent line is always pointing in a new direction.
▪ While the speed of the object is constant, its velocity is changing. Since the velocity is
changing, the object is accelerating.

20
Examples:
1. A bug is sitting on the edge of a compact disc of radius r=6.0 cm. The bug undergoes
uniform circular motion as the CD spins. (a) If the bug traverses this circle exactly six times
in precisely 1 s, what is the period of the motion? (b) What is the bug’s speed?
2. A little girl is playing with her footjump. The ball in her footjump is in uniform circular motion
and makes 20 revolution in 4.0 s. (a)What is its period? (b) What is its frequency? (c) If the
length of the plastic cord that holds the ball is 0.8 m, what is its speed?

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
▪ This term, originating from the words centre and petere meaning center and towards,
respectively, refers to acceleration that is always directed to the center of a circular path.
▪ In uniform circular motion, the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration ac is equal to
the square of the speed v divided by the radius of the circle r. That is:
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
This is not in the same direction as the linear velocity tangent to the circular path. Its
direction is perpendicular to velocity and inward along the radius.
▪ The magnitude of the acceleration in uniform circulation motion can be expressed in
terms of the period T of the motion, the time for one revolution (one complete trip around
the circle).
4𝜋 2 𝑟
𝑎𝑐 = 2
𝑇

Examples:
1. In a carnival ride, the passengers travel at constant speed in a circle of radius 5.0 m. They
make one complete circle in 4.0 s. What is their acceleration?
2. Calculate the orbital radius of the Earth if its tangential speed is 29.7 km/s and the
centripetal acceleration acting on Earth is 5.9 x10-3 m/s2.
3. A waterwheel built in Hamah, Syria rotates continuously. The wheel’s radius is 20.0 m. If
the wheel rotates once in 16.0 s, what is the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration of the
wheel’s edge?

CENTRIPETAL FORCE
▪ The body in circular motion remains in its path by means of a center-seeking force
called the centripetal force.
▪ That is, there is some physical force pushing or pulling the object towards the center of
the circle. This is the centripetal force requirement. The word centripetal is merely an
adjective used to describe the direction of the force. We are not introducing a new type
of force but rather describing the direction of the net force acting upon the object that
moves in the circle.
▪ Whatever the object, if it moves in a circle, there is some force acting upon it to cause it
to deviate from its straight-line path, accelerate inwards and move along a circular path.

21
 Examples:

▪ To provide a value for acceleration, a net inward force is required. From Newton’s
Second Law: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎. According to this law, an object which experiences an
acceleration must also be experiencing a net force. The direction of the net force is in
the same direction as the acceleration. So for an object moving in a circle, there must be
an inward force acting upon it in order to cause its inward acceleration.
▪ The net force is related to the acceleration of the object and is given by this equation:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
Where Fc, v, m and r represent centripetal force, velocity, mass and radius of path,
respectively.

Examples:
1. The royal antelope of western Africa has an average mass of only 3.2 kg. Suppose this
antelope runs in a circle with a radius of 30.0 m. If a force of 8.8 N maintains this circular
motion, what is the antelope’s tangential speed?
2. Pat Kinch used a racing cycle to travel 75.57 km/h. Suppose Kinch moved at this speed
around a circular track. If the combined mass of Kinch and the cycle was 92.0 kg and the
average force that maintained his circular motion was 12.8 N, what was the radius of the
track?
3. Gregg Reid of Atlanta, Georgia built a motorcycle that is over 4.5 m long and has a mass of
235 kg. The force that holds Reid and his motorcycle in a circular path with a radius 25.0 m
is 1850 N. What is Reid’s tangential speed? Assume Reid’s mass is 72 kg.

22
Most Essential Learning Competencies:
• Define inertial frames of reference (STEM_GP12N-Id-28)
• Identify action -reaction pairs (STEM_GP12N-Id-31)
• Draw free -body diagrams (STEM_GP12N-Id-32)
• Apply Newton’s 1st law to obtain quantitative and qualitative conclusions about the contact
and noncontact forces acting on a body in equilibrium (STEM_GP12N-Ie-33)
• Differentiate the properties of static friction and kinetic friction (STEM_GP12N-Ie-34)
• Apply Newton’s 2nd law and kinematics to obtain quantitative and qualitative conclusions
about the velocity and acceleration of one or more bodies, and the contact and noncontact
forces acting on one or more bodies (STEM_GP12N-Ie-36)
• Solve problems using Newton’s Laws of motion in contexts such as, but not limited to,
ropes and pulleys, the design of mobile sculptures, transport of loads on conveyor belts,
force needed to move stalled vehicles, determination of safe driving speeds on banked
curved roads (STEM_GP12N-Ie-38)
• Calculate the dot or scalar product of vectors (STEM_GP12WE-If-40)
• Determine the work done by a force acting on a system (STEM_GP12WE-If-41)
• Define work as a scalar or dot product of force and displacement (STEM_GP12WE-If-42)
• Interpret the work done by a force in one dimension as an area under a Force vs. Position
curve (STEM_GP12WE-If-43)
• Relate the gravitational potential energy of a system or object to the configuration of the
system (STEM_GP12WE-Ig-48)
• Relate the elastic potential energy of a system or object to the configuration of the system
(STEM_GP12WE-Ig-49)
• Explain the properties and the effects of conservative forces (STEM_GP12WE-Ig-50)
• Use potential energy diagrams to infer force; stable, unstable, and neutral equilibria; and
turning points (STEM_GP12WE-Ig-53)
• Solve problems involving work, energy, and power in contexts such as, but not limited to,
bungee jumping, design of rollercoasters, number of people required to build structures
such as the Great Pyramids and the rice terraces; power and energy requirements of
human activities such as sleeping vs. sitting vs. standing, running vs. walking
(STEM_GP12WE-Ihi-55)
• Differentiate center of mass and geometric center (STEM_GP12WE-Ihi-56)
• Relate the motion of center of mass of a system to the momentum and net external force
acting on the system (STEM_GP12MMICIh-57)
• Relate the momentum, impulse, force, and time of contact in a system
(STEM_GP12MMICIh-58)
• Compare and contrast elastic and inelastic collisions (STEM_GP12MMICIi-60)
• Apply the concept of restitution coefficient in collisions (STEM_GP12MMICIi-61)
• Solve problems involving center of mass, impulse, and momentum in contexts such as, but
not limited to, rocket motion, vehicle collisions, and ping-pong (STEM_GP12MMICIi-63)

23
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTIONS AND APPLICATIONS

FORCE
▪ Force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object’s interaction with another
object.
▪ It is capable of producing motion or a change in motion, that is, a change in velocity or an
acceleration.
▪ A single or net applied force can produce an acceleration. When more than one force acts,
a net or unbalanced force is needed to produce a change in velocity or an acceleration.
▪ Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the
objects. Forces only exist as a result of an interaction.
▪ It is a quantity that is measured using the SI unit known as Newton (N). One Newton is the
amount of force required to give 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s2.
1 Newton=1 kg.m/s2
▪ Force is a vector quantity. To fully describe the force acting upon an object, you must
describe both the magnitude and direction.

Types of Force
1. Contact forces are those types of forces that result when the two interacting objects are
perceived to be physically contacting each other.
a. Applied force
▪ An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by a person or another
object.
▪ Example: If a person is pushing a desk across the room, then there is an
applied force acting upon the object. The applied force is the force exerted on
the desk by the person.
b. Frictional force
▪ The frictional force is the force exerted by a surface as the object moves
across it or makes an effort to move across it.
▪ Directed parallel or tangent to the surfaces in contact
▪ It often opposes the motion of an object. Example: If a book slides across the
surface of a desk, then the desk exerts a friction force in the opposite direction
of its motion.

Types of frictional force

o Static friction
✓ It acts on objects when they are resting on a surface.
✓ For example, if you are hiking in a mountain, there is static friction
between your shoes and the trail each time you put down your foot.
Without this static friction, your feet would slip out from under you,
making it difficult to walk. In fact, that’s exactly what happens if you
try to walk on ice. That’s because ice is very slippery and offers
very little friction.
o Sliding friction
✓ It acts on objects when they are sliding over a surface.

24
 ✓ Sliding friction is weaker than static friction. That’s why it’s easier to
slide a piece of furniture over the floor after you start it moving that
it is to get it moving in the first place.
✓ Sliding friction can be useful. For example, you use sliding friction
when you write with a pencil. The pencil lead slides easily over the
paper, but there’s just enough friction between the pencil and paper
to leave a mark.
o Rolling friction
✓ It acts on objects when they are rolling over a surface.
✓ Rolling friction is much weaker than sliding or static friction. This
explains why most forms of ground transportation use wheels,
including bicycles, cars, 4-wheelers, roller skates, scooters, and
skateboards.
✓ Ball bearings are another use of rolling friction. They let parts of a
wheel or other machine roll rather than slide over on another.
o Viscous/Fluid friction
✓ It acts on objects that are moving through a fluid. A fluid is a
substance that can flow and takes the shape of its container. Fluids
include liquids and gases.
✓ If you’ve ever tried to push your open hand through the water in a
tub or pool, then you’ve experienced fluid friction. You can feel the
resistance of the water against your hand.
✓ Another example is when a skydiver falls toward Earth with a
parachute. Resistance of the air against the parachute slows the
descent. The faster or larger a moving object is, the greater is the
fluid friction resisting its motion. That’s why there is greater air
resistance against the parachute than the skydiver’s body.

c. Air resistance force

▪ The air resistance force is a special type of frictional force that acts upon
objects as they travel through the air.
▪ The force of air resistance is often observed to oppose the motion of an
object.
▪ This force will frequently be neglected due to its negligible magnitude (and
due to the fact that it is mathematically difficult to predict its value).
▪ It is most noticeable for objects that travel at high speeds (e.g. skydiver or a
downhill skier) or for objects with large surface areas.
d. Tension force
▪ The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable
or wire when it is pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends.
▪ The tension force is directed along the length of the wire, away from the body
being pulled and pulls equally on the objects on the opposite end of the wire.
e. Spring force
▪ The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring
upon any object that is attached to it.

25
 ▪An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted upon by a
force that restores the object to its rest or equilibrium position.
▪ For most springs (specifically, for those that are said to obey Hooke’s Law),
the magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or
compression of the spring.
f. Normal force
▪ The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact
with another stable object.
▪ Also called “support or load force”
▪ Directed perpendicular to the surfaces in contact, towards the body in
consideration
▪ Example: If a book is resting upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an
upward force upon the book in order to support the weight of the book.
▪ On occasions, a normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects that
are in contact with each other. For instance, if a person leans against a wall,
the wall pushes horizontally on the person.

2. Non-contact forces/action-at-a-distance forces are those types of forces that result even
when the two interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other yet are able to
exert a push or pull despite their physical separation.
a. Gravitational force
▪ It is the force of attraction that exists between all bodies that have mass.
▪ The gravitational force of the sun keeps the earth and all the other planets of
the solar system in a fixed orbit.
▪ All objects upon earth experience a force of gravity that is directed downward
towards the center of the earth.
▪ Example: When a body is dropped from a height, it moves in a downward
direction towards the Earth with increasing speed (with constant acceleration).
This constant acceleration by which all bodies fall down is called acceleration
due to gravity g.
▪ The force of gravity on earth is always equal to the weight of the object.
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑊
Based on Newton’s second law of motion, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 and, taking weight as the
force of gravity,
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
Where W is the weight of the object, m is the mass of the object and g is the
acceleration due to gravity (depends on the planet). The value of g on earth’s
surface is 9.8 m/s2.

Mass
▪ The mass of an object refers to the amount of matter that is contained by the
object.
▪ The mass of an object (measured in kg) will be the same no matter where in
the universe that object is located. Mass is never altered by location, pull of
gravity, speed or even the existence of other forces.

26
 Weight
▪ The weight of an object is the force of gravity acting upon that object.
▪ The weight of an object (measured in N), being equivalent to the force of
gravity, is dependent upon the value of g.
▪ It varies according to where in the universe the object is. It depends upon
which planet is exerting the force and the distance the object is from the
planet. The value of g is inversely proportional to the distance from the center
of the planet.
▪ Example: Suppose an astronaut has a mass of 50 kg and a weight of 490 N
on Earth. If you bring him to the moon (the value of g on moon is 1.63 m/s2,
one-sixth that of earth), the mass will be the same, but the weight will be
reduced to one-sixth; that is 82.67 N.

b. Electric force
▪ An electric force exists between any two charged particles; it may be either
attractive or repulsive.
▪ The attraction and repulsion between different types of charges are described
by the law of charges: Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
▪ This force exists without contact between the two bodies.
▪ Example: When a comb is run through dry hair, then the comb can attract
small pieces of paper. If you bring a charged comb near your hair, they rise
towards the comb. A charge is developed due to rubbing.
c. Magnetic force
▪ The force exerted by a magnet is called a magnetic force.
▪ Every magnet, no matter how small, has two poles.
▪ Around a magnet is a magnetic field. This is a region in space where the
magnet affects another magnet. Thus, this force exists without contact
between the two magnets.
▪ Law of magnetic poles states that “unlike poles of magnets attract and like
poles repel.”
▪ The magnetic force exerted by a magnet decreases with the increase in the
distance from a magnet.
▪ Examples:
o Magnet attracts metal like iron towards itself.
o When two magnets are brought near each other, then South-South
and North-North poles repel while North-South poles attract each
other.

d. Strong nuclear force

▪ It is the strongest of the four basic forces in nature (the others are the
gravitational, electromagnetic and weak nuclear force).
▪ It has the second shortest range, after weak nuclear force, meaning that
particles must be extremely close before its effects are felt. It is a short
distance force that takes place between fundamental particles within a
nucleus.

27
 ▪Its main job is to hold together the subatomic particles of the nucleus (protons,
which carry a positive charge, and neutrons, which carry no charge. These
particles are collectively called as nucleons).
▪ Two positive charges repel each other because of the electromagnetic force,
so the strong nuclear force lives up to its name by overcoming the intense
repulsion between similarly charged particles that coexist in the nucleus of
atoms.
e. Weak nuclear force
▪ While other forces hold things together, the weak nuclear force plays a
greater role in things falling apart, or decaying.
▪ It is the second weakest force, after the force of gravity, and it’s the force with
the shortest range.
▪ It is the force that allows protons to turn into neutrons and vice versa through
beta decay.

Force Field
▪ Region or space in which non-contact force, such as magnetic, gravitational and electric
force, acts is called force field.
▪ The region surrounding a magnet, where magnetic substance experiences force is called
the magnetic field. The region surrounding an electric charge, where electric charge
experiences force is called the electric field.

Types of Forces based on the Resultant

1. Unbalanced force: The resultant is not equal to zero and would have an overall effect on
the body- either translational or rotational motion.
2. Balanced force: The resultant is equal to zero, giving the body a state of equilibrium in
which it is either at rest or at constant motion.
▪ Equilibrium is the term used when the body acted upon by several forces in
different directions has a zero resultant. It is a condition characterized by being at
rest or in constant motion- where the velocity of the object is the same throughout
the straight-line path.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Newton’s First Law

▪ Also known as Law of Inertia
▪ It states: “A body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion continues to move with
constant velocity in a straight line, unless, in either case, it is acted upon by an unbalanced
force or a nonzero resultant force.”
▪ For example, a book lying on a table is at rest because the forces acting on it- its weight
due to gravity and the upward force of the table are equal in magnitude with the weight but
acting upward- are balanced. Also, a car traveling at constant velocity maintains its motion
unless it is accelerated by some external force that produces nonzero resultant force on it.
▪ Inertia is a measure of the tendency of the body to stay at rest, or of an object in motion to
maintain its original velocity.

28
 ▪ Mass is a measure of inertia. The greater the mass of an object, the greater its inertia, and
vice versa.

Second Law of Motion

▪ Also known as Law of Acceleration
▪ It states: “The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net
force, in the same direction of the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.
▪ The acceleration produced by an unbalanced force acting on an object (or mass) is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the force and in the direction of the force. In other words,
the greater the unbalanced force, the greater the acceleration.
▪ The acceleration of an object acted on by an unbalanced force is inversely proportional to
the mass of the object. That is, for a given unbalanced force, the greater the mass of an
object, the smaller the acceleration.
▪ Combining these effects of force and mass on acceleration gives
𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹 )
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)

▪ It is commonly written in terms of force in magnitude form:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Examples:
1. What net force is required to give a 135 kg box an acceleration of 1.50 m/s 2?
2. What is the mass of a skydiver who has a net force of 260 N and an acceleration of 4 N/kg?
3. A porter applies a horizontal force with a magnitude of 48 N to a 15 kg box. What is the
acceleration of the box?

Third Law of Motion

▪ Also known as Law of Interaction
▪ It states: “For every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.”
▪ The words action and reaction refer to forces.
▪ A more descriptive statement: “Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the
second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first object.”
▪ Forces always occur in pairs. They are equal in magnitude and have the same line of action
but act in opposite directions.
▪ Expressed in equation form:
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹1 = −𝐹2
Where F1 is the force exerted on object 1 by object 2 and -F2 is the force exerted on object
2 by object 1.

▪ Examples:
o The tennis ball is forced forward while in contact with the racket while the ball exerts
a backward force on the racket.

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 o A diver exerts a downward force on the diving board while the diving board exerts an
upward force on the diver.

WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER

WORK
▪ Work (W) is defined as the product of the displacement (d) and the component of force (F)
parallel to the direction of the displacement.
▪ Work is being done only when all the following conditions are satisfied:
o There is force applied on an object.
o The object moves to a distance as the force is applied.
o The force applied has a parallel component with the object’s motion.
▪ There are several good examples of work that can be observed in everyday life:
o A horse pulling a plow through the field
o A father pushing a grocery cart down the aisle of a grocery store
o A freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon her shoulder
o A weightlifter lifting a barbell above his head
o An Olympian launching the shot-put
▪ Mathematically, work can be expressed by the following equation:
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
where F is the force, d is the displacement, and the angle (theta) is defined as the angle
between the force and the displacement vector.
▪ The SI unit of Work is Joule (1 J=1 Nm).

Examples:
1. How much work is done when a 4 kg package is pushed by a horizontal force of 10 N to a
distance of 5 m along a level floor, friction being negligible?
2. A 10 kg object experiences a horizontal force which causes it to accelerate at 5 m/s2,
moving it a distance of 20 m, horizontally. How much work is done by the force?
3. What is the work done in pulling a crate 20 m horizontally when a force of 60 N is applied
on a rope which makes an angle of 300 with the ground?
4. A crate is moved across a frictionless floor by a rope that is inclined 30 degrees above
horizontal. The tension in the rope is 50 N. How much work is done in moving the crate 10
meters?

ENERGY
▪ Energy is defined as a measure of the capacity or the ability to perform work.
▪ Energy and work are closely related. For example, the steam within the cylinder of an
engine can move the piston within the cylinder.
▪ The units in which energy is expressed are the same as the units of the work.

Mechanical Energy
▪ Work is done upon an object whenever a force acts upon it to cause it to be displaced.
Work involves a force acting upon an object to cause a displacement. In all instances in
which work is done, there is an object that supplies the force in order to do the work.

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 o If a book is lifted to the top shelf of a student locker, then the student supplies the force
to do the work on the book.
o If a plow is displaced across a field, then some form of farm equipment (usually a tractor
or a horse) supplies the force to do the work on the plow.
o If a pitcher winds up and accelerates a baseball towards home plate, then the pitcher
supplies the force to do the work on the baseball.
o If a roller coaster car is displaced from ground level to the top of the first drop of a roller
coaster ride, then a chain driven by a motor supplies the force to do the work on the car.
o If a barbell is displaced from ground level to a height above a weightlifter's head, then
the weightlifter is supplying a force to do work on the barbell.
▪ In all instances, an object that possesses some form of energy supplies the force to do the
work. In the instances described here, the objects doing the work (a student, a tractor, a
pitcher, a motor/chain) possess chemical potential energy stored in food or fuel that is
transformed into work. In the process of doing work, the object that is doing the work
exchanges energy with the object upon which the work is done. When the work is done
upon the object, that object gains energy. The energy acquired by the objects upon which
work is done is known as mechanical energy.
▪ Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due to its motion or due to
its position. It can be either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential energy (stored
energy of position).
▪ Objects have mechanical energy if they are in motion and/or if they are at some position
relative to a zero potential energy position (for example, a brick held at a vertical position
above the ground or zero height position).
▪ A moving car possesses mechanical energy due to its motion (kinetic energy). A moving
baseball possesses mechanical energy due to both its high speed (kinetic energy) and its
vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A book at rest on the top
shelf of a locker possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground
(gravitational potential energy). A barbell lifted high above a weightlifter's head possesses
mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential
energy). A drawn bow possesses mechanical energy due to its stretched position
(elastic potential energy).

Forms of Mechanical Energy

1. Potential energy is the capacity of the body to do work as a result of its position or
configuration. Two most commonly encountered types of mechanical potential energy are
the gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy.
a. Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is acquired by a body by virtue of the fact that
it has been lifted vertically against the gravitational force of the earth’s attraction. It
can do work because of its position.
o From the definition of work W=Fd where W is equivalent to the GPE, F is the
weight (mg), and d is the height (h). Thus, the equation for GPE is:
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
b. Elastic potential energy (EPE) is acquired by a body when work is done against
elastic forces acting on it. When we stretch a rubber band, we perform work on it,
and it acquires elastic potential energy. Elastic bodies are those that have the
ability to return to their original forms and size after the application of external forces.

31
 o Elastic potential energy is given by this equation:
𝑘𝑥 2
𝐸𝑃𝐸 =
2

Where: k is the spring constant and x is the spring displacement

2. Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy acquired by a body due to its motion as a result of the
external forces acting on it. The equation for KE is:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸 =
2
Examples:
1. What is the kinetic energy of a baseball whose mass is 200 grams when it is thrown with a
velocity of 16 m/s?
2. By virtue of its position, what is the energy possessed by a rock weighing 45000 g which
lies on the edge of a cliff 150 ft high?
3. A 0.5 kg ball acquires 28 Joules of work after it is hit by a batter. What is the velocity of the
ball?
4. What is the elastic potential energy of a car spring that has been stretched 0.5 m? The
spring constant for the car is 90 N/m.

Work-Energy Theorem
▪ The work-energy theorem states that “the total work done on any particle by the
resultant force is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body.”
𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
∑𝐹 = 𝑚( )
2𝑑
𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
∑𝐹 𝑥 𝑑 = 𝑚( )
2
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = −
2 2
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝐾𝐸 → Work-Energy Theorem

Conservation of Energy
▪ It states that “energy can neither be created nor destroyed, although it is subject to
change from one form to another.”
▪ Consider the figure on the right. The swinging
pendulum possess both potential and kinetic
energy. At points C and B, it gains its maximum
potential energy and minimum kinetic energy.
When it reaches the lowest point, A, it gains its
maximum kinetic energy and minimum potential
energy. As it swings back and forth, the energy
constantly changes from potential to kinetic and
vice versa. The total energy of the system does
not change.
▪ The total mechanical energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies.
𝑀𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
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POWER
▪ The word power is employed to represent the time rate of doing work. When a quantity of
work (W) is performed in a time interval (t), the average power is defined by the relation:
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡
▪ The SI unit of power is Joule/second (1 J/s= 1 watt).

Examples:
1. Jean climbs a stair in 1.5 minutes. If she weighs 450 N and the stairs is 10 m from the
ground, how much power will she develop?
2. A 60 kg boy walks up a flight of stairs 10 meters high in 30 seconds. How much power did
he spend?

MOMENTUM, IMPULSE, AND COLLISION

LINEAR MOMENTUM
▪ Momentum is the measure of a body’s translational motion- its tendency to continue moving
in a particular direction.
▪ According to Newton’s second law, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
∆𝑣
▪ However, acceleration is defined as: 𝑎 = 𝑡
∆𝑣
▪ Therefore, 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑡
▪ Rearranging the equation will give
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚∆𝑣 → Impulse-Momentum Theorem
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
▪ The about equation can be expressed in this way:
In a collision, an object experiences a force for a specific amount of time that results in a
change in momentum. The result of the force acting for the given amount of time is that the
object's mass either speeds up or slows down (or changes direction). The impulse
experienced by the object equals the change in momentum of the object
▪ The product of the mass and the velocity at which the body moves is its momentum (P).
▪ Any object with momentum is going to be hard to stop. To stop such an object, it is
necessary to apply a force against its motion for a given period of time. The more
momentum that an object has, the harder that it is to stop. Thus, it would require a greater
amount of force or a longer amount of time or both to bring such an object to a halt. As the
force acts upon the object for a given amount of time, the object's velocity is changed; and
hence, the object's momentum is changed.

IMPULSE
▪ The product of the force and the time through which it acts is called impulse (I).
▪ Impulse produces a change in the momentum of the body as the velocity changes due to
an acceleration that may be acquired from varying magnitudes of force applied to it.
▪ Momentum is transferred to a body in motion by giving it an impulse. This impulse is the
force exerted on it for a certain amount of time.

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 Thus, 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 (𝐼 ) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹 ) × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
And in terms of momentum, 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝑃) = 𝑚(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
▪ Momentum is a vector quantity which obeys the direction of the velocity. Impulse is also a
vector quantity directed in the same way as the force applied to it. Both are expressed in
units of mass and velocity such as kg m/s.
▪ In increasing the momentum of an object, increasing the force is a requirement. But if the
time of contact is increased, the greater the change in momentum occurs- the larger the
impulse.
▪ If you were asked to catch a raw egg with your bare hands, playing egg catch and throw,
how would you catch the egg without breaking it? When particle starts to contact with our
hands, generally we draw our hands backward. Others may move their hands forward
ended up breaking or crushing the egg. For these instances, momentum is decreased by
the same impulse. The only difference is how long the egg touches the hand. The longer
the time of contact, the lesser the force applied; and the shorter the time of contact, the
greater force is applied. That is why air bag is used in a vehicle as safety device. This
device makes the time of contact (you and the dashboard) longer which lessens the impact
force.

Examples:
1. Calculate the momentum of a 1200 kg car with a velocity of 25 m/s.
2. The parking brake on a 1200 kg automobile has broken, and the vehicle has reached a
momentum of 7800 kg.m/s. What is the velocity of the vehicle?
3. A toy dart gun generates a dart with 140 kg.m/s momentum and a velocity of 4 m/s. What is
the mass of the dart in grams?
4. What will be the change in momentum caused by a net force of 120 N acting on an object
for 22 seconds?
5. An aircraft jet engine has a thrust of 150 N. What impulse is produced in 30 s?
6. A tricycle has a mass of 180 kg. If it has a velocity of 8 m/s northward, what is its
momentum? How long must a force of 100 N act on the tricycle to give it this momentum?

Conservation of Momentum
▪ The law of momentum conservation can be stated as follows: the total momentum of all
systems interacting with one another remains constant regardless of the nature of
the forces between the systems.
▪ For a collision occurring between object 1 and object 2 in an isolated system, the total
momentum of the two objects before the collision is equal to the total momentum of the two
objects after the collision. That is, the momentum lost by object 1 is equal to the momentum
gained by object 2. The total momentum of a collection of objects (a system) is conserved -
that is, the total amount of momentum is a constant or unchanging value.

34
▪ Consider a collision between two objects -
object 1 and object 2. For such a collision, the
forces acting between the two objects are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
(Newton's third law). This statement can be
expressed in equation form as follows:
𝐹1 = −𝐹2
The forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

▪ The forces act between the two objects for a given amount of time. In some cases, the time
is long; in other cases, the time is short. Regardless of how long the time is, it can be said
that the time that the force acts upon object 1 is equal to the time that the force acts upon
object 2. This is merely logical. Forces result from interactions (or contact) between two
objects. If object 1 contacts object 2 for 0.050 seconds, then object 2 must be contacting
object 1 for the same amount of time (0.050 seconds). As an equation, this can be stated
as:
𝑡1 = 𝑡2

▪ Since the forces between the two objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
and since the times for which these forces act are equal in magnitude, it follows that
the impulses experienced by the two objects are also equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. As an equation, this can be stated as:
𝐹1 𝑡1 = −𝐹2 𝑡2
The impulses are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

▪ But the impulse experienced by an object is equal to the change in momentum of that
object (the impulse-momentum change theorem). Thus, since each object experiences
equal and opposite impulses, it follows logically that they must also experience equal and
opposite momentum changes. As an equation, this can be stated as:
𝑚1 ∆𝑣1 = −𝑚2 ∆𝑣2
The momentum changes are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

▪ In a collision, the momentum change of object 1 is equal to and opposite of the momentum
change of object 2. That is, the momentum lost by object 1 is equal to the momentum
gained by object 2. In most collisions between two objects, one object slows down and
loses momentum while the other object speeds up and gains momentum. If object 1 loses
75 units of momentum, then object 2 gains 75 units of momentum. Yet, the total momentum
of the two objects (object 1 plus object 2) is the same before the collision as it is after the
collision. The total momentum of the system (the collection of two objects) is conserved

▪ The figure below shows a stationary ball set into motion by a collision with a moving ball.
Let us assume that both balls are on a smooth floor and that neither ball rotates before or
after the collision. (a) Before the collision, the momentum of the ball B is equal to zero
because the ball is at rest. (b) During collision, ball B gains momentum while ball A loses

35
 momentum. As it turns out, the momentum that the ball A loses is exactly equal to the
momentum that ball B gains.

▪ The table below shows the velocity and momentum of each ball, before and after the
collision. Because of the collision, ball’s momentum changes but the total momentum of
both balls remains constant.

▪ In other words, the momentum of the ball A plus the momentum of the ball B before
collision is equal to the momentum of ball A plus the momentum of ball B after collision.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
It can be expressed as:
𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 ′ + 𝑚2 𝑣2 ′

Where:
𝑚1 = mass of an object 1
𝑚2 = mass of an object 2
𝑣1 = velocity of an object 1 before collision
𝑣2 = velocity of an object 2 before collision
𝑣1 ′ = velocity of an object 1 after collision
𝑣2 ′ = velocity of an object 2 after collision

Examples:
1. A marble of mass 0.04 kg moving with a speed 2.0 m/s strikes a second marble, initially at
rest, of mass 0.04 kg. As a result of collision, the first ball comes to rest and the second ball
moves in the opposite direction. What is the velocity of marble 2?
2. A 1 000-kg rocket carrying 25 kg of fuel and oxygen rises at a velocity of 305 m/s. If all the
mass of fuel and oxygen is burned to form gases of combustion, what is the downward
velocity of these gases?
3. A 70 kg traveler, initially at rest in a stationary 40 kg boat, steps out of the boat and landed
onto the dock. If the traveler moves out of the boat with a velocity of 2.0 m/s going right,
what is the final velocity of the boat?

36
COLLISION

▪ Collision happens when there is a strong interaction between two objects in a relatively
short time. When two objects collide from each other and no net force exists, the total
momentum of both objects is conserved. In some collisions, two objects collide and stick
together so that they travel together after the impact. In other cases, two objects collide and
bounce so that they move with two different velocities.

Types of Collision
1. In an elastic collision, the total kinetic energy of the system (all the objects that
collide) is conserved. Example of such collision might involve a super-bouncy ball; if
you were to drop it, it would bounce all the way back up to the original height from
which it was dropped. Another elastic collision example may be observed in a game
of billiards. At impact, the cue ball
stops, but transfers all its momentum
to the other ball, resulting in the hit
ball rolling with the initial speed of the
cue ball.
2. In an inelastic collision, the total
momentum of the system is
conserved, but the total kinetic
energy of the system is not
conserved. Instead, the kinetic
energy is transferred to another kind of energy such as heat or internal energy. A
dropped ball of clay demonstrates an extremely inelastic collision. It does not bounce
at all and loses its kinetic energy. Instead, all the energy goes to deforming the ball
into a flat bob. A special case of inelastic collision called perfectly inelastic
collision, happens when the colliding particles stick together and move as one
system after the collision.

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References:
Evangelista, A. D. and Garcia N. J. General College Physics: A Work Text, Grematima Publishing
House, Batangas City, Philippines
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Holt Physics: Problem Workbook, Harcourt Classroom Education
Company, USA
Navanza, D. C. and Valdes, B. J. (2009) Physics Textbook, Phoenix Publishing House Inc.
Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2008) University Physics with Modern Physics: 12th Edition,
Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing, San Francisco, CA 94111, USA

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