Milan Budhathoki (MB)

Department of Physics
Trinity Int’l college, Kathmandu
 Physics XI and XII

MECHANICS GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

ELECTROSTATICS WAVE AND SOUND

PHYSICAL OPTICS

ELECTRICITY MAGNETISM

MODERN PHYSICS
MECHANICS
Unit and dimension
Vector
Kinematics
Laws of motion
Friction
Work energy and power
Circular motion
Gravitation
Elasticity
Equilibrium
Simple harmonic motion
Surface tension
Viscosity
Hydrostatics
Rotational dynamics
 QUANTITY
PHYSICAL QUANTITES
Can be measured and can be
expressed as the combination of a
numerical value and a unit. For
example mass, distance velocity,
density, height, area etc.
NON PHYSICAL QUANTITES
Cannot be measured by any
mean or media. These
quantities do not have
magnitude of themselves.eg,
Feelings, Angriness,
Rudeness, etc.
 To be quantitative,Physics requires measurements
.How tall is Raajan Adhikari? How about
his weight?
 Height: 2.27 m (7 ft 3 in)
 Weight: 70 kg

 ( Number + Unit )= magnitude

 “thickness is 10.” has no physical meaning

 Both numbers and units necessary for
any meaningful physical quantities
Physical Quantity
A quantity which is measurable is called ‘physical quantity’.

Fundamental Quantity
A physical quantity which is the base and can not be derived from any other
quantity is called ‘fundamental quantity’.
Examples: Length, Mass, Time, etc.

Derived Quantity
A physical quantity which can be derived or expressed from base or
fundamental quantity / quantities is called ‘derived quantity’.
Examples: Speed, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque,
energy, pressure, density, thermal conductivity, resistance, magnetic
moment, etc.

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Unit
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic,
arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called unit.

Fundamental Units
The units of the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental or base
units.

Examples: metre, kilogramme, second, etc.

Derived Units
The units of the derived quantities which can be expressed from the base or
fundamental quantities are called derived units.

Examples: metre/sec, kg/m3, kg m/s2, kg m2/s2, etc.

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System of Units
A complete set of both fundamental and derived units is known as the system of
units.
Is Ek haat, maana-paathi, tin mudka, 10 angul totally trustworthy?
Characteristics of Standard Units
A unit selected for measuring a physical quantity must fulfill the following
requirements:
i) It should be well defined.
ii) It should be of suitable size i.e. it should neither be too large nor too small in
comparison to the quantity to be measured.
iii) It should be reproducible at all places.
iv) It should not change from place to place or time to time.
v) It should not change with the physical conditions such as temperature, pressure,
etc.
vi) It should be easily accessible.

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Various System of Units
In earlier time, various systems like ‘fps’, ‘cgs’ and ‘mks’ system of units were
used for measurement. They were named so from the fundamental units in
their respective systems as given below:

Quantity Dimension System of units

fps cgs mks
Length L foot centi metre metre
Mass M pound gramme kilogramme
Time T second second second

Systeme Internationale d’ unites (SI Units)

The SI system with standard scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations was
developed and recommended by General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971
for international usage in scientific, technical, industrial and commercial work.
This is the system of units which is at present accepted internationally.
SI system uses decimal system and therefore conversions within the system are quite
simple and convenient.
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Fundamental Units in SI system

Quantity Symbol SI unit Symbol

Length L metre m

Mass M kilogramme kg
Time T second s
Electric Current A ampere A
Main units Thermodynamic K kelvin K
Temperature

Light Intensity Cd candela cd

Amount of mole mole mol
substance

Plane angle dθ radian rad

Supplementa
ry units Solid angle dΩ steradian sr

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Plane angle
Plane angle ‘dθ’ is the ratio of arc ‘ds’ to the radius ‘r’. Its SI unit is ‘radian’.

ds
r
ds
dθ dθ =
r r
O

Solid angle
Solid angle ‘dΩ’ is the ratio of the intercepted area ‘dA’ of the spherical surface
described at the apex ‘O’ as the centre, to the square of its radius ‘r’. Its SI unit is
‘steradian’.

dA

dΩ dA
dΩ =
r2
O
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Methods of measuring mass
(i) By using a common balance.

(ii) Large masses in the Universe like planets, stars, etc.,

based on Newton’s law of gravitation can be measured by
using gravitational method.

(iii) For measurement of small masses of atomic/subatomic

particles etc., we make use of mass spectrograph in which
radius of the trajectory is proportional to the mass of a
charged particle moving in uniform electric and magnetic
field.

Range of Masses

The masses of the objects, we come across in the

Universe, vary over a very wide range.

These may vary from tiny mass of the order of 10-30 kg of

an electron to the huge mass of about 1055 kg of the
known Universe.

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DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

The nature of a physical quantity is described by its dimensions.

All the physical quantities can be expressed in terms of the seven base or fundamental
quantities viz. mass, length, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature,
intensity of light and amount of substance, raised to some power.

The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the
fundamental or base quantities are raised to represent that quantity.

Note:
Using the square brackets [ ] around a quantity means that we are dealing with ‘the
dimensions of’ the quantity.

Example:

The dimensions of volume of an object are [L3]

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 Dimensions and symbol

1-D 2-D 3-D

Length = L → m
Area= l x b →m2 Volume = l x b x h =m3
All the physical quantities can be expressed in terms of fundamental quantity.
Displacement [ L]
(1)velocit y(v)    [ L][T 1 ]  [M 0 L1T 1 ]
time [T ]
Therefore dimensions of velocity are 0 in mass, 1 in length
and -1 in time and its unit is m/s
Change in velocit y [ LT 1 ]
(2) Acceleration    [ LT -2 ]  [M 0 L1T 2 ]
Time [T ]
Unit is m/ s2
(3) Area
Area(A)  Length x Breath  [L] [L]  [L2 ]  [M 0 L2T 0 ]
Unit is m2

(4) Force= mass x acceleration

Force(F)  mass x acceleration  [M] [LT-2 ]  [MLT 2 ]

Unit is kgm/ s2 = N

(5) Density
mass [M ]
Density(  )  3 0
 3  [ML T ]
Volume [ L ]
Unit is Kg/m3
 M 1M 2
(6) Gravitational Constant(G)
F G 2
R
FR2 [ MLT 2 ][ L2 ] 1 3  2
G  2
 [ M LT ]
M 1M 2 M
Unit is Nm2 /kg2

(7)Kinetic Energy(K.E.)
1
K .E.  mass x (velocity ) 2  [ ML2T 2 ]
2
Unit is Nm
(8) Charge(Q) * Current=Flow of charge/Time

Ch arge  Current  Time  [ A][T ]  [M L T A ]

0 0 1 1

Unit is As or C

(9) Electric potential(V) Potential energy = charge x potential

0r Potential= energy(or,W.D)/ charge
2 2
[M ][ L ][T ]
Pot.(V )   [ML2T 3 A1 ]
[T ][ A]
Unit is J/C or Volt
 change in Temperature [ K ]
(10) Temperature Gradient    [M 0 L1T 0 A0 K 1 ]
change in distance [ L]

Unit is K/m

(11) Angular velocity(ω)

Angle [M 0 L0T 0 ]
Angular velocity    [M 0 L0T 1 ]
Time [T ]
Unit is rad/s
Q. Calculate the dimensional formula of coefficient of viscosity(η).
{F=6πηrv}

Mass 1 Length -1 and Time -1

Practice
1. Linear momentum(p) p=mv
2. Angular Momentum(L) L=mvr
3. Pressure(P) Pressure =Force/Area
4. Work(W) Work= Force x displacement
5. Frequency(f) frequency=1/time period
6. Plank’s constant(h) Energy=plank’s constant x frequency
7. Resistance(R) Potential= current x resistance
8. Capacitance(C) Charge=Capacitance x potential
9. Force constant(k) Force=k x displacement
10.Stress = force/Area
11.Strain= change in length/original length
12. Impulse =Force x time
13. Torque= Force x distance
14. Surface tension = force/length
15. Heat= energy
16. Entropy=energy/ temp
17. Specific heat = amount of heat/mass x change in temp.
18). Latent heat= amount of heat/mass
19. Coefficient of thermal conductivity=rate of heat flow/ area x
temp. gradient.
20. Mechanical equivalent of heat= Mechanical work/heat energy.
21. Boltzmann constant=energy/temp
22. Gas constant(PV=nRT)
23. Electric intensity=F/Q
Q. Which one of the following quantities have dimensions different
from remaining two?

1) Energy per unit volume.

2) Force per unit area.
3) Angular momentum per unit mass..
4) All 1,2 ,3 are same.

[1,-1,-2] [1,-1,-2][0,2,-1]
 On the basis of dimensional analysis Physical Quantities are classified

Dimensional variables Do not have fixed value but have dimension.e.gForce,velocity,

Do not have dimension as well as fixed value .e.g, refractive index,

Dimensionless variables strain, relative density…

have fixed value and dimension. Gravitational constant,

Dimensional constant
plank’s constant, universal gas constant….

Dimensionless constant have fixed value but have no dimension. E.g 1,2,π ,e…..

Principle of homogeneity
The dimensions of all the terms on two sides of dimensional equation must
be same. Quantities in addition or subtraction should have same dimension.

2 Kg + 3 m =? 5 m + 1 hr = ? 2 Kg + 3 Kg v =u +at
=5Kg
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represent
the dimensions of a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula of the
given physical quantity.

Example:

(i) The dimensional formula of the volume is [M° L3 T°],

(ii) The dimensional formula of speed or velocity is [M° L T-1]
(iii) The dimensional formula of acceleration is [M° L T–2]

An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional

formula is called the dimensional equation of the physical quantity.

Example:

(i) [V] = [M° L3 T°]

(ii) [v] = [M° L T-1]
(iii) [a] = [M° L T–2]

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Quantities having the same dimensional formulae

1. Impulse and momentum

2. Work, energy, torque, moment of force
3. Angular momentum, Planck’s constant, rotational impulse
4. Stress, pressure, modulus of elasticity, energy density
5. Force constant, surface tension, surface energy
6. Angular velocity, frequency, velocity gradient
7. Gravitational potential, latent heat
8. Thermal capacity, entropy, universal gas constant and Boltzmann’s const.
9. Force, thrust
10. Power, luminous flux

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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Dimensional analysis is a tool to find or check relations among physical quantities

by using their dimensions.

When magnitudes of two or more physical quantities are multiplied, their units
should be treated in the same manner as ordinary algebraic symbols.
We can cancel identical units in the numerator and denominator.
Similarly, physical quantities represented by symbols on both sides of a
mathematical equation must have the same dimensions.
Dimensional Analysis can be used-

1. To check the dimensional consistency of equations

(Principle of homogeneity of dimensions).

2. To convert units in one system into another system.

3. To derive the relation between physical quantities based on certain

reasonable assumptions.
4. To find the dimensions of dimensional constants.

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I. Checking the Dimensional Consistency of Equations
The principle of homogeneity of dimensions:

The magnitudes of physical quantities may be added

together or subtracted from one another only if they have
the same dimensions.

For example, initial velocity can be added to or subtracted

from final velocity because they have same dimensional
formula [M0LT-1] .

But, force and momentum can not be added because their

dimensional formulae are different and are [MLT-2] and
[MLT-1] respectively.

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Example:

i). To check the dimensional consistency of v2 = u2 + 2as

The dimensions of the quantities involved in the equation are:

[u] = [M0LT-1]
[v] = [M0LT-1]
[a] = [M0LT-2]
[s] = [M0LT0]

Substituting the dimensions in the given equation,

[M0LT-1]2 = [M0LT-1]2 + [M0LT-2] [M0LT0] (Note that the constant 2 in the term
‘2as’ does not have dimensions)
[M0L2T-2] = [M0L2T-2] + [M0L2T-2]

Each term of the above equation is having same dimensions.

Therefore, the given equation is dimensionally correct or dimensionally consistent.

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Note:
A dimensionally correct equation need not be actually an exact
(correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong (incorrect) or
inconsistent equation must be wrong.

Example: Equations v2 = u2 - 2as or v2 = u2 + ½as are dimensionally

consistent but are incorrect equations in mechanics.

Albert Einstein tried his famous mass-energy equation as

E = m / c2, E = m2 / c, E = m2 c, etc.

Finally he settled with E = m c2 using dimensions and then proved it

with the help of Calculus.
C.W.
Chek the dimensional consistency of formula
1) K. E.= p2/2m, where p is linear momentum and m is mass
2) Centripetal force, F=mv2/r where m is mass, v is velocity and r is
radius

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2. To check the dimensional consistency of ½ mv2 = mgh
The dimensions of the quantities involved in the equation are:

[m] = [ML0T0]
[v] = [M0LT-1]
[g] = [M0LT-2]
[h] = [M0LT0]

Substituting the dimensions in the given equation,

[ML0T0] [M0LT-1]2 = [ML0T0] [M0LT-2] [M0LT0]

[ML2T-2] = [ML2T-2] (Note that the constant ½ in the term ‘½

mv2 ’ does not have dimensions)

Each term of the above equation is having same dimensions.

Therefore, the given equation is dimensionally correct or
dimensionally consistent.
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II. Conversion of units in one system into another system
Units are derived from the dimensions and the dimensions are derived from the
actual formulae of physical quantities.

If the dimensions are known for a physical quantity, then it is easy to express it in
fps, cgs, mks, SI systems or any other arbitrary chosen system.
magnitude in one system=magnitude in other system
n1[M1aL1bT1c] = n2[M2aL2bT2c]

a b c
M1 L1 T1
n2 = n1
M2 L2 T2

n1 and n2 are the magnitudes in the respective systems of units.

Smaller the unit bigger the magnitude of a physical quantity and vice versa.

For example, 1 m = 100 cm (m is the bigger unit and cm is the smaller one)
1 N = 105 dynes (Newton is bigger and dyne is smaller)

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Example:

1. To convert 1 joule in erg.

‘joule’ is unit of energy or work in SI system and ‘erg’ is the unit in cgs system.
The dimensional formula of energy or work is [ML2T-2].
The units from dimensions in SI and cgs systems are kg m2 s-2 and g cm2 s-2 respectively.

Let n1 joule = n2 erg

SI System cgs System

Magnitude n1 = 1 n2 = ?
Mass (M) 1 kg (=1000 g) 1g
Length (L) 1 m (= 100 cm) 1 cm
Time (T) 1s 1s
[MaLbTc] = [ML2T-2] Therefore, a=1, b=2, c=-2

a b c n2 = 1 (1000)1 (100)2 (1)-2

M1 L1 T1
n2 = n1
M2 L2 T2 n2 = 107
1 2 -2
1000 g 100 cm 1s 1 joule = 107 erg
n2 = 1
1g 1 cm 1s
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2. To convert 1 newton into a system where mass is measured in
mg, length in km and time in minute
‘newton or kg m s-2’ is unit of force in SI system and ‘mg km min-2’ is the unit in the new
system.
The dimensional formula of force is [MLT-2].
Let n1 newton = n2 mg km min-2
SI System New System
Magnitude n1 = 1 n2 = ?
Mass (M) 1 kg (=106 mg) 1 mg
Length (L) 1 m (= 1/1000 km) 1 km
Time (T) 1 s (= 1/60) 1s
[MaLbTc] = [MLT-2] Therefore, a=1, b=1, c=-2
a b c
M1 L1 T1 n2 = 1 (106 )1 (10-3)1 (60)2
n2 = n1
M2 L2 T2 n2 = 3.6 x 106
1 1 -2
106 mg 1/1000 km 1/60 s
n2 = 1 1 newton =3.6x106mg km min-2
1 mg 1 km 1s

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 III. Deducing Relation among the Physical Quantities
l
T =k
g The method of dimensions can sometimes be used to deduce relation among
the physical quantities.

For this we should know the dependence of the physical quantity on other
quantities (upto three physical quantities or linearly independent variables) and
consider it as a product type of the dependence.
Example:
1. Consider a simple pendulum, having a bob attached to a string that
oscillates under the action of the force of gravity. Suppose that the period of
oscillation of the simple pendulum depends on its length (l), mass of the bob (m)
and acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive the expression for its time period using
method of dimensions.

The dependence of time period T on the quantities l, g and m as a product

may be written as:
T ⍺ lx ……….(1)
T ⍺ my ….. . ….(2)

T ⍺ gz , ….(3) on combining
T = k lx my gz

where k is dimensionless constant and x, y and z are the exponents.

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The dimensions of the quantities involved in the equation are:

[m] = [ML0T0]
[l] = [M0LT0]
[g] = [M0LT-2]
[T] = [M0L0T]

By substituting dimensions on both sides of T = k lx my gz, we have

[M0L0T] = [M0LT0]x [ML0T0]y [M0LT-2]z

[M0L0T] = [M]y [L]x+z [T]-2z

On equating the dimensions on both sides, we have

y=0
x+z=0
–2z = 1

So that x = ½ , y = 0, z = -½
Then, T = k l½ g–½

Or l The value of k is 2π l
T=k T = 2π
g g
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Find the relation of velocity of transverse wave in string with
tension(force per unit length) and linear density( μ) of string.
 iv) To find the dimensions of dimensional constants
There are constants in physics having dimensions. The
dimensions of such constants can be found by using the principle
of homogeneity.
Example:

dv
force(F)  A
1)

dx

m1M2
2)F= G
r2
Demerits of Dimensional Analysis
The dimensional analysis can not be used in the following cases:

1. The value of constants in an equation can not be determined as the constants

do not have dimensions.

2. Only dimensional consistency and not the physical consistency can be tested.

3. Dimensions can be found from the physical quantity, but physical quantity can
not be always guessed from dimensions because two or more quantities may
have same dimensions.

4. The equation containing the dependency on more than 3 quantities can not be
determined using only M, L and T.
(Note that if 4 independent quantities are involved, then 4 variables
and hence 4 simultaneous equations are required; hence there must
be 4 fundamental dimensions)

5. The equation containing exponential, trigonometric, logarithmic

functions, etc. can not be derived as they do not have dimensions.

6. The equations having the relations other than products / quotients can not be
derived.
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 Dimensional formulae for some physical quantities
Physical Sym Formula Dimensional Unit
quantity bol
formula

Length L Fundamental [M0LT0] m

Mass M Fundamental [ML0T0] kg

Time T Fundamental [M0L0T] s

Area A Length x breadth [M0L2T0] m2

Volume V Length x breadth x height [M0L3T0] m3

General

Linear density Mass / length [ML–1T0] kg m–1

Mass Density ρ Mass / volume [ML–3T0] Kg m–3

Specific gravity
or RD Density of the substance /
density of water [MoLoTo] ––
relative density
Specific 1 / density [M–1L3T0] kg–1 m3
volume
Time period T Time taken for 1 [M0L0T] s
oscillation
Frequency ν 1 / time period [M0L0T–1] Hz or s-1
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 Distance, displacement, s, λ, [M0LT0] m
wavelength, focal length f

Speed v Distance / [M0LT–1] m s–1

time

Velocity v Displacement / time [M0LT–1] m s–1

Velocity gradient dv / dx [M0L0T–1] s–1

Mechanics

Acceleration or a or Velocity / time [M0LT–2] m s–2

acceleration due to g
gravity
Momentum p Mass x velocity [MLT–1] kg m s–1

kg m s–2
Force F Mass x acceleration [MLT–2] or
newton (N)

Force constant or K Force / extension [ML0T–2] N m–1

spring constant

Impulse j Force x time [MLT–1] N s or

kg m s–1
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 Force x kg m2s–2
Work W Displacement [ML2T–2] or
joule (J)
Energy E Capacity to do work [ML2T–2] joule (J)
Mechanics

Energy density Energy / volume [ML–1T–2] J m–3

(Work or energy) / J s–1

Power P time [ML2T–3] or
Watt (W)
N m–2
Pressure P Force / area [ML–1T–2] or
Pascal (Pa)

Pressure head [MoLTo] m

Gravitational G P E / mass [M0L2T–2] J kg–1

potential
Gravitation

Universal
gravitational G G = F d2/(m1m2) [M–1L3T–2] N m2 kg–2
constant
Intensity of
gravitational F/m [M0L1T–2] N kg–1
field

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 Angle θ Arc/radius [MoLoTo] rad
Angular θ [MoLoTo] rad
displacement
Angular impulse Torque x time [ML2T–1] Nms

Angular velocity ω Angular [M0L0T–1] rad s–1

displacement / time
Rotational Motion

Angular frequency ω Angular [M0L0T–1] rad s–1

displacement / time

Angular momentum L Moment arm x linear [ML2T–1] kg m2 s–1

momentum

Torque or moment τ
of force Force x moment arm [ML2T–2] Nm

I
Moment of inertia Mass x radius2 [ML2T0] kg m2
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 Stress Restoring force / area [ML–1T–2] N m–2
or Pa

Strain Change in dimension / [MoLoTo] ––

original dimension

Modulus of elasticity E Stress / strain [ML–1T–2] N m–2 or

Pa
Properties of matter

Bulk modulus K P.

V
[ML–1T–2] N m–2 or
V Pa
Pa–1
Compressibility 1 / bulk modulus [M–1LT2] or
N–2 m2

Poisson’s ratio Lateral strain / [MoLoTo] ––

longitudinal strain

Surface tension ς Force / length [ML0T–2] N m–1 or

J m–2

Surface energy Energy / area [ML0T–2] J m–2

dv
Coefficient of viscosity η F= A [ML–1T–1] Poise
dx

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what is the correct reading below ?

Volume in cc
ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS AND ERRORS IN
MEASUREMENT

Accuracy:
The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured
value is to the true value of the quantity.

Precision:
Precision tells us to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured.

Example:
Suppose the true value of a certain length is near 2.874 cm.

In one experiment, using a measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, the

measured value is found to be 2.7 cm, while in another experiment using a
measuring device of greater resolution, say 0.01 cm, the length is
determined to be 2.69 cm.

The first measurement has more accuracy (because it is closer to the true
value) but less precision (its resolution is only 0.1 cm), while the second
measurement is less accurate but more precise.
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 Actual Time:
2:10 pm
Your Time:
2:05 pm

Your accuracy is off by 5

minutes
PRECISION VS. ACCURACY
A B C D

 A—Good precision and  C—Good precision and poor

accuracy accuracy
 B—Some accuracy and  D—Poor precision and
poor precision accuracy
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The reported result of measurement is a number that includes all digits in the
number that are known reliably plus the first digit that is uncertain.

The reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant digits or
significant figures.

Example:

(i) The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 2.36 s; the digits 2 and 3 are
reliable and certain, while the digit 6 is uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three
significant figures.

(ii) The length of an object reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has four
significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are certain while the digit 5 is uncertain.
Note:
A choice of change of different units does not change the number of
significant digits or figures in a measurement.
Eg. The length 1.205 cm, 0.01205, 12.05 mm and 12050 μm all have four SF.

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Rules for determining the number of significant figures (just understand)

(i) All the non-zero digits are significant.

(ii) All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter
where the decimal point is, if at all.

(iii) If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point but
to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.

(iv) The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are
not significant.

(v) The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant.

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Rounding off the Uncertain Digits(just understand)
Rounding off a number means dropping of digits which are not significant. The
following rules are followed for rounding off the number:

1. If the digits to be dropped are greater than five, then add one to the
preceding significant figure.

2. If the digit to be dropped is less than five then it is dropped without

bringing any change in the preceding significant figure.

3. If the digit to be dropped is five, then the preceding digit will be left
unchanged if the preceding digit is even and it will be increased by
one if it is odd.

4. In any involved or complex multi-step calculation, one should retain, in

intermediate steps, one digit more than the significant digits and round off
to proper significant figures at the end of the calculation.

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 Errors
Error:
The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument contains some
uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error.

Least count error

Least count:
The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its
least count.

The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.

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Example:

(i) A Vernier callipers has the least count as 0.01 cm;

(ii) A spherometer may have a least count of 0.001 cm.

Using instruments of higher precision, improving experimental

techniques, etc., we can reduce the least count error.

Repeating the observations several times and taking the

arithmetic mean of all the observations, the mean value would
be very close to the true value of the measured quantity.

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Absolute error
The magnitude of the difference between the individual measurement value
and the true value of the quantity is called the absolute error of the
measurement.

This is denoted by |Δa|.

Note: In absence of any other method of knowing true value, we consider

arithmetic mean as the true value.

Percentage error
When the error is expressed in per cent, it is
called the percentage error (δa).

S.V - O.V.
Percentage error = x 100%
True value(S.V.)

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1 Taking force, length and time to be fundamental quantities, find the dimensional
formula for the density.

FLT
mass FL-4T2
Density=
volume

F= m.a
m=F/a

2) In the equation y = a sin(wt- kx ), Find the dimensions of w and k

where t is time and x is distance.

3) If a particles displacement is given as x=at+bt2+ct3 Where t is time. Find the

dimensions of a,b and c