Units & Dimensions

LECTURE 1
Types of Quantities?
Types of Quantities?
Physical Quantity
A Quantity that can be measured is called as Physical
Quantity. Length, Mass, Velocity, Temperature, Area,
Volume, Density Etc… Measurable Quantities

Non - Physical Quantity

A Quantity that cannot be measured is called as
Non- Physical Quantity. Building, Bus, Room, Road,
Mumbai Etc… Non-Measurable Quantities
 How are physical quantities classified?

Fundamental Quantity Derived Quantity

How are physical quantities classified?
Fundamental Quantity
A physical quantity which does not depend on any
other physical quantity for its measurement.

Derived Quantity

The physical quantities which are expressed in terms

of more than one fundamental quantities.
What are Fundamental Quantities?
What are Fundamental Quantities?
There are 7 fundamental quantities
Fundamental Quantity S.I Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Amount of substance Mole mol

*** Candela is Measure of intensity or brightness of Light.

 What are Fundamental Quantities ?

There are 2 supplementary quantities

Supplementary Quantity S.I unit Symbol
Plane angle Radian rad
Solid angle Steradian sr
Solid Angle Angle inscribed by surface at point is called solid angle.
The Derived Quantities
The Physical quantities that depend upon other physical
quantity for its measurement are known as derived quantities.
The measurement of derived quantities directly depends upon
other quantities. So in order to measure the derived quantity,
one must measure the quantities that it depends upon.
*** Except 7 fundamental quantities, all other quantities are
derived quantities.
The Derived Quantities

Velocity (m/s) ⇒ displacement

Velocity =
time

Acceleration (m/s2) Velocity

⇒ Acceleration =
time

Work (kg-m2/s2) or Joule ⇒ Work = Force x displacement

Pressure ( kg m–1 s–2) or Pascal ⇒ Force

Pressure =
Area
What are units and system of units?

System Length Mass Time

F.P.S. Foot Pound Second

C.G.S. Centimetre Gram Second

M.K.S. Metre Kilogram Second

What are units and system of units?
Unit & the characteristics of a Unit
Unit of a physical quantity is a standard used for
the measurement of that physical quantity.

System of units
A set or collection of Fundamental & Derived Unit
is called as system of unit.
System of Units
CGS Unit
Length Mass Time
Centimeter Gram Second
cm g s
System of Units
MKS Unit
Length Mass Time
Meter Kilogram Second
m kg s
System of Units
FPS Unit
Length Mass Time
Foot Pound Second
ft p s
SI Units: International System of Units

Luminous
intensity
Candela (Cd)
Amount of
Current
substance
Ampere (A)
Mole (mol)

SI units
Temperature Length
Kelvin (K) Meter (m)

Mass Time
Kilogram (kg) Second(s)
 What are dimensions and their symbol ?

Length - m Area - m2 Volume - m3

What are dimensions and their symbol ?
Dimension
Power to which fundamental quantity must be raised in order to obtain
the unit of the given quantity.
Symbol for Dimensions General Form

[LMT] or [MLT ]
[LMTKA] or [MLTKA]
What are dimensions and their symbol ?
Symbol for Dimensions
Fundamental Quantity Dimension Representation

Length [M0L1T0] L
Mass [M1L0T0] M
Time [M0L0T1] T
Temperature [M0L0T0K1A0] K
Electric current [M0L0T0K0A1] A/I

*** Luminous Intensity - C

*** Amount of Substance - mol
How to find dimensions of derived quantities ?
How to find dimensions of derived quantities ?
Dimension of Speed

Step 1 Speed = Distance

Time

[M0L1T0]
Step 2 Speed =
[M0L0T1]

Step 3 Speed = [M0L1T–1]

How to find dimensions of derived quantities?
Dimension of Temperature Gradient

Temp
Step 1 Temp Gradient =
Distance
[M0L0T0K1]
Step 2 Temp Gradient = 0 1 0 0
[M L T K ]

Temp Gradient = [M0 L–

Step 3 1T0K1]
Question Find the dimensions of Area.
A. [M0 L2 T0]
B. [MLT2]
B
C. [M0L0T1]
D. None of these

L
Question Find the dimensions of Area.

Step 1 Area = Length x Breadth

B
Step 2 SI Unit = m x m = m2

Step 3 Dimension = [M0 L2 T0]

L
Question Find the dimensions of Volume

A. [M0 L3 T2]
B. [M2 L2 T0]
C. [M0 L3 T0]
D. [M0 L3 T-1]
h

l
Question Find the dimensions of Volume.

Step 1 Volume = Length x Breadth x Height

Step 2 SI Unit = m x m x m = m3 h
Step 3 Dimension = [M0 L3 T0] l
Question Find the dimension of Density

A. [M1 L–3 T0]

B. [M0 L–1 T1]

C. [M-1 L–3 T0]

D. [M1 L3 T0]
Question Find the dimension of Density.

Mass
Step 1 Density (ρ) =
Volume

[M1 L0 T0]
Step 2 Density (ρ) =
[M0 L3 T0]

Step 3 Density (ρ) = [M1 L–3 T0]

Question Find the dimension of Momentum
A. [M-1 L0 T0]
B. [M0 L–1 T2]
C. [M-2 L–3 T0]
D. [M1 L1 T-1]
How to find dimensions of derived quantities ?
Find the dimension of Momentum.

Step 1 Momentum (p) = Mass x Velocity Distance

Velocity =
Time
Momentum (p) = [M1L0T0] [M0L1T–
Step 2 1] [M0 L1 T0]
Velocity =[M0 L0 T1]

Step 3 Momentum (p) = [M1 L1 T–1]

Question Find the dimensions of Force.

A. [M-1 L0 T0]

B. [M0 L–1 T2]

C. [M-2 L–3 T0]

D. [M1 L1 T-2]
Find the dimensions of Force

Force = Mass × acceleration v2 – v1

= m × a a =
t

Dimensions of Mass = [M1 L0 T0] [M0 L1 T –

= 1]

[M0 L0 T1]
Dimensions of Acceleration = [M0 L1 T–2]

∴ Dimensions of Force = [M1 L0 T0] [M0 L1 T–

2]

Dimensions of Force = [M1 L1 T–2]

Question Find the dimensions of Gravitational Constant.
A. [M1 L–3 T0]
B. [M-1 L3 T-2]
C. [M1 L1 T-2]
D. [M1 L3 T0]
Question Find the dimensions of Gravitational Constant

Formula of gravitational force,

Gm1m2
F =
r2

∴ G = Fr2
m1m2

Where G Universal constant of gravitation

m1,m Masses
2
r Distance between the two masses
Dimensions of Force = [M1 L1 T–2]

Dimensions of Length = [M0 L1 T0]

Dimensions of r2 = [M0 L2 T0]

Dimensions of Mass = [M1 L0 T0]

[M1 L1 T–2] [M0 L2 T0]

∴ Dimensions of G =
[M2 L0 T0]

[M1 L3 T–2]
=
[M2 L0 T0]

Dimensions of G = [M–1 L3 T–2]

Question Find the dimensions of CHARGE.
A. [M0 L0 T1 A1]
B. [M0 L0 T1 A-1]
C. [M-1 L1 T2 A1]
D. None of these
Solution:

Q = Current × time

Q = I × t

Dimensions of Current (I) = [M0 L0 T0 A1]

Dimensions of Time (t) = [M0 L0 T1]

∴ Dimensions of Q = [M0 L0 T0 A1] [M0 L0 T1]

Dimensions of Q = [M0 L0 T1 A1]

Question Find the dimensions of Potential

[M0 L0 T1 A1]
A.
[M1 L2 T-3 A-1]
[M-1 L1 T-1 A1]
None of these

E= q × V
Solution:
Energy (U) = charge (Q) × potential (V)

∴ V = U
Q

Dimensions of U = [M1 L2 T–2]

Dimensions of Q = [M0 L0 T1 A1]

[M1 L2 T–2]
∴ Dimensions of V =
[M0 L0 T1
A1 ]

Dimensions of V = [M1 L2 T–3 A–

1]
Question Find the dimensions of Resistance

A. [M L T A ]
1 0 1 1

[M1 L2 T-3 A-1]

[M1 L2 T-3 A-2]
None of these

V= I × R
Solution: By Ohm’s Law,

Potential
Resistance =
Current
V
R =
I

Dimensions of V = [M1 L2 T–3 A–1]

Dimensions of I = A1

[M1 L2 T–3 A–1]

∴ Dimensions of R =
[M0 L0 T0 A1]

Dimensions of R = [M1 L2 T–3 A–2]

Question Of the following quantities, which one has dimension different
from the remaining two?

A. Energy per unit volume

B. Force per unit area

C. Angular momentum per unit mass

D. All A,B,C are same

Question Of the following quantities, which one has dimension different
from the remaining two?

A. Energy per unit volume

B. Force per unit area

C. Angular momentum per unit mass

D. All A,B,C are same

[energy per unit volume] M1L2T–

= 2 = M1L–1T–2
L3
[force per unit area] M1L1T–2
= = M1L–1T–2
L2
[angular momentum per unit mass] = ML2T–1/ = L2T–1
M1
How are Dimensions useful in Physics?
How are dimensions useful in Physics?
Principle of homogeneity:

⇒ Two quantities in addition or subtraction should have same dimension.

⇒ Quantities on either side of an expression (equation) should have the same
dimension
⇒ Using this principle we can check the correctness of the physical equation
How is Dimensional Analysis used?
How is dimensional analysis used?

Let us perform dimensional analysis on equation

v = u + at
 How is dimensional analysis used?
Equation : v = u + at

L.H.S. R.H.S.

Step-1 Dimension of ‘v’ Dimension of ‘u +at’

Step-2 [M0L1T–1] [M0L1T–1] + [M0L1T–2] [M0L0T1]

Step-3 [M0L1T–1] [M0L1T–1] + [M0L1T–1]

∴ The given physical equation is dimensionally correct

 How is dimensional analysis used?
Let us perform dimensional analysis on equation
v2 = u2 + 2as
 How is dimensional analysis used?
Equation : v2 = u2 + 2as

L.H.S.

Dimensions of Velocity (v) = [M0 L1 T–1]

∴ Dimensions of v2 = [M0 L1 T–1] [M0 L1 T–1]

= [M0 L2 T–2]
How is dimensional analysis used?
Equation : v2 = u2 + 2as

R.H.S.

Dimensions of u2 = [M0 L2 T–2]

Dimensions of a × s = [M0 L1 T–2] [M0 L1 T0]

= [M0 L2 T–2]

∴ The given physical equation is dimensionally correct

Question The relation between velocity and time of a particle is given

B
v =A + + Ct2
t

The units of A, B and C will be

A B C
A m m/s m/s2

B m/s m m/s3

C m/s2 m/s3 m/s4

D m/s m/s2 m/s3

 The relation between velocity and time of a particle is given

B
v =A+ + Ct
t 2

The units of A, B and C will be

Solution:

b) By the principle of homogeneity unit of A,

B and ct2 must be of v.
t
v = A i.e A = m/s
B
v = t ⇒ B = m

v = Ct2 ⇒ C = m/s3
How is dimensional analysis used?
 How is dimensional analysis used?

Uses of dimensional analysis

To find conversion factor between the units of the same

physical quantity in two different systems of units
Question Find conversion factor between SI unit of Force & CGS unit of Force.

Force
SI unit : Newton
CGS unit : Dyne
Q. Find conversion factor between SI unit of Force and CGS unit of
Force
Let 1 Newton = X Dyne Force
SI unit : Newton
CGS unit : Dyne
The dimensions of force = [M1 L1 T–2]

∴ Equation in dimensional form

1 M11 L11 T–2

1
= x M21 L21 T–2
2

– –
M11 L11 T1 M1
1
L1
1
T1
2 2
∴ x = =
– M2 L T
M12 L2 1T2
2 2 2
Q. Find conversion factor between SI unit of Force and CGS unit of
Force
In SI system, In CGS system,
1 1 –2
m kg s
∴ x = cm g s
L m L cm
1 1
M kg M g cm g
= 102 103 (1)–2
T s T s cm g
∴ x = 105

∴ 1 Newton = 105 dyne

Find conversion factor between SI unit of Energy and CGS unit of Energy

Force
SI unit : Joule
CGS unit : Erg
Q. Find conversion factor between SI unit of Energy and CGS unit of
Energy
Let 1 = X erg
Joule Force
The dimensions of energy = [M1 L2 T–2] SI unit : Joule
CGS unit : Erg
∴ Equation in dimensional form

M1 L12T1 –2 = x M2 L22T2 –2

M1 1L1 T2 1 –2

∴ x =
M21 L2 2T2 –2

1 2 –2
M1 L1 T1
=
M2 L2 T2
Q. Find conversion factor between SI unit of Energy and CGS unit of Energy

In SI system, In CGS system,

L m L cm m
2
kg
1
s
–2

M kg M g ∴ x =
cm g s
T s T s
2 1
cm g
= 102 cm 103 g (1)–2

∴ x = 107

∴ 1 Joule = 107erg
WORK HARD
START NOW
Units & Dimensions
LECTURE 2
Example The value of acceleration due to gravity is 980 cm/s2 . What will be its
value if the unit of length is kilometer and that of time is minute?
A. 35.3
B. 65.7
C. 85
D. 105
Solution:

The value of acceleration due to gravity is 980 cm/s2 . What will be

its value
if the unit of length is kilometer and that of time is minute?

Any physical quantity can be represented by = magnitude × units

cm km 1 km = 103 m
So, 980 =x
s2 min2 &
1m = 102 cm
cm min2
⇒ x = 980
km s2

1 (60)
= 980 2
105
∴ Acceleration due to gravity = 35.3
km x = 35.3
min2
How is dimensional analysis used?
To establish relationship between related physical quantities.
vacuum
P is dependent on h, ρ, g

ρ
h
g

P
Establish the relation P = hρg

P → Hydrostatic Pressure
h → Height of liquid volume
ρ → Density
g → acceleration due to gravity
How is dimensional analysis used?
To establish the relation P = hρg

Let us assume that,

P = k hx ρy gz

Dimensions of P = [M1L–1 T–2]

Dimensions of h = [M0 L1 T0]

Dimensions of ρ = [M1 L–3 T0]

P → Hydrostatic Pressure
Dimensions of g = [M0 L1 T–2]
h → Height of liquid volume
ρ → Density
g → acceleration due to gravity
How is dimensional analysis used?
∴ our equation becomes,

[M1 L–1 T–2] = k[M0 L1T0]x [M1 L–3 T0]y [M0 L1 T–2]z

∴ [M1 L–1 T–2] = k[My Lx – 3y + z T–2Z ]

Value of ‘k’ which is a
Comparing L.H.S and R.H.S, constant cannot be
y = 1 found
x – 3y + z = –1 ⇒ using dimensional
–2z = –2 analysis, it can be
∴ z=1 ∴ x=1
found
Substituting these values, out experimentally

P = k h1ρ1g1
Here, k = 1

∴ p=hρg
Example It has been observed that velocity of ripple waves produced in water
depends upon their Wavelength (λ), Density of water (ρ) and Surface
Tension (S).
Force
Prove that Surface tension =
Length
 Example It has been observed that velocity of ripple waves produced in water
depends upon their Wavelength (λ), Density of water (ρ) and Surface
Tension (S).

Prove that
Force
Surface tension =
Length

Solution:

According to the problem,

v ∝ λa ρb Sc

⇒ v = k λa ρ b S c
Where k is a dimensionless constant.

⇒ LT–1 = La (ML–3)b (MT–2)c

⇒ M0L1T–1 = Mb+c La–3b T–2c

⇒ M0L1T–1 = Mb+c La–3b T–2c

Using the principle of Homogeneity, we get

b+c = 0, a – 3b = 1 – 2c = –1
,
Solving these equations we get,

a = – 1 , b = – 1 , c = 1
2 2 2

So, the relation becomes,

v = k λ–1/2 ρ–1/2 S1/2

S
⇒ v∝ √ λρ ⇒ v2 ∝
S
λρ
Example If velocity of light (v), force (F) and time (t) are taken as fundamental
dimensions. Then dimensions of mass in this system will be …….
A. F1T3v0
B. F1T1v-1
C. F2T0v1
D. F2T0v-1
 Example If velocity of light (v), force (F) and time (t) are taken as fundamental
dimensions. Then dimensions of mass in this system will be …….

Solution:
We
Let mass = va Fb tc know,
Dimensions of mass = [M]
∴ [M] = [LT–1]a [MLT–2]b [T]c Dimensions of velocity, v= [LT–1]
⇒ [M] = [Mb La+b T–a–2b+c] Dimensions of force, F = [MLT–2]
Dimensions of time, t = [T]
Equating the powers of
dimensions on both sides

for M 1=b ⇒ c=1

→
for L → 0=a+b ⇒ 0=a+1 ⇒ a = –1
for T → 0 = –a – 2b + c ⇒ 0 = + 1 – 2 + c
Dimensions of mass in this system [mass] = v–1 F1T1
 If Pressure (P), Length (L) and Momentum (J) are taken as fundamental
Example
quantities. Find the dimensions of Energy (E)
A. P1L3J0
B. P1L3J-1
C. P2L0J1
D. P2L0J-1
 If Pressure (P), Length (L) and Momentum (J) are taken as
Example
fundamental quantities. Find the dimensions of Energy (E)

Solution: Let mass = PaLbJc

We know,
⇒ [ML2T–2] = [ML–1T–2]a[L]b [MLT–1]c Dimensions of pressure, P = [ML–1T–2 ]
Dimensions of Length, L = [L]
⇒ [ML2T–2] = [Ma+c L–a+b+c T–2a–c]
Dimensions of momentum, =J [MLT–1]

for M → 1=a+c … (i) Dimensions of energy E = [ML2T–2 ]

for L → 2 = –a + b + c …(ii)
Equating the powers of
for T → – 2 = –2a – c …(iii) dimensions an both
sides
 If Pressure (P), Length (L) and Momentum (J) are taken as
Example
fundamental quantities. Find the dimensions of Energy (E)

Solution: If pressure (P), length (L) and momentum (J) are taken as
fundamental quantities find the dimensions of energy (E)
Using, (i) + (iii), we get

–1 = –a ⇒ a=1
1=a+c …(i)
∴ From (i) c=0
2 = –a + b + c …(ii)
and from (ii)
– 2 = –2a – c …(iii)
2 = –1 + b + 0 ⇒ b=3
∴ Dimensions of energy in new system are

[E] = P1L3J0
What are Significant Figures?
What are Significant figures?
The significant figures of a number are digits that carry meaningful
contribution to its measurement resolution.

It is equal to the number of digits that are known with some degree of
confidence.
Actual Weight

76.3 kg

76 Kg 75.17 Kg
Rules to find number of significant figures ?
Rules to find number of significant figures
A) Non decimal number
e.g 2607
1. Zeros between two non-zero digits are considered
SF → 4
significant
e.g 00123
1. Leading zeros are insignificant SF → 3
1. Trailing zeros are generally insignificant, because we don’t
e.g 12300
know if it has been rounded off to nearest hundred, or it’s
SF → 3
just a coincidence that it’s an exact multiple of 100
If its written as
2.7 × 103 SF 2
2.70 × 103 SF 3
A) Non Decimal number

001200300000
Rules to find number of significant figures
B) Decimal number
(i) No’s greater than 1 (ii) No’s less than 1 Leading zeros are
insignificant & trailing zeros
All the digits are (1) 0.002 are significant
significant

(1) 32.0010 insignificant

(2) 32.000 (2) 0.102

(3) 0.00300
insignificant
significant
B) Decimal number

0012.0300000
Significant Figures can be done using a set of around 5 rules, With a lot of
complications for how to deal with zeroes.

Not significant: Not significant: Significant:

Zero for Zeroes used only All zeroes

“cosmetic” to locate the between non
purpose decimal point zero numbers

0 . 0 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 0

Significant: Significant:
All nonzero Zeroes at the end of a
integers number to the right of
decimal point
Example Find significant figures in 100
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Example Find significant figures in 00100. are
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Example Find significant figures in 100.0
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Example Find significant figures in 00.00
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
 How to use significant figures in calculations?

6 x 2 = 12 6 x 2 = 10
Calculations considering Significant figures
(A) Addition/Subtraction Rules (considering SF)
Rule: The result cannot have more number of digits in decimal than the least
number of digits in decimal of the numbers involved in the operation.
 A) Addition/Subtraction Rules (SF)

1 + 1.1 + 2.900 - 3.0 + 0.37

SIGNIFICANT TIP -
1. First compute normally
2. NOW Round Off based on minimum decimal places present in the numbers
 Examples Calculations considering Significant figures.

(A) Addition/Subtraction Rules (considering SF).

1. 4 + 16
2. 4.2 + 6.18
3. 4.00 + 3.162
4. 0.92 + 4
Solution: sigfigscalculator.com
Calculations considering Significant figures
(A) Addition/Subtraction Rules (considering SF) This has to be
rounded off

(1) 4 + 16 = 20 (2) 4.2 + 6.18 = 10.38 → 10.4

4.2 has only 1 digit in decimal

(3) 4.00 + 3.162 = 7.162 (4) 0.92 + 4 = 4.92 Round

= 7.16 off
=5
2 No decimal
decimal No decimal
 Calculations considering Significant figures

(B) Multiplication/Division Rules (considering SF)

Rule: Result will have same significant figure as the least SF in the
number involved in the operation.
 D) Multiplication/Division Rules (SF)

SIGNIFICANT TIP -
1. First compute normally
2. NOW Round Off based on minimum S.F. present in the numbers
 Examples Calculations considering Significant figures.
(B) Multiplication/Division Rules (considering SF).

1. 4.2 × 0.2
2. 2 × 6

3. 1.6 × 1.6
 Solution:

Calculations considering Significant figures

(A) Multiplication/Division Rules (considering SF)

(1) 4.2 × 0.2 = 0.84 (2) 2 × 6 = 12

Round ( SF 2 )
off = 1.2 × 101 ( SF 2 )
0.8
SF 2 SF 1 SF 1 ( SF 1 )
= 1 × 101 or 10
(least) (SF → 1)

4.2
(3) =2 ( SF 1 ) (4) 1.6 × 1.6 = 2.56 ( SF 3 )
2.1
= 2.0 ( SF 2 ) = 2.6 ( SF 2 )
Rounding Off
Rounding Off

GOLDEN TIP If the removed part is 5 or 5000000…. ENSURE we are EVEN (Units Place)
Rounding Off

GOLDEN TIP If the removed part is 5 or 5000000…. ENSURE we are EVEN (Units Place)
Rounding Off

Last figure
Number of Last figure to First figure kept and/or
NUMBER
places desired be kept to be kept number
becomes

6.422 1 6.4 6.42 6.4

6.4872 2 6.48 6.487 6.49

6.997 2 6.99 6.997 7.00

6.6500 1 6.6 6.65 6.6

7.485 2 7.48 7.485 7.48

GOLDEN TIP If the removed part is 5 or 5000000…. ENSURE we are EVEN (Units Place)
Rounding Off

Last figure
Number of
Last figure First figure kept and/or
NUMBER places
to be kept to be kept number
desired
becomes

6.755000 2 6.75 6.755 6.76

8.995 2 8.99 8.995 9.00

6.6501 1 6.6 6.65 6.7

7.4852007 2 7.48 7.485 7.49

GOLDEN TIP If the removed part is 5 or 5000000…. ENSURE we are EVEN (Units Place)
Order of Magnitude
Order of Magnitude

Squeeze the lemon to MAX

Examples Finding Order of Magnitude

(1) 32678 (2) 921

Solution:

Finding Order of magnitude

(1) 32678 = 3.2678 × 104

Order of
less than 5 magnitude 4

(2) 921 = 9.21 × 102 ≈ 103

Order of
Greater than 5 magnitude 3
WORK HARD
START NOW
Units & Dimensions
LECTURE 3
Errors in Measurement
How to find ERRORS in Measurements?
ERROR

Error is amount of uncertainty in measurement of the magnitude of a

physical quantity.

Error = Measured Value – True Value.

ERROR
The Types of Errors
● Instrumental errors
● Systematic errors
● Random errors
● Personal errors
Instrumental Errors - These errors arise due to use of faulty
instrument.

Systematic Errors - These errors arise due to definite cause and

takes place according to some rule.
Random Errors - These errors are random and occur irregularly. It
can be due to changes in the ambient conditions like
temperature, pressure, etc. or due to limitations of instrument.

Personal Errors - The errors which occur due to limitation of the

human senses, judgment, carelessness and responses
How to calculate errors?
Calculation Of Errors

a1 + a2 + ……+ an
Most Probable Value : amean = = 1 n a
∑
n n a=1 i

Absolute Error: = Δa = a mean –a

Calculation Of Errors

Absolute error amean – a

Relative error : = = amean
Most probable value

Percentage error : = Relative error × 100 %

amean – a
= amean
× 100 %
 Length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least count 0.01 cm.
Example The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13 cm, 3.14 cm & 3.14 cm. Find
mean length
A. 3.15 cm
B. 3.13 cm
C. 3.14 cm
D. 3.12 cm
 Example The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least count
0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm, 3.14 cm and
3.14 cm. Find mean length, mean absolute error and % error

Solution: Step: 1 Data: a1 = 3.11 cm, a2 = 3.13 cm, a3 = 3.14 cm, a4 = 3.14 cm,

a1+a2+a3+a4
Step: 2 Mean Length am =
4
3.11+3.13+3.14+3.14
=
4
12.53
Step: 3 Mean Length am = = 3.13 cm
4
 The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least count
Example 0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm, 3.14 cm and
3.14 cm. Find mean absolute error
A. 0.05 cm
B. 0.03 cm
C. 0.02 cm
D. 0.01 cm

absolute error
|Δ a| = |a mean – ai|
 The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least count
Example 0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm, 3.14 cm and
3.14 cm. Find mean absolute error
Solution: |a1–am|+|a2–am|+|a3–am|+|a4–am |
Step: 4 Mean abs error =
4
|3.11–3.13| + |3.13–3.13|+|3.14–3.13|+|3.15–3.13|
Step: 5 = = 0.01 cm
4

Step: 6 Percentage error = 0.01/3.13 × 100 = 0.319%

Example The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least count
0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm, 3.14 cm and
3.14 cm. Find % error
A. 3.19 %
B. 0.319 %
C. 31.9 %
D. None of these
 The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least
Example
count 0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm,
3.14 cm and 3.14 cm. Find % error

Solution: |a1–am|+|a2–am|+|a3–am|+|a4–am |
Step: 4 Mean abs error =
4
|3.11–3.13| + |3.13–3.13|+|3.14–3.13|+|3.15–3.13|
Step: 5 = = 0.01 cm
4

Step: 6 Percentage error = 0.01/3.13 × 100 = 0.319%

 The size of the object measured by means of a Vernier calipers is
Example 3.52 cm. If the least count is 0.01 cm, estimate the percentage error
in the measurement.
A. 0.28 %
B. 0.31 %
C. 2.8 %
D. None of these
 The size of the object measured by means of a Vernier calipers is 3.52 cm. If
Example
the least count is 0.01 cm, estimate the percentage error in the
measurement.

Solution: Data : y = 3.52 cm and Δy = 0.01 cm

Step: 1

Δy 0.01
Step: 2 % error = × 100 = × 100
y 3.52

Step: 3 % error = 0.28%

 An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings were
Example
obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g. Find (i) the mean value
A. 5.00 g
B. 5.01 g
C. 5.02 g
D. 5.03 g
 An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings were
Example
obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g. Find (i) the mean value

Solution: Step: 1 Data: n = 5, m1 = 5.04 g, m2 = 5.06 g, m3 = 4.97 g,

m4 = 5.00g, m5 = 4.93 g
m1+m2+m3+m4 + m5
Step: 2 Mean value m =
n
(5.04 + 5.06 + 4.97 + 5.00 + 4.93) g
= 5
25.00
= = 5.00 g
5
 An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings
Example were obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g.
Find (ii) the mean absolute error
A. 0.04 g
B. 0.01 g
C. 0.02 g
D. 0.03 g
 An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings
Example
were obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g.
Find (ii) the mean absolute error
Solution: Step: 3

Mean absolute error ,

| m1 – m | + | m2 – m | + | m3 – m | + | m4 – m | + | m5 – m |
Δm =
n
(0.04 + 0.06 + 0.03 + 0.00 + 0.07) g 0.20
= = = 0.04 g
5 5
 An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings
Example
were obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g. Find (iii) the
percentage error.
A. 0.5
B. 0.7
C. 0.75
D. 0.8
 Example An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings
were obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g.
Find (iii) the percentage error.
Solution: Step: 3

Mean absolute error ,

| m1 – m | + | m2 – m | + | m3 – m | + | m4 – m | + | m5 – m |
Δm =
n
(0.04 + 0.06 + 0.03 + 0.00 + 0.07) g 0.20
= = = 0.04 g
5 5

Step: 4
Δm × 100 %
Percentage error =
m
0.04 g
= × 100 % = 0.8 %
5.00 g
How to predict errors in calculations?
1. Addition
2. Subtraction
3. Multiplication
4. Division
5. Powers
Calculating Errors
1. ADDITION
R=x+y
dR = dx + dy

ΔR = Δx + Δy
Error in y

Error in R Error in x

Note that errors are always added up

Calculating Errors
2. SUBTRACTION

R=x–y

ΔR = Δx + Δy

Note that errors are always added up

 Error Trick

R = x2y3

x2y3
R=
√z
Calculating Errors
3. MULTIPLICATION

R = xy Fractional error = ΔR/R

dR = xdy + ydx ΔR xΔy yΔx
= +
ΔR = xΔy + yΔx R xy xy
ΔR Δy Δx
Error in R = +
R y x
Calculating Errors
4. DIVISION

Fractional error = ΔR/R

R = x/y
R = xy–1 ΔR x(−1y−2Δy) (dx)y–1
= +
R xy– xy–1
1
dR = x(−1y−2dy) + (dx)y–
1
ΔR Δy Δx
R = y + x
Calculating Errors
5. POWERS

R = x2y3 We can directly write the final

expression by looking at the
dR = x2(3y2dy) + (2xdx)y3
power coefficient
d 3d 2d
= +
RR yy xx
Even if the coefficient is negative, we
have to add the errors
ΔR 2Δx 3Δy
= +
R x y
Example Calculate fractional error for
1. R = x2y

2. R = x−1y4z
 Calculate fractional error for
Example
1. R = x2y
Solution: 2. R = x−1y4z

1. R = x2y

ΔR 2Δx Δy
R
= x
+ y

2. R = x−1y4z

ΔR Δx 4Δy Δz
R
= x
+ y
+ z
Example Calculate fractional error for R = √x /y2

A. ΔR Δx -2Δy
= + y
R x

B. ΔR -½ Δx + -2Δy
R = x y
ΔR ½ Δx 2Δy
C. = x +
R y
ΔR Δx 2Δy
D. = x + y
R
 Calculate fractional error for R = √x /y2
Example

Solution:

R = x1/2y−2

ΔR ½ Δx 2Δy
R = x + y

When the expressions are not simple, just

differentiate and get the results
 The heat dissipated Q in a resistance(R) can be obtained by the
Example measurement of resistance, current(I) and time(t). If the maximum
errors in the measurement of these quantities are 2%, 1% and 1%
respectively, then what is the maximum error in the measurement
of dissipated heat, Q = [ I2Rt/4.2 ] cal?

A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6
 The heat dissipated Q in a resistance(R) can be obtained by the
Example
measurement of resistance, current(I) and time(t). If the maximum
errors in the measurement of these quantities are 2%, 1% and 1%
respectively, then what is the maximum error in the measurement
Solution: of dissipated heat, Q = [ I2Rt/4.2 ] cal?

i2Rt
Q= cal
4.2
ΔQ 2Δi ΔR Δt
= + +
Q i R t
ΔQ
(%) = 2(1%) + (2%) + (1%)
Q
ΔQ
(in %) = 5
Q
 Two resistors have resistances x = (24 ± 0.5) Ω and y = (8 ± 0.3)Ω .
Example Calculate the absolute error and the percentage relative error in
calculating the combination of two resistances when they are in
(a) Series

A. 0.8, 2.0 %
B. 0.8 , 2.5 %
C. 1.2, 2.0 %
D. 1.2, 2.5 %
 Two resistors have resistances x = (24 ± 0.5) Ω and y = (8 ± 0.3)Ω .
Example Calculate the absolute error and the percentage relative error in
calculating the combination of two resistances when they are in (a)
Series (b) Parallel
Solution:

Req = R1 + R2 32 ± 2.5%

ΔReq = ΔR1 + ΔR2 Req = 24 + 8

= 0.5 + 0.3 Req = 32
ΔReq = 0.8 ΔReq
% error = × 100
R
0.8
Absolute error = × 100 = 2.5%
32
Example Two resistors have resistances x = (24 ± 0.5) Ω and y = (8 ± 0.3)Ω .
Calculate the absolute error and the percentage relative error in
calculating the combination of two resistances when they are in
(b) Parallel
A. 0.2, 3.33 %
B. 0.3 , 6.66 %
C. 0.2, 0.66 %
D. 0.3, 3.33 %
x = (24 ± 0.5) Ω
y = (8 ± 0.3) Ω
 Two resistors have resistances x = (24 ± 0.5) Ω and y = (8 ± 0.3)Ω .
Example
Calculate the absolute error and the percentage relative error in
calculating the combination of two resistances when they are in
(b) Parallel

Solution:
1 1 1 R1R2 24 × 8 6 ± 3.33%
= + ;R = =6
Req R1 R2 = eq R1+R2 32
Differentiating 0.5 0.3
ΔReq = + 62
ΔReq –1ΔR1 1ΔR2 62 242 82
– = – 0.5 9
Req2 R12 R22 ΔReq = + (0.3)= 0.2
42 16
ΔReq 0.5 0.3 ΔReq
Req2
= + ×100 = 0.2 100 = 3.33
242 82 R 6 %
 x
Example Calculate fractional error for R =
x+y

A.

B.

C.

D.
 x
Calculate fractional error for R =
Example x+y

Solution:

1 x+y y ΔR Δy yΔx
= x
=1+ = +
R x R2 x x
2
–dR x(dy) –
✓
ΔR Δy yΔx
R2
= (dx)y
x = x+y + x(x+y)
2
R
WORK HARD
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