Math for Construction

UNIT 8
MATHEMATICS
FOR
CONSTRUCTION
1
Contents Page
Chapter 1 Dimensional Analysis 3
Chapter 2 Arithmetic and Geometric progression 12
Chapter 3 Exponential Function 33
Chapter 4 Trigonometry 40
Chapter 5 Hyperbolic Function 66
Chapter 6 Statistics 73
Chapter 7 Binomial Distribution and Normal Distribution 93
Chapter 8 Correlation 104
Chapter 9 Vectors 112
Chapter 10 Calculus 125
Chapter 1
Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the study of
dimension as an aid to the solution of several engineering problems.
Four base fundamental quantities (measurements) and their corresponding base units:
• Length (meter)
• Mass (kilogram)
• Time(second)
• Electric current (ampere)
The dimension of the base quantity by the quantity itself
2
• Dimension of length ≡ dim length ≡ [length] = L
• Dimension of mass ≡dim mass ≡ [mass] ≡ M
• Dimension of time ≡dim time ≡ [time] ≡ T
Dimensions of Commonly Encountered Quantities
• Many physical quantities are derived from the base quantities by a set of algebraic
relations defining the physical relation between these quantities.
• The dimension of the 2 derived quantities can always be written as a product of the
powers of the dimensions of the base quantities.
Derived Dimensions of Mechanical Quantities

Linear velocity v is defined as the rate of change of linear displacement s with respect to
time t.
 Dimension of linear velocity

= [Linear velocity]
Length
= [ ]
Time
[ Length]
=
[Time]
L
=
T
= L .T −1
• Dimension of Linear Acceleration

= [Linear acceleration]
Velocity
=[ ]
Time
Length
= [ Time ]
Time
[Length ]
=
[ Time ] [Time ]
[ Length]
= 2
[Time ]
3
L
=
T2
= L.T −2
 Dimension of Force
= [Force]
= [Mass × Acceleration]
=[Mass][Acceleraton]
Velocity
=[Mass][ ¿
Time
Length
[ Mass][ ]
= Time
[Time]
[ Mass ] [ Length]
=
[ Time ] [Tme]
[ Mass ] [ Length]
=
[Time ]2
M.L
=
T2
= M.L.T −2
1
Kinetic Energy = × Mass ×¿
2
 Dimension of Kinetic Energy

= [Kinetic Energy]]
= [Mass] [Velocity]2
Length 2
= [Mass][ ]
Time
[ Mass][ Length]2
= 2
[Time ]
M . L2
=
T2
=M. L2.T −2
• Dimension of Work
= [Work]
4
= [Force][Length]
= [Mass × Acceleration][Length]
= [Mass][Acceleration][Length]
Velocity
= [Mass][ ¿ [Length ]
Time
Length
[ Mass][ ]
= Time
[ Length ]
[Time]
[ Mass ] [ Length]
= [Length]
[ Time ] [Tme]
= [ Mass ] ¿ ¿
M . L2
=
T2
= M. L2.T −2
• Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time.

Dimension of Frequency
= [Frequency]
Number
=[ ]
Time
1
=
T
= T −1
• Angular Velocity is the rate of change of angular position of a rotating body.
Dimension of Angular Velocity

= [Angular Velocity]
Angle
=[ ]
Time
1
=[ ]
Time
1
=
T
5
= T −1
Dimension of Angular Velocity

= [Angular Velocity]
Radius
=[ ]
Time
Length
=[ ]
Time
L
=
T
= L. T −1
• Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity.
Dimension of Angular Acceleration
= [Angular Acceleration]
Angular Velocity
=[ ]
Time
[ Angular Velocity ]
=
[Time]
1
= T
T
1
=
T2
= T −2
Dimension of Angular Acceleration

= [Angular Acceleration]
Angular Velocity
=[ ]
Time
=
[Time]
L
= T
T
6
L
=
T2
= L. T −2
• The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its
mass per unit volume.
• Dimension of Density
= [Density]
Mass
=[ ]
Volume
Mass
=[ ]
Length × Length × Length
[Mass]
=
[ Length]3
M
=
L3
= M. L−3
• Momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object.

• Dimension of Momentum
= [Momentum]
= [Mass][Velocity]
Length
= [Mass][ ]
Time
[ Length]
= [Mass]
[Time]
ML
=
T
= M.L.T −1
• The moment of inertia must be specified with respect to a chosen axis of rotation.
• For a point mass the moment of inertia is just the mass times the square of
perpendicular distance to the rotation axis, I = mr2.
Dimension of Moment of Inertia
7
= [Moment of Inertia]
= [(Mass)( Distance)2]
= [Mass][ Distance ¿ ¿2
= M. L2
 Angular Momentum is the quantity of rotation of a body, which is the product of its
moment of inertia and its angular velocity.
Dimension of Angular Momentum
= [Angular Momentum]
= [ (Moment of inertia)(Angular velocity)]
Angle
= [ (Mass)( Distance)2( )]
Time
1
= [Mass][ Length]2[ ]
Time
1
= M.L.
T
= M.L. T −1
• Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force.

• Torque is a measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis.
• Torque is a measure of how much the force acting on an object causes that object to
rotate.
• Torque is the twisting force that tends to cause rotation.
Dimension of Torque
= [Torque]
= [(Moment of inertia)(Angular acceleration)]
Angular Velocity
= [(Mass)( Distance)2][ ]
Time
= [Mass][ Distance ¿ ¿2
[Time]
8
1
2
= M. L . T
T
2 1
= M. L
T2
=M. L2 . T −2
 Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an

object per unit area over which that force is distributed.
 Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
Dimension of Pressure
= [Pressure]
Force
=[ ]
Area
(Mass)(Acceleration )
=[ ]
(Length)(Length)
= [ M ass ] [ Acceleration]
¿¿
Velocity
=
[ Mass ] [ ]
Time
¿¿
Length
= [ Mass ] [ Time ]
Time
¿¿
Length
[ Mass ] [ ]
= (Time)2
¿¿
[ Mass ] [ Length]
=
[Time ]2 ¿ ¿
M.L
=
T 2 . L2
= M.L.T −2 . L−2
9
= M. L−1 . T −2
 Line Density is the measure of a quantity of any characteristic value per unit of
length.
 Dimension of Linear Density
= [Linear Density]
Mass
=[ ¿
Length
[ Mass]
=
[ Length]
M
=
L
= M. L−1
 The areal density (also known as area density, surface density, superficial density, or
density thickness) of a two-dimensional object is calculated as the mass per unit
area.
 Surface Density is a quantity (such as mass or electricity) per unit area distributed
over a surface.
• Dimension of Surface Density
= [Surface Density]
Mass
=[ ¿
Area
Mass
=[ ¿
(Length)(Length)
[ Mass]
=
¿¿
M
=
L2
= M. L−2
Dimensions of Some Common Mechanical Quantities

Quantity Dimension MKS unit
Area L2 m2
10
Volume L3 m3
Frequency T −1 s−1=hertz=Hz
Velocity L.T −1 m. s−1
Acceleration L.T −2 m. s−2
Angular Velocity T −1 rad ⋅ s−1

Angular Acceleration T −2rad ⋅ s−2
Density M⋅ L−3 kg ⋅ s−3
Momentum M⋅ L ⋅ T −1 kg ⋅m⋅ s−1
Angular Momentum M⋅ L2 ⋅ T −1 kg ⋅m 2 ⋅ s−1
Force M⋅ L ⋅ T −2 kg ⋅m⋅ s−2 = newton = N
Work, Energy M⋅ L2⋅T −2 kg ⋅m 2⋅ s−2 = joule =J
Torque M⋅ L2⋅ T −2 kg ⋅m2⋅ s−2
Power M⋅ L2⋅ T −3 kg ⋅m 2⋅ s−3 = watt = W
Pressure M⋅ L−1⋅ T −2 kg⋅m−1 . s−2= pascal = Pa
Exercises
State the dimensions, in terms of M, L and T of the quantities:
(a) pressure (force per unit area)
(b) line density (mass per unit length)
(c) surface density (mass per unit area)
(d) frequency (number per unit time)
(e) angular velocity (angle per unit time)
(f) angular acceleration (rate of change of angular velocity)
(g) rate of loss of mass (mass per unit time)
11
Chapter 2
Arithmetic Progression and Geometric Progression
Sequence
• Sequence is a set of numbers written in order according to some rule.
• Each value in the sequence is called an element, a term or a member.
Progression
• Progression is a sequence in which each term is related to the previous term or

terms by a uniform law.
• All progressions are sequences, but not all sequences are progressions.
Arithmetic progression
• Arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers where the difference between any
two successive terms is a constant.
• This constant is called the common difference (d).
12
Uses of Arithmetic progressions
 Arithmetic progressions are used in simulation engineering and in the reproductive

cycle of bacteria.
Some uses of Arithmetic progressions in daily life
• uniform increase in speed at regular intervals

• completing patterns of objects
• calculating simple interest
• speed of an aircraft,
• increase or decrease in the costs of goods, sales and production
• and so on.
• When a sequence has a constant difference between successive terms it is called an

arithmetic progression (often abbreviated to AP).
The constant is called the common difference, d.
• For example
1, 4, 7, 10, 13 . . .
where the common difference is 3.
• For any arithmetic progression, with initial value a and common difference d, the
terms are
{a, (a + d), (a + 2d), (a + 3d), …, (a + (n − 1)d), …}
General expression for the nth term of an AP

• The general term of AP is
U n =¿a + (n −1) d
where U n = nth term
a = The first term

n = The number of terms
d = The common difference
l ¿a + (n −1) d
13
where l = The last term
Sum of n terms of an AP
• The sum of the first n terms in an arithmetic progression is
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + ... + [a + (n -1)d]
• The sum S of an AP can be obtained by multiplying the average of all the terms by the
number of terms.
a+l
• Sn=n[ ]
2
where Sn = The sum of n terms

a = The first term
l = The last term
a+l
• Sn=n[ ]
2
a+ a+(n−1)d
= n[ ]
2
n
Sn= [2a +(n−1)d]
2
n
• Sn= [ 2a +(n−1)d]
2
where Sn = The sum of n terms

a = The first term
d = The common difference
The arithmetic mean
14
• The arithmetic mean is the sum of the arithmetic series divided by the number of
terms.
Sn
• Arithmetic mean =
n
Exercise
1. Determine (a) the ninth and (b) the sixteenth term of the series 2, 7, 12, 17, ...
Solution
2, 7, 12, 17, ...
The first term = U 1= a = 2
The second term = U 2= 7
The third term = U 3= 12

U 2 - U 1= 7 – 2 = 5
U 3 - U 2= 12 – 7 = 5
U 2 - U 1= U 3 - U 2 = 5
It is AP.
The common difference = d = 5
The nth term of AP = U n =¿a + (n −1) d
a) The ninth term = U 9 = ?

n = The number of terms = 9
The ninth term = U 9 =¿2 + (9 −1) (5) = 42

b) The sixteenth term = U 16 = ?
n = The number of terms = 16
The ninth term = U 16=¿2 + (16 −1) (5) = 79
2. The sixth term of an AP is 17 and the thirteenth term is 38.Determine the nineteenth
term.
Solution
The sixth term of an AP = U 6 = 17

The nth term of AP = U n =¿a + (n −1) d
15
The 6th term of AP = U 6 =¿a + (6 −1) d = a + 5d
a + 5d = 17 (1)
The thirteenth term = U 13 = 38
The 13thterm of AP = U 13=¿ a + (13 −1) d = a + 12d
a + 12d = 38 (2)
a + 5d = 17 (1)
Equation (2) - (1) gives
7 d = 21
d=3
From (1),
a + 5(3) = 17
a + 15 = 17
a=2
The first term = U 1= 2
The nineteenth term = ?

The 19thterm of AP = U 19=¿ 2 + (19 −1) (3) = 56
3. Determine the number of the term whose value is 22 in the series 21 2,4,51 2, 7, ...
Solution
1 1
2 , 4, 5 , 7, ...
2 2
1
2

1
2
16
1 1
U 2 - U 1= 4 – 2 = 1
2 2
1 1
U 3 - U 2= 5 - 4 = 1
2 2
1
U 2 - U 1= U 3 - U 2 = 1
2
It is AP.
1
2
The n term of AP = U n =¿a + (n −1) d
th
The number of terms = n = ?
U n =22
22 = a + (n −1) d
1 1
2 + (n −1)(1 ) = 22
2 2
5 3
+ ( n – 1) = 22
2 2
5 + (n – 1) 3 = 44
3n – 3 = 44 – 5
2n = 44
n = 22
4. Find the sum of the first 12 terms of the series 5, 9, 13,17, ...
Solution
5, 9, 13, 17, ...

U 2 - U 1= 9 – 5 = 4
17
U 3 - U 2= 13 – 9 = 4
U 2 - U 1= U 3 - U 2 = 4
It is AP.
The number of terms = n = 12
n
The sum of the first n terms = Sn= [2a +(n−1)d]
2
12
The sum of the first 12 terms = S12= [2(5) +(12−1)(4)] = 324
2
5. Find the sum of the first 21 terms of the series 3.5, 4.1, 4.7, 5.3,...
Solution
Since three numbers are in arithmetic progression,
Let U 1,U 2 and U 3 be three numbers.
Sum of three numbers = U 1+U 2 + U 3 = a + a +d + a +2d = 3a + 3d
Sum of three numbers = 15
3a + 3d = 15
a+d=5
a=5-d
Product of three numbers = U 1.U 2 . U 3 = a (a +d) (a +2d)
Product of three numbers = 80
a (a +d) (a +2d) = 80
a (a +d) (a +d + d) = 80
a (5) (5+d) = 80
a (5+d) = 16
(5 – d) (5+d) = 16
25 - d 2 = 16
d 2= 9
d=±3
18
If d = 3,
a=5–d=5–3=2
Three numbers are
U1 = a = 2
U2 = a + d = 2 + 3 = 5
U 3 = a + 2d = 2 + 2(3) = 8
If d = - 3,
a = 5 – (-3) = 5 + 3 = 8
Three numbers are
U1 = a = 8
U2 = a + d = 8 - 3 = 5
U 3 = a + 2d = 8 + 2(- 3) = 2
6. Find the eleventh term of the series 8, 14, 20, 26, ... 2.
7. Find the seventeenth term of the series 11, 10.7, 10.4, 10.1, ...
8. The seventh term of a series is 29 and the eleventh term is 54.
9. Find the fifteenth term of an arithmetic progression of which the first term is 2.5 and the
tenth term is16. Determine the number of the term which is 29 in the series 7, 9.2, 11.4,
13.6,...
10. Find the sum of the first 11terms of the series 4, 7,10,13,...
11. Determine the sum of the series 6.5, 8.0,9.5, 11.0,...,32
12. The sum of seven terms of an AP is 35 and the common difference is 1.2.Determine the
first term of the series.
13. Three numbers are in arithmetic progression. Their sum is 15 and their product is 80.
Determine the three numbers.
Solution
Since three numbers are in arithmetic progression,
Let U 1,U 2 and U 3 be three numbers.
Sum of three numbers = U 1+U 2 + U 3 = a + a +d + a +2d = 3a + 3d
Sum of three numbers = 15
3a + 3d = 15
a+d=5
19
a=5-d
Product of three numbers
= U 1.U 2 . U 3
= a (a +d) (a +2d)
Product of three numbers = 80
a (a +d) (a +2d) = 80
a (a +d) (a +d + d) = 80
a (5) (5+d) = 80
a (5+d) = 16
(5 – d) (5+d) = 16
25 - d 2 = 16
d 2= 9
d=±3
If d = 3,
a=5–d=5–3=2
Three numbers are
U1 = a = 2
U2 = a + d = 2 + 3 = 5
U 3 = a + 2d = 2 + 2(3) = 8
If d = - 3,
a = 5 – (-3) = 5 + 3 = 8
Three numbers are
U1 = a = 8
U2 = a + d = 8 - 3 = 5
U 3 = a + 2d = 8 + 2(- 3) = 2
14. Find the sum of all the numbers between 0 and 207 which are exactly divisible by 3.
15. The first, twelfth and last term of an arithmetic progression are 4,311 2 and3761 2,
respectively. Determine
(a) the number of terms in the series,
20
(b) the sum of all the terms and
(c) the 80th term.
16. An oil company bores a hole 80m deep. Estimate the cost of boring if the cost is £30 for
drilling the first metre with an increase in cost of £2 per metre for each succeeding metre.
Solution
The depth of hole which is bored by an oil company = n = 80m
Since for drilling the first metre with an increase in cost of £2 per metre,
30,32, 34,….
It is AP.
The cost for first depth of hole = U 1= a = £ 30
The cost for second depth of hole = U 2= £ 32
The cost for third depth of hole = U 3= £ 34

n
The sum of the first n terms = Sn= [2a +(n−1)d]
2
Total cost of boring
= Sum of cost for 80m depth of hole
= S80
80
= [2(30) +(80−1)(2)]
2
= £ 8720
17.The sum of 15 terms of an arithmetic progression is 202.5 and the common difference is
2. Find the first term of the series.
18. Three numbers are in arithmetic progression. Their sum is 9 and their product is
20.25. Determine the three numbers.
19. Find the sum of all the numbers between 5 and 250 which are exactly divisible by 4.
Solution
Since the numbers between 5 and 250 which are exactly divisible by 4,
8, 12, 16,…, 248
21

U 2 - U 1= 12 – 8 = 4
U 3 - U 2= 16 – 12 = 4
U 2 - U 1= U 3 - U 2 = 4
It is AP.
The number of terms = n =?
The last term = l = 248
The last term of AP is l ¿a + (n −1) d.
248 = 8 + (n −1) (4)
4n – 4 = 248 – 8
4n – 4 = 240
4n = 244
n = 61
The sum of the first n terms
= Sn
n
= [a + l]
2
The sum of the first 12 terms

= S12
61
= [8 + 248]
2
= 7808
20. Find the number of terms of the series 5, 8, 11,... of which the sum is 1025.
22
21. Insert four terms between 5 and 22.5 to form an arithmetic progression.
Solution
To insert four terms between 5 and 22.5 to form an arithmetic progression,
5,U 2 , U 3, U 4 , U 5, 22.5
5, a +d, a +2d, a +3d, a +4d, 22.5
The last term = l = U 6 = 22.5
The common difference = d = ?

The last term of AP is
l ¿a + (n −1) d.
22.5 = 5 + (6 −1) d
5d = 17.5
d = 3.5
The common difference = d = 3.5
The second term = U 2= a + d = 5 +3.5 = 8.5
The third term = U 3= a + 2d = 5 + 2 (3.5) = 12
The fourth term = U 4 = a + 3d = 5 +3 (3.5) = 15.5
The fifth term = U 5= a + 4d = 5 +4 (3.5) = 19
22. The first, tenth and last terms of an arithmetic progression are 9, 40.5 and 425.5,
respectively. Find
(a) the number of terms,
(b) the sum of all the terms and
(c) the 70th term.
23. An oil company bores a hole 120 m deep. Estimate the cost of boring if the cost is £70
for drilling the first metre with an increase in cost of £3 per metre for each succeeding
metre.
Geometric progressions
• Geometric progressions are used throughout mathematics.
23
Many important applications of Geometric progressions
• Physics
• Engineering
• Biology
• Economics
• Computer science
• Queuing theory
• Finance
• Geometric progression is a sequence of numbers where each element is multiplied

by a constant value to form the next element in the sequence.
• This constant multiplier is called the common ratio (r).
• When a sequence has a constant ratio between successive terms it is called a
geometric progression (often abbreviated to GP).
• The constant is called the common ratio, r.
General expression for the nth term of an GP

• The general term of GP is
U n =¿a r n−1
where U n = nth term
a = The first term

r = The common ratio
l ¿a r n−1
where l = The last term
a(1−r n )
• When r < 1 , S n=
1−r
a(r n−1)
• When r ¿1 , S n=
r −1
where Sn= The sum of n terms
24
a = The first term
Sum to infinity of a GP
• When the series is convergent, −1< r < 1 (|r|< 1¿,
a
S∞ =
1−r
where S∞ = Sum to infinity
a = The first term

Exercise
1. Determine the tenth term of the series 3,6,12,24, ...

Solution
3, 6, 12, 24...

U2 6 U 3 12
= =2 = =2
U1 3 U2 6
U2 U3
= =2
U1 U2
It is GP.
The common ratio = r = 2
The tenth term = U 10 =?
25
The number of terms = n =10
The general term of GP = The nth term = U n =¿a r n−1
The tenth term = U 10 = 3 (2)10−1 = 1536
2. The first term of a geometric progression is12 and the fifth term is 55.Determine the
eighth term and the eleventh term.
Solution
The fifth term = U 5= 55
The common ratio = r = ?
The eighth term = U 8 =?
The eleventh term = U 11 =?
The fifth term = U 5 = 12(r )5−1= 12(r )4
12(r )4 = 55
55
r4=
12
55
r=
√
4
12
55 7
√
The eighth term = U 8 = 12(r )8−1 = 12(r )7= 12 [ 4
12
¿ ¿ = 172.3
26
55 10
√
The eleventh term = U 11= 12(r )11−1 = 12(r )10 = 12 [ 4
12
¿ ¿ = 539.7
1
4. Which term of the series 2187,729, 243, ... is ?
9
Solution
2187,729, 243...

U2 729 1 U 3 243 1
= = = =
U 1 2187 3 U 2 729 3
U2 U3 1
= =
U1 U2 3
It is GP.
1
The common ratio = r =
3
1
The nth term =
9
The number of terms = n =?
n−1
1
The general term of GP = The n term = U n =¿a r n−1 = 2187 ( )
th
3
1 1 n−1
= 2187 ( )
9 3
1 n−1 1
( ) =
3 9 ×2187
1 n−1= 1
( )
3 19683
27
1 n−1 1 9
( ) =( )
3 3
n–1=9
n = 10
5. Find the sum of the first nine terms of the series72.0, 57.6, 46.08, ...
Solution
72.0, 57.6, 46.08, ...
The first term = U 1= a = 72.0
The second term = U 2= 57.6
The third term = U 3= 46.08

U 2 57.6 4 U 3 46.08 4
= = = =
U 1 72.0 5 U 2 57.6 5
U2 U3 4
= =
U1 U2 5
It is GP.
4
The common ratio = r = ¿1
5
a (1−r n )
The sum of n terms= Sn=
1−r
4 9
The sum of the first nine terms = S9 =
72.0 [1− ()
5
]
= 311.7
4
1−
5
28
1
6. Find the sum to infinity of the series3,1, , ...
3
Solution
1
3,1, , ...
3

1
The third term = U 3=
3
U2 1 U3 1 1
= = 3 =
U1 3 U2 3
1
U2 U3 1
= =
U1 U2 3
It is GP.
1
The common ratio = r =
3
Since −1< r < 1, the series is convergent.
3
a 9 1
Sum to infinity = S∞ = = 1 = =4
1−r 1− 2 2
3
7. Find the tenth term of the series 5, 10, 20, 40 ...

1 3 1 3
8. Determine the sum of the first seven terms of the series , ,2 ,6 , ...
4 4 4 4
9. The first term of a geometric progression is 4 and the sixth term is 128.Determin e the
eighth and eleventh terms.
1
10. Find the sum of the first seven terms of the series 2, 5, 12 , ... (correct to 4 significant
2
figures).
11. Determine the sum to infinity of the series 4, 2,1, ...
29
1 1 5
12.Find the sum to infinity of the series 2 ,−1 , .
2 4 8
13.In a geometric progression the sixth term is eight times the third term and the sum of
the seventh and eighth terms is 192.Determine
(a) the common ratio,

(b) the first term, and
(c) the sum of the fifth to eleventh terms, inclusive.
Solution
a )Let the GP be a, ar, ar 2…, ar n−1.
The sixth term = U 6 = a r 6−1 = a r 5
The third term = U 3 = a r 3−1 = a r 2
The sixth term = eight times the third term
a r 5= 8 a r 2
a r5
=8
a r2
r 3= 8
r = √3 8 = 2
The common ratio = 2
b)The seventh term = U 7 = a r 7−1 = a r 6
The eighth term = U 8 = a r 8−1 = a r 7
The sum of the seventh and eighth terms = 192
The seventh term + The eighth term = 192
a r 6 + a r 7= 192
a r 6 [ 1+ r ] = 192
30
a (2)6 [ 1+2 ] = 192
a (64) [ 3 ] = 192
192 a = 192
a=1
The first term = 1
a) The sum of the fifth to eleventh terms, inclusive

= S11 −S 4
4
1[211 −1] 1(2 −1)
= -
2−1 2−1
= 2032
14. A drilling machine is to have six speeds ranging from 50 rev/min to 750 rev/min.If the
speeds form a geometric progression determine their values, each correct to the nearest
whole number.
15.In a geometric progression the fifth term is nine times the third term and the sum of the
sixth and seventh terms is 1944. Determine
(a) the common ratio,
(b) the first term and
(c) the sum of the fourth to tenth terms inclusive.
16. Which term of the series 3, 9, 27,... is 59049?
17. A drilling machine is to have eight speeds ranging from 100rev/min to 1000rev/min. If
the speeds form a geometric progression determine their values, each correct to the nearest
whole number.
18. The motor powering an oil drill has five speeds. These vary from 10 rpm to 160 rpm in
(a) an arithmetic progression and
(b) a geometric progression.
Find these speeds of the motor powering the oil drill.
The number of speeds of the motor powering oil drill = n = 5
The first speed of the motor powering oil drill = U 1=a=¿ 10 rpm
31
The fifth speed of the motor powering oil drill = U 5= 160 rpm
Since the speeds of the motor powering oil drill vary in an arithmetic progression,
U 5 = 160 rpm
a + (5 – 1) d = 160
10 + 4d = 160
4d = 150
d = 37.5
The common difference = 37.5 rpm
The second speed of the motor powering oil drill = U 2 = a + d = 10 + 37.5 = 47.5 rpm
The third speed of the motor powering oil drill = U 3 = a + 2d = 10 + 2(37.5) = 85 rpm
The four speed of the motor powering oil drill = U 4 = a + 3d= 10 + 3(37.5) = 122.5 rpm
The five speeds of the motor powering oil drill in arithmetic progression are 10,48, 85, 123
and 160 rpm, correct to the nearest whole number.
Since the speeds of the motor powering oil drill vary in geometric progression,
U 5 = 160 rpm
a r 5−1 = 160
10 r 4 = 160
r 4 = 16
r = √4 16
The common ratio = 2 rpm
The second speed of the motor powering oil drill = U 2 = ar= 10 (2) = 20 rpm
The third speed of the motor powering oil drill = U 3 = ar 2 = 10 (2)2 = 40 rpm
The fourth speed of the motor powering oil drill = U 4 = ar 3 = 10 (2)3 = 80 rpm
The five speeds of the motor powering oil drill in geometric progression are 10,20, 40, 80
and 160 rpm.
32
Chapter 3
Exponential Function
A exponential function is any function of the form
f(x) = b x
where b ¿ 0 , b ≠ 1,∧x is any real number .The number b is called the base.
Examples of exponential function
• f (x) = 2 x
• g(x) = 3 x
• h(x) = π x
• f ( x )=4.2x
• k(x) = [√ 3 ¿ ¿x
Examples of non-exponential function
• f (x) = (−2)x
• h(x) = 0 x
• k(x) = 1 x
Table for drawing the exponential functions
33
Graphs of exponential function
Common Features of Exponential Functions
If f(x) =b x , then
• The y- intercept is 1.
• If b¿ 1 ,the negative X−axis is an asymptote
and the curves all rise as the values of x increase.
• If b¿ 1 ,the positive X−axis is an asymptote
and the curves all fall as the values of x increase.
Exercise
Sketch the graphs of the following exponential functions.
[1] f (x) = e 2 x
[2] f (x) = e−2 x

1
[3] f (x) = e 2 x
−1
x
[4] f (x) = e 2
[5] f (x) = e 3 x
[6] f (x) = e−3 x

1
[7] f (x) = e 3 x
−1
x
[8] f (x) = e 3
34
Exponential Growth and Decay
The basic formula for the exponential growth and decay of a quality is
y = ce kt
where y represents the size of the quality at time t,
c is a positive real number constant, and
k is a non- zero constant.
If k¿ 0 , this is an exponential growth function.
If k¿ 0 , this is an exponential decay function.
Laws of exponential growth and decay
• The law of exponential growth
y = Ae kx
where A and k are constants.
• The law of exponential decay
y = A (1−e−kx )
where A and k are constants.
The laws occur frequently in engineering and science and examples of quantities related by
a natural law include.
• Linear expansion I = I 0 e αθ
• Change in electrical resistance with temperature Rθ = R0 e αθ
• Tension in belts T 1= T 0 e μθ
• Newton’s law of cooling θ =θ0 e−kt
• Biological growth y = y 0 e kt
−t
• Discharge of a capacitor q = Q e CR
−h
• Atmospheric pressure p= P e c
0
• Radioactive decay N = N 0 e λt
− Rt
• Decay of current in an inductive circuit i=Ie L
−t
• Growth of current in a capacitive circuit i = I(1-e CR )
35
Problems
1. The resistance R of an electrical conductor at temperature θ◦C is given by R = R0 e αθ
where α is a constant and R0 = 5×103 ohms. Determine the value of α, correct to 4 significant
figures, when R = 6×103 ohms and θ =1500◦C. Also, find the temperature, correct to the
nearest degree, when the resistance R is 5.4×103 ohms.
Solution
The resistance R of an electrical conductor at temperature θ◦C is given by
R = R0 e αθ
Where R is the resistance,
R0 is the initial resistance,
α is the constant and
θ is the temperature.
R = 5.4×103 ohms
R0 = 5×103 ohms
α=?
θ =1500◦C
R = R0 e αθ
R
e αθ = R
0
R
ln[e αθ ] = ln [ ]
R0
R
αθ=ln [ ]
R0
1 R
α = ln [ ]
θ R0
36
1
α= ln ¿
1500
α =115.4
The value of α, correct to 4 significant figures is 115.4.
2. In an experiment involving Newton’s law of cooling, the temperature θ(◦C) is given by

θ = θ0 e-kt. Find the value of constant k when θ0 = 56.6◦C, θ = 16.5◦C and t = 83.0 seconds.
−t
The current i amperes flowing in a capacitor at time t seconds is given by i = 8.0(1− e CR ¿,
where the circuit resistance R is 25×103 ohms and capacitance C is 16×10-6 farads.
Determine
(a) the current i after 0.5 seconds and
(b) the time, to the nearest millisecond, for the current to reach 6.0 A.
Solution
The current i amperes flowing in a capacitor at time t seconds is given by
−t
i = 8.0(1− e CR ¿
where i is the current in a capacitor,

t is the time taken,
C is the capacitance and
R is the resistance.
a )i = ?
t = 0.5 seconds
R = 25×103 ohms
C = 16×10-6 farads
−0.5
i = 8.0[1− e 16 ×10
−6
×25 ×10
3
¿
i = 5.7 A
The current i after 0.5 seconds is 5.7 A.
i=6A
t=?
37
R = 25×103 ohms
C = 16×10-6 farads
−t
i = 8.0(1− e CR ¿
−t i
1− e CR =
8
−t i
e CR = 1 - 8
−t i
ln [e CR ¿= ln [1 - ]
8
−t i
= ln [1 - ]
CR 8
i
t = - CR ln [1 - ]
8
6
t = -16×10-6× 25×103 ln [1 - ]
8
t = 554.5 ×10-3 s
t = 554.5 ms
The time, to the nearest millisecond, for the current to reach 6.0 A is 554.5 ms.
3. The temperature θ2 of a winding which is being heated electrically at time t is given
−t
by: θ2 = θ1(1− e τ ¿ where θ1 is the temperature (in degrees Celsius) at time t = 0 and τ is a
constant.
Calculate,
(a) θ1, correct to the nearest degree, when θ2 is 50◦C, t is 30 s and τ is 60 s
(b) the time t, correct to 1 decimal place, for θ2 to be half the value of θ1.
4. The temperature, T ◦C, of a cooling object varies with time, t minutes, according to the
equation: T =150e−0.04 t . Determine the temperature when (a) t = 0, (b) t = 10 minutes.
−h
5. The pressure p pascals at height h metres above ground level is given by p = p0 e C ,
where p0 is the pressure at ground level and C is a constant. Find pressure p when p0 =
1.012×105 Pa, height h =1420 m, and C = 71 500.
6. The voltage drop, v volts, across inductor L henrys at time t seconds is given by
− Rt
v = 200e L , where R =150 and L = 12.5×10-3 H. Determine
38
(a) the voltage when t =160×10-6 s, and
(b) the time for the voltage to reach 85V.
7. The length l metres of a metal bar at temperature t◦C is given by l = l0 e αt , where l0 and α
are constants. Determine
(a) the value of α when l =1.993 m, l0 =1.894m and t = 250◦C, and
(b) the value of l0 when l = 2.416, t = 310◦C and α = 1.682×10- 4.
8. The temperature θ2˚C of an electrical conductor at time t seconds is given by:
¿t
θ2 = θ1(1− e T ¿, where θ1 is the initial temperature and T seconds is a constant. Determine:
(a) θ2 when θ1=159.9◦C, t = 30s and T = 80s, and

(b) the time t for θ2 to fall to half the value of θ1 if T remains at 80 s.
9. A belt is in contact with a pulley for a sector of θ =1.12 radians and the coefficient of
friction between these two surfaces is μ = 0.26. Determine the tension on the taut side of the
belt, T newtons, when tension on the slack side T0 = 22.7 newtons, given that these
quantities are related by the law T =T0 e μθ . Determine also the value of θ when T = 28.0
newtons.
−t
10. The instantaneous current i at time t is given by: i =10 e CR when a capacitor is being
charged. The capacitance C is 7×10-6 farads and the resistance R is 0.3×106 ohms.
Determine:
(a) the instantaneous current when t is 2.5 seconds, and
(b) the time for the instantaneous current to fall to 5 amperes.
11. The amount of product x (in mol/cm3) found in a chemical reaction starting with 2.5
mol/cm3
of reactant is given by x = 2.5(1− e−4 t ¿ where t is the time, in minutes, to form product x.
Plot a graph at 30-second intervals up to 2.5minutes and determine x after 1 minute.
−t
12. The current i flowing in a capacitor at time t is given by: i = 12.5(1− e CR ) where
resistance R is 30 kilohms and the capacitance C is 20 micro-farads. Determine:

(a) the current flowing after 0.5 seconds, and
(b) the time for the current to reach 10 amperes.
13. The percentage concentration C of the starting material in a chemical reaction varies
39
with time t according to the equation C = 100 e−0.004 t . Determine the concentration when
(a) t = 0, (b) t = 100 s, (c) t = 1000 s.
14. The current i flowing through a diode at room temperature is given by: i = iS ( e 40 V -1)
amperes. Calculate the current flowing in a silicon diode when the reverse saturation
current iS = 50 nA and the forward voltage V = 0.27V.
−t
15. A formula for chemical decomposition is given by: C = A ( 1- e 10 ¿ where t is the time in
seconds. Calculate the time, in milliseconds, for a compound to decompose to a value of

C = 0.12 given A = 8.5.
16. The mass, m, of pollutant in a water reservoir decreases according to the law
m = m0 e−0.1t where t is the time in days and m0 is the initial mass. Calculate the percentage
decrease in the mass after 60 days, correct to 3 decimal places.
17. A metal bar is cooled with water. Its temperature, in ◦C, is given by: θ = 15 + 1300 e−0.2t
where t is the time in minutes. Calculate how long it will take for the temperature, θ, to
decrease to 36◦C, correct to the nearest second.
40
Chapter 4
Trigonometry
Trigonometric Functions
• There are six possible rations of two sides of a triangle.
They are
• sine (sin),
• cosine (cos),
• tangent (tan),
• cotangent (cot),
• secant (sec) and
• cosecant (csc).
Angles
• Positive angle
• Negative angle
Positive angle
If the rotation of the terminal side from the initial side is counterclockwise, the angle is a
positive angle.
• Negative angle
If the rotation of the terminal side from the initial side is clockwise, the angle is a
negative angle.
41
Angle Measure
• The two most common of using several different systems are degrees and radians.
1
• A degree is of a circle and symbol ° isused to indicate degree (s).
360
Degree – Radian Conversions
• To convert from degrees to radians, multiply the number, multiply the number
π
degrees by .
180°
• To convert from radians to degrees, multiply the number, multiply the number
180°
degrees by .
π
Converting Between Degrees and Radians
• The Ratio Method

d r
=
18 0° π
Express the following in radians (leaving in your answer, wherever appropriate):
a) 45° e) 57°
b) 135° f) 80°
c) 80° g) 28°
d) 74° h) 150°
Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle
Reference Angles
• The acute angle, θ Ref between the terminal side of θ and X- axis is called the
reference angle for θ.
42
• The trigonometric functions of θ are numerically the same as those of its reference
angle, θ Ref .
The reference angle θ for any angle θ in each of four

Ref
quadrants
For quadrant I
θ Ref = θ
For Quadrant II
θ Ref = 180°−θ = π – θ
For Quadrant III
43
θ Ref = θ−¿180° = θ−π
For Quadrant IV
Triangles
 Right - angled triangles

 Oblique triangles
Right - angled triangles
In right ∆ ABC ,
∠B = 90°
44
∠A+∠C = 90°
Pythagoras Theorem
By using Pythagoras Theorem,
AC 2= AB 2 + BC 2
b 2 ¿ c 2 +a2
b = √ c 2+ a2
Six Trigonometric Functions
For ∠A,
• Opposite side of ∠A = BC = a
• Adjacent side of ∠A = AB = c
• Hypotenuse = AC = b
O BC a
• sin A = = =
H AC b
A AB c
• cos A = = =
H AC b
a
sin A b a b a
• tan A = = = . =
cos A c b c c
b
1
1 c
• cot A = = a =
tan A a
c
1
1 b
• sec A = = c =
cos A c
b
1
1 b
• csc A = = a =
sin A a
b
For ∠ C,
• Opposite side of ∠ C = AB = c
• Adjacent side of ∠ C = BC = a
• Hypotenuse = AC = b
45
O AB c
• sin C = = =
H AC b
A BC a
• cos C = = =
H AC b
c
sin C b c b c
• tan C = = = . =
cos C a b a a
b
1
1 a
• cot C = = c =
tan C c
a
1
1 b
• sec C = = a =
cos C a
b
1
1 b
• csc C = = c =
sin C c
b
Non-right angled (oblique) triangles
 Scalene
 Isosceles
 Equilateral triangles
 Scalene
AB≠ BC ≠ AC
a ≠b≠ c
∠ A+∠ B+∠C =180˚
46
 Isosceles
AB¿ AC
c ¿b
∠ A+∠ B+∠C = 180˚
Equilateral triangles
AB¿AC = BC
c=b=a
∠ C=∠B=∠ A = 60˚
∠ A+∠ B+∠C = 180˚
Algebraic Laws or Trigonometric Rules

• Sine Rule or Law of Sines
• Cosine Rule or Law of Cosines
• Sine Rule or Law of Sines
47
In ∆ ABC ,
Given: AAS
To find sides,
By using Sine Rule or Law of Sines,
a b c
=¿ =
sin A sin B sin C
Given: SSA
To find angles,
By using Sine Rule or Law of Sines,
sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c
• Cosine Rule or Law of Cosines

Given: SAS
In ∆ ABC ,
To find sides,
By using Cosine Rule or Law of Cosines,
a 2=b2 +c 2−2 bc cos A
b 2=a2 +c 2−2 ac cos B

c 2=a2+ b2−2 ab cos C
Given: SSS
48
To find angles,
By using Cosine Rule or Law of Cosines,
a 2=b2 +c 2−2 bc cos A

2 bc cos A = b 2+ c2- a 2
b2 +c 2−a 2
cos A =
2 bc
∠ A=cos−1 ¿ ¿]
∠ B=cos−1 ¿ ¿]
a 2+ b2−c 2 ¿
∠ C=cos [
−1
]¿
2 ab
Exercise
1. A crane consists of an inclined jib BC = 6.0 m, a vertical part AB = 2.0 m and a tie
AC = 5.0 m. Find angle A.
2. A surveyor wants to know the distance from location A to location B. She knows
AC = 291 m, BC = 405 m and angle C = 79°, where C is another location. From these
measurements, find the distance AB.
Area of Triangles
• Area of Right- angled Triangles
Area of ∆ ABC
1
¿ × Base × Perpendicular Height
2
49
1
= × BC ×AB
2
Exercise
1. Solve triangle XYZ given ∠X = 90◦,∠Y = 23◦ and YZ = 20.0 mm. Determine also its area.
2. A ladder rests against the top of the perpendicular wall of a building and makes an angle
of 73◦ with the ground. If the foot of the ladder is 2m from the wall, calculate the height of
the building.
Solution A
73°
B C
2m
Let AB m be the height of the building.
AB = ?
Let ∠ ACB be the angle of between the ground and the ladder.
∠ ACB = 73°
Let BC m be the length between the foot of the building and the ladder.
BC = 2 m
In rt. ∆ABC,
^ B = AB
tan AC
BC
AB
tan 73° =
2
AB = 2 tan 73°
AB = 6.5 m
50
∴The height of the building is 6.5m.
Area of Non-right angled Triangles
In rt.∆ ADB ,
AD
sin B =
AB
AD = AB sinB
AD = c sin B
Area of ∆ ABC
51
1
¿ × Base × Perpendicular Height
2
1
= × BC × AD
2
1
= ac sinB
2
Area of ∆ ABC
1
= ab sin C
2
1
= bc sin A
2
1
= ac sin B
2
Angles of Elevation and Depression

Angle of Elevation
The angle of elevation is an angle which is measured from the horizontal, through which
an observer would have to elevate his or her line of sight in order to see an object.
Angles of Depression
The angle of depression is an angle which is measured from the horizontal, through which
an observer would have to lower his or her line of sight in order to see an object.
Exercise
1. A room 8.0m wide has a span roof which slopes at33◦ on one side and 40◦ on the other.
52
Find the length of the roof slopes, correct to the nearest centimetre.
Solution
Let AC m be the width of the span roof of the room.
AC = 8 m
Let ∠ BAC be the slope on one side of the span roof of the room.
∠ BAC = 33◦
Let ∠ BCA be the slope on another side of the span roof of the room.
∠ BCA = 40◦
Let AB and BC be the lengths of the roof slopes.
AB = ?
BC = ?
In ∆ ABC,
∠ ABC + ∠ BAC + ∠ ACB = 180◦
∠ ABC = 180◦ - [∠ BAC + ∠ ACB]
∠ ABC = 180◦ - [33◦+ 40◦]
∠ ABC = 180◦ - 73◦
∠ ABC = 107◦
By using Sine Rule,
BC AC
=
sin A sin B
BC 8
=
sin 33° sin 107 °
53
8 sin 33 °
BC=
sin 107 °
BC = 4.56 m
By using Law of Sines,
AB AC
=
sin C sin B
AB 8
=
sin 40 ° sin 107 °
8 sin 40 °
AB=
sin 107 °
AB = 5.38 m
The lengths of the roof slopes are 4.56 m and 5.38 m.
2. A laboratory 9.0m wide has a span roof which slopes at 36◦ on one side and 44◦ on the
other. Determine the lengths of the roof slopes.
3.A surveyor measures the angle of elevation of the top of a perpendicular building as
19◦.He moves 120m nearer the building and finds the angle of elevation is now 47◦.
Determine the height of the building.
Solution
The angle of elevation of the top of a perpendicular building = 19◦
Since the surveyor moves 120m nearer the perpendicular building, the angle of elevation is
now 47◦.
The distance between the first and second points of view = 120 m
Let PQ = h m be the height of the perpendicular building.
54
Let x m be the distance between the perpendicular building and second point of view.
In rt.∆ PQS,
PQ
tan P ^SQ =
QS
PQ
tan 19° =
x+120
PQ = (x +120) tan 19°
h = (x +120) tan 19°
In rt.∆ PQR,
PQ
tan P ^
RQ =
QR
PQ
tan 47° =
x
PQ = x tan 47°
h = x tan 47°
(x +120) tan 19° = x tan 47°
x tan 19° + 120 tan 19° = x tan 47°
x tan 19° - x tan 47° = - 120 tan 19°
x [tan 19° - tan 47°] = - 120 tan 19°
−120 tan19 °
x=
tan 19 °−tan 4 7 °
x = 56.74
The height of the perpendicular building
=h
= x tan 47°
= 56.74 tan 47°
= 60.85 m
55
The height of the perpendicular building is 60.85 m.
4. An electricity pylon stands on horizontal ground. At a point 80m from the base of the
pylon, the angle of elevation of the top of the pylon is 23◦. Calculate the height of the pylon
to the nearest metre.
5. If the angle of elevation of the top of a vertical 30m high aerial is 32◦, how far is it to the
aerial?
6.Two sides of a triangular plot of land are 52.0m and 34.0m, respectively. If the area of
the plot is 620m2 find
(a) the length of fencing required to enclose the plot and
(b) the angles of the triangular plot.
Trigonometric Formulas, Identities and Equations

sin θ
• tan θ =
cos θ
1
cot θ =
tan θ
cos θ
• cot θ =
sin θ
1
• sec θ =
cos θ
56
1
• csc θ =
sin θ
 sin θ+cos 2 θ=1
2
 sin2 θ=1−cos 2 θ
 cos 2 θ=1−sin 2 θ
sin 2 θ+cos 2 θ=1
sin 2 θ cos 2 θ 1
2
+ 2 = 2
sin θ sin θ sin θ
• 1 + cot 2 θ= cosec 2 θ
• cot 2 θ= cosec 2 θ−¿ 1
sin2 θ+cos 2 θ=1
s ∈¿ 2 θ cos2 θ 1
2
+ 2 = 2 ¿
cos θ cos θ cos θ
 tan 2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ
 tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ – 1
 sin(θ + Φ) = sin θ cos Φ + cos θ sin Φ
 sin(θ - Φ) = sin θ cos Φ - cos θ sin Φ
 cos(θ + Φ) = cos θ cos Φ - sin θ sin Φ
 cos(θ - Φ) = cos θ cos Φ + sin θ sin Φ
sin 2θ = sin ( θ + θ)
= sin θ cos θ + cos θ sin θ
• sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
cos 2θ
= cos (θ + θ )
= cos θ cos θ - sin θ sin θ
57
• cos 2θ ¿ cos 2 θ−sin2 θ
cos 2θ ¿ cos 2 θ−sin 2 θ
= [1 - sin 2 θ ¿−¿ sin2 θ

• cos 2θ = 1 - 2 sin2 θ
cos 2θ = 1 - 2 sin2 θ
2 sin2 θ = 1 – cos 2 θ
1
• sin2 θ= [1 – cos 2 θ ¿
2
cos 2θ ¿ cos 2 θ−sin2 θ
¿ cos 2 θ - [ 1- cos 2 θ ]
¿ cos 2 θ - 1+ cos 2 θ
• cos 2θ ¿ 2 cos2 θ - 1
cos 2θ ¿ 2 cos2 θ - 1
2 cos2 θ = cos 2θ + 1
1
• cos 2 θ = [cos 2θ ]
2
1. cos 2θ ¿ cos 2 θ−sin 2 θ
2. cos 2θ = 1 - 2 sin2 θ
3. cos 2θ ¿ 2 cos2 θ - 1
tan θ+ tan ∅
• tan (θ+∅) =
1−tanθ tan ∅
tanθ−tan ∅
• tan (θ−∅) =
1+ tan θ tan ∅
tan 2θ
= tan (θ+ θ)
58
tan θ+ tanθ
=
1−tan θ tanθ
2 tan θ
=
1−¿ ¿ ¿
2 tan θ
• tan 2 θ =
1−tan 2 θ
Trigonometric waveforms
Sinusoidal wave form = A sin (ωt ± ∝¿
• Amplitude = A
• Angular velocity,ω= 2π f rad/s
2π
• Periodic time ,T (seconds) =
ω
1 ω
• Frequency, f (hertz) = =
T 2π
• Phase angle of lead or lag = ∝
Graphs of sine and cosine waveforms
y = sin A
y = sin 2A
1
y = sin A
2
y = sin nA
y = cos A
y = cos 2A
1
y = cos A
2
y = cos nA
y = 3 sin2A
y = 4 cos2x
3
y = 2 sin A
5
59
y = 5 sin (A+30◦)
y = 7 sin (2A − π/3)
y = sin2 A
y = cos2 A
y = 2 cos (ωt−3π/10)
1
y = 3 sin2 A
2
Exercise
Sketch the curve between 0◦ and360◦.
1. y = cos 3A
5x
2. y = 2 sin
2
3. y = 3 sin4t
4. y = 3 cosθ 2
7 3x
5. y = sin
2 8
6. y = 6 sin(t − 45◦)
7. y = 4 cos(2θ + 30◦)
8. y = 2 sin2 2t
3
9. y = 5 cos2 θ
2
10. An alternating current is given by
i = 30 sin (100πt + 0.27) amperes.
Find the amplitude, angular velocity, periodic time, frequency and phase angle (in degrees
and radians).
11. An oscillating mechanism has a maximum displacement of 2.5m and a frequency of

60Hz.At time t = 0 the displacement is 90cm. Express the displacement in the general form
A sin(ω t ± α).
60
12. The instantaneous value of voltage in an a.c.circuit at any time t seconds is given by
v = 340 sin (50πt − 0.541) volts.
Determine: (a) the amplitude, periodic time, frequency and phase angle (in degrees)
(b) the value of the voltage when t = 0
(c) the value of the voltage when t =10ms
(d) the time when the voltage first reaches 200V
(e) the time when the voltage is a maximum.
Sketch one cycle of the waveform.
13. Find the amplitude, angular velocity, periodic time, frequency and phase angle (in
degrees and radians).
(1) i = 40 sin(50πt+0.29) mA
(2) y = 75 sin(40t−0.54) cm
(3) v = 300 sin(200πt−0.412)V
14. A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of 120V and a frequency of 50Hz. At time
t = 0, the voltage is (a) zero and (b) 50V. Express the instantaneous voltage v in the form
v = A sin (ωt ± α).
15.An alternating current has a periodic time of 25ms and a maximum value of 20A. When
time t = 0, current i = −10 amperes. Express the current i in the form i = A sin (ωt ± α)
16. An oscillating mechanism has a maximum displacement of 3.2m and a frequency of

50Hz. At time t = 0 the displacement is 150cm. Express the displacement in the general
form A sin (ωt ± α).
17. The current in an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is given by:
i = 5 sin (100πt − 0.432) amperes. Determine (a) the amplitude,

frequency, periodic time and phase angle (in degrees and radians),
(b) the value of current at t = 0,
(c) the value of current at t = 8ms,
(d) the time when the current is first a maximum,
61
(e) the time when the current first reaches 3A.
Sketch one cycle of the waveform showing relevant points.
18. The current in an alternating current circuit at any time t seconds is given by:
i = 120 sin (100 πt + 0.274) amperes.
Determine
(a) the amplitude, periodic time, frequency, periodic time and phase angle(in degrees and
radians)
(b) the value of current when t = 0
(c) the value of current when t = 6ms
(d) the time when the current first reaches 80A.
Sketch one cycle of the oscillation.
Conversion of a sinωt +b cos ωt to R sin (ωt + α)

Rsin (ωt + α)
= R [sinωt cosα + cosωt sinα]
=R sinωt cosα + R cosωt sinα
= (Rcosα) sinωt + (Rsinα) cosωt
If a = Rcosα and b = Rsinα, where a and b are constants, then
R sin(ωt + α) = a sinωt + b cosωt
a b
Since a = R cosα, then cosα = , and since b = R sinα, then sinα =
R R
62
If the values of a and b are known then the values of R andα may be calculated.
From the above figure,
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
R = √ a2 +b 2 and
From trigonometric ratios:
b
tan α =
a
−1 b
α = tan (¿ )¿
a
Example
Find an expression for 3sinωt + 4cosωt in the form R sin (ωt + α) and sketch graphs of
3sinωt, 4cosωt and R sin (ωt+α) on the same axes.
Solution
Let 3sinωt + 4cosωt = R sin (ωt+α).
Then
3sinωt + 4cosωt
= R [sinωt cosα+cosωt sinα]
= (Rcosα) sinωt + (Rsinα) cosωt
Equating coefficients of sinωt gives:
3 = R cosα,
63
From which,
3
cos α =
R
Equating coefficients of cosωt gives:
4 = R sinα, from which,
4
sinα =
R
There is only one quadrant where both sinα and cosα are positive, and this is the first, as
shown in the following figure:
R 4
From the figure
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
R = √ 32 +4 2
R = √ 9+16
R = √ 25
R=5
From trigonometric ratios:
4
tan α =
3
−1 4
α = tan (¿ )¿
3
α = 53.13° or or 0.927 radian
64
Hence 3 sinωt + 4 cosωt = 5 sin (ωt + 0.927)
Exercise
1. Express 4.6 sinωt − 7.3 cos ωt in the form R sin (ωt + α).
2. Express − 2.7 sinωt − 4.1 cosωt in the form R sin(ωt+α).
3. Express 3 sinθ + 5 cosθ in the form R sin (θ + α),and hence solve the equation
3 sinθ + 5cosθ = 4,for values of θ between 0◦ and 360◦.
65
4. Change the following functions into the form R sin (ωt ±α).
a) 5sinωt + 8cosωt
b) 4sinωt − 3cosωt
c) −7sinωt +4cosωt
d) −3sinωt − 6cosωt
66
Chapter 5
Hyperbolic functions
• Functions which are associated with the geometry of the conic section called a
hyperbola are called hyperbolic functions.
Hyperbolic sine of x
Hyperbolic sine of x
= sinh x
e x −e− x
=
2
• ‘sinh x’ is often abbreviated to ‘sh x’ and

• Is pronounced as ‘shine x’.
Hyperbolic cosine of x
Hyperbolic cosine of x
= cosh x
e x + e−x
=
2
• ‘cosh x’ is often abbreviated to ‘ch x’ and

• Is pronounced as ‘koshine x’.
Hyperbolic tangent of x
Hyperbolic tangent of x
= tanh x
sinh x
=
cosh x
67
e x −e−x
2
= x −x
e +e
2
e x −e− x
=
e x +e− x
• ‘tanh x’ is often abbreviated to ‘th x’ and
• Is pronounced as ‘than x’.
Hyperbolic cotangent of x
Hyperbolic cotangent of x
= coth x
1
=
tanhx
1
x
= e −e−x
e x + e−x
e x +e− x
=
e x −e− x
‘coth x’ is pronounced as ‘koth x’.
Hyperbolic secant of x
Hyperbolic secant of x
= sech x
1
=
cosh x
1
x
= e + e−x
2
2
= x
e + e−x
‘sech x’ is pronounced as ‘shec x’.
68
Hyperbolic cosecant of x
Hyperbolic cosecant of x
= cosech x
1
=
sinh x
1
x
= e −e−x
2
2
=
e −e− x
x
‘cosech x’ is pronounced as ‘coshec x’.

Hyperbolic identities
• ch 2x− sh2x = 1
• ch 2x = 1+ sh2x
• sh2x = ch 2x -1
ch 2x− sh2x = 1
ch2 x sh 2 x 1
2
− 2 = 2
sh x sh x sh x
• coth 2 x−1=cosech2 x
• coth 2 x = 1+cosech 2 x
ch 2x− sh2x = 1
ch2 x sh2 x 1
2
− 2 = 2
ch x ch x ch x
• 1−th 2 x =sech 2 x
• th 2 x = 1−sech2 x
• sh(A± B ¿=shA chB ± chA shB

• ch (A± B ¿=chA chB ± shAshB
thA ± thB
• th(A±B) =
1± thAthB
69
sh 2A
= sh (A+A¿
¿ shA chA +chA shA
= 2 shA chA
• sh 2A = 2 shA chA
ch 2A
= ch (A+A¿
¿ chA chA+ shA shA
=ch 2 A+ sh2 A
• ch 2A = ch 2 A+ sh2 A
ch 2A = ch 2 A+ sh2 A
= ch 2 A+ ch2 A−1
• ch 2A = 2 ch2 A – 1
ch 2A = ch 2 A+ sh2 A
= 1+ sh2 A+ sh 2 A
• ch 2A = 1+2 sh 2 A
1.ch 2A = ch 2 A+ sh2 A
2.ch 2A = 2 ch2 A – 1
3.ch 2A = 1+2 sh 2 A
th 2A
= th(A+ A)
thA +thA
=
1+ thAthA
2 thA
=
1+ th2 A
70
2 thA
• th 2A =
1+ th2 A
Relationship between Trigonometric and Hyperbolic identities
Trigonometric identity Corresponding hyperbolic identity
sin2 x+ cos2 x=11 + cot 2 x = ch 2x − sh2x = 1

cosec 2 x coth 2 x−1=cosech2 x
cot2 x = cosec 2 x−¿ 1 coth 2 x = 1+cosech 2 x
tan 2 x + 1 = sec 2 x 1−th 2 x =sech 2 x
tan 2 x = sec 2 x - 1 th 2 x = 1−sech2
Compound angle formulae
sin(θ + Φ) = sin θ cos Φ + cos θ sin Φ sh(A+B ¿=shA chB +chA shB
sin(θ - Φ) = sin θ cos Φ - cos θ sin Φ sh(A−B ¿=shA chB−chA shB
cos(θ + Φ) = cos θ cos Φ - sin θ sin Φ ch (A+ B ¿=chAchB+shAshB
cos(θ - Φ) = cos θ cos Φ + sin θ sin Φ ch (A−B ¿=chAchB−shAshB
tan θ+ tan ∅ thA +thB
tan (θ + Φ) = th (A+¿B) =
1−tanθ tan ∅ 1+ thAthB
tan θ−tan ∅ thA −thB
tan (θ - Φ) = th (A−¿B) =
1+ tan θ tan ∅ 1−thAthB
Double angles
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ sh 2A = 2 shA ch A

cos 2θ ¿ cos 2 θ−sin2 θ ch 2A = ch 2 A+ sh2 A
cos 2θ = 1 - 2 sin2 θ ch 2A = 2 ch2 A – 1
cos 2θ ¿ 2 cos2 θ - 1 ch 2A = 1+2 sh 2 A
2 tan θ 2 thA
tan 2θ = th 2A =
1−tan 2 θ 1+ th2 A
Solving equations involving hyperbolic functions
71
• Equations of the form a chx + b shx = c, where a, b and c are constants may be
solved.
• a chx+b shx = c
e x + e−x e x −e−x
a [ 2 ] [ +b
2 ]
=c
a (e x +e− x) + b ¿ ¿) = 2c
a e x +a e− x + b e x −be−x = 2c
(a + b) e x + (a – b) e− x = 2c
(a – b)
(a + b) e x + = 2c
ex
(a + b)(e x ¿ ¿2 + ( a−b )=2c e x
(a + b)(e x ¿ ¿2−2 c e x + ( a−b )=0
• Solve the above quadratic equation for e x by factorising or by using the quadratic
formula.
• Given e x = a constant obtained by solving the equation , take Napierian logarithms
of both sides to give x = ln (constant)
Solve the given equations correct to 4 decimal places.

1. (a) sinh x =1 (b) sh A = − 2.43
2. (a) cosh B =1.87 (b) 2 chx = 3
3. (a) tanh y = − 0.76 (b) 3 th x = 2.4
4. (a) sech B = 0.235 (b) sech Z = 0.889
5. (a) cosech θ =1.45 (b) 5 cosech x = 4.35
6. (a) coth x = 2.54 (b) 2 coth y = − 3.64
7. 3.5 shx + 2.5 chx = 0
8. 2sh x + 3chx = 5
9. 4 thx − 1= 0
x
10.A chain hangs so that its shape is of the form y = 56 cosh [ ¿.Determine, correct to 4
56
significant figures,(a) the value of y when x is 35,and (b)the value of x when y is 62.3.
72
Solution
A chain hangs so that its shape is of the form
x
y = 56 cosh [ ¿.
56
x=?
y = 62.3
x
y = 56 cosh [ ¿
56
x y
cosh [ ¿=
56 56
x
= cosh−1 ¿ ]
56
x = 56 cosh−1 ¿ ]
x = 56 cosh−1 ¿ ]
x = 26.32, correct to 4 significant figures
The value of x is 26.32, correct to 4 significant figures.
73
Chapter 6
Statistics
• Statistics is a field of mathematics that pertains to data analysis.
Presentation of statistical data

Data are obtained largely by two methods:
 by counting – for example, the number of stamps sold by a post office in equal
periods of time, and
 by measurements – for example, the heights of a group of people.
Discrete data
• When data are obtained by counting and only whose numbers are possible, the data
are called discrete.
Examples of discrete data
(i) The number of days on which rain falls in a month for each month of the year
74
(ii) The time that each of a batch of similar batteries lasts
Continuous Data
• Measured data can have any value within certain limits and are called continuous.
Examples of continuous data
(i) The mileage travelled by each of a number of salesmen
(ii) The amount of money spent by each of several families on food
Exercise
State whether data relating to the topics given are discrete or continuous.
1. (a) The amount of petrol produced daily, for each of 31days,by are finery.
(b) The amount of coal produced daily by each of 15 miners.
(c) The number of bottles of milk delivered daily by each of 20 milkmen.
(d) The size of ten samples of rivets produced by a machine.
2. (a) The number of people visiting an exhibition on each of five days.
(b) The time taken by each of 12 athletes to run 100 metres.
(c) The value of stamps sold in a day by each of 20 post offices.
(d) The number of defective items produced in each of ten one-hour periods by a machine.
Set
• A set is a group of data.
Member
• Individual value within the set is called a member of the set.
Population
• A set containing all the members is called a population.
Sample
• Some members selected at random from a population are called a sample.
75
Frequency
• The number of time that the value of a member occurs in a set is called the
frequency.
Measure of central tendency
• In many real-life situations, it is helpful to describe data by a single number that is

most representative of the entire collection of numbers. Such a number is called a
measure of central tendency; the most commonly used measures are mean, median,
mode and standard deviation.
Statistics in the field of engineering
• Statistics is important since it provides tools to analyse collected data.

• For example, a chemical engineer may wish to analyse temperature measurements
from a mixing tank.
• Statistical methods can be used to determine how reliable and reproducible the
temperature measurements are, how much the temperature varies within the data
set, what future temperatures of the tank may be, and how confident the engineer
can be in the temperature measurements made.
Mean, Median and Mode for discrete data
• Mean
The mean or arithmetic mean value is found by adding together the values of the
members of a set and dividing by the number of members in the set.
• Mean or arithmetic mean value = x́ or μ=

Total
=
∑x
Number n
Median
• The median value often gives a better indication of the general size of a set
containing extreme values.
• The median value is obtained by:
(a) ranking the set in ascending order of magnitude, and
76
(b) selecting the value of the middle member for sets containing an odd number of
members, or finding the value of the mean of the two middle members for sets containing
an even number of members.
Mode or Modal Value
• The modal value, or mode, is the most commonly occurring value in a set.
• The modal value, or mode, is the most frequent number.
• If two values occur with the same frequency, the set is ‘bi-modal’.
• Since no two members have the same value, this set has no mode.
• If three or more values occur with the same frequency, the set has no mode.
Exercise
Determine the mean, median and modal values for the sets given.
1. {3, 8, 10, 7, 5, 14, 2, 9,8}
2. {26, 31, 21, 29, 32, 26, 25, 28}
3. {4.72, 4.71, 4.74, 4.73, 4.72, 4.71, 4.73, 4.72}
4.{73.8, 126.4, 40.7, 141.7, 28.5, 237.4, 157.9}
Solution
1. {3, 8, 10, 7, 5, 14, 2, 9,8}

In ascending order,
2, 3,5,7,8,8,9,10,14
n=9
Mean or arithmetic mean value = x́ or μ=

Total
=
∑ x = 2+ 3+5+7+8+ 8+9+10+ 14 = 66 =
Number n 9 9
7.33
The ranked set is:{ 2, 3,5,7,8,8,9,10,14 }
Since the set has an odd number of members, the value of middle member is taken to give
the median value, i.e. Median = 8
Since two values 8 occur with the same frequency, the set is ‘bi-modal’.
Mode = 8
77
Standard deviation
• Standard deviation for ungrouped data = σ = √ {∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

• Standard deviation for grouped data = σ = √ {∑ f ¿ ¿¿ ¿
Presentation of ungrouped data
• Ungrouped data can be presented diagrammatically in several ways and these

include:
(a) pictograms, in which pictorial symbols are used to represent quantities,
(b) horizontal bar charts, having data represented by equally spaced horizontal rectangles
and
(c) vertical bar charts, in which data are represented by equally spaced vertical rectangle.
Pictograms
78
Horizontal bar charts
Vertical bar charts
79
Pie diagram
• A pie diagram is used to show diagrammatically the parts making up the whole.
• In a pie diagram, the area of a circle represents the whole, and the areas of the
sectors of the circle are made proportional to the parts which make up the whole.
80
Mean, median and mode for grouped data
• The mean value for a set of grouped data is found by determining the sum of the
(frequency × class mid-point values) and dividing by the sum of the frequencies.
Mean or arithmetic mean value = x́ or μ= f 1 x 1+¿ f x

2 ¿¿ =
∑ (f .x) x 3+…+¿ f x
∑f
2+ ¿f 3 n n
¿
f 1 + f 2 +f 3 + …+ f n
Median
• If n = even,
n
k=
2
x k + x k +1
Median =
2
• If n = odd,
n+1
k=
2
Median = x k
Presentation of grouped data
• For sets having more than ten members, those members having similar values are
together in classes to form a frequency distribution.
• To assist in accurately counting members in the various classes, a tally diagram is
used.
• A frequency distribution is merely a table showing classes and their frequencies.
Range of a class
• The range of the data is the member having the largest value minus the member
having the smallest value.
Size of each class
• The size of each class is given approximately by range divided by the number of
classes.
Range
• The size of each class =
Number of classes
Class mid-point value
• The class mid-point value =

Upper class boundary value+ Lower class boundary value
2
81
Grouped data
• The new set of values obtained by performing a frequency distribution is called
grouped data.
Graphical Forms
• Tally Diagram
• Frequency Distribution
• Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Tally Diagram
• A tally diagram is obtained by listing the classes in the left-hand column and writing
the tally in the right – hand column.
Left-hand column 1 Right – hand column 2

Class Interval Tally
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

Class Interval Class Midpoint Frequency
Value
Frequency distribution
• A frequency distribution is a table that shows classes or intervals of data entries

with a count of the number of entries in each class.
82
• The frequency f of a class is the number of data entries in the class.
Steps for constructing a frequency distribution from a data set

1. If the number of classes is not given, decide on a number of classes to use.
This number should be between 5 and 20.

2. Find the class width: Determine the range of the data and divide this by the number of
classes.
Round up to the next convenient number (if it's a whole number, also round up to the next
whole number)
3. Find the class limits:
You can use the minimum data entry as the lower limit of the first class.
To get the lower limit of the next class, add the class width.
Continue until you reach the last class.
Then find the upper limits of each class (since the classes cannot overlap, and occasionally
your data will include decimal numbers, remember that it's ne for the upper limits to be
decimals).
4. Count the number of data entries for each class, and record the number in the row of the
table for that class. (The book recommends using tally marks to count)
Graphical Forms
• Frequency Polygon
• Frequency Histogram
• Ogive or a Cumulative frequency distribution curve or Cumulative frequency graph
83
Frequency Polygon
• A frequency polygon is the graph produced by plotting frequency against class mid-
point values and joining the co-ordinates with straight lines.
• In frequency polygon, the co-ordinates are corresponding to the class
midpoint/frequency values.
• The co-ordinates are joined by straight lines and the polygon is ‘anchored-down’ at
each end by joining to the next class mid-point value and zero frequency.
15
Frequency
10
5
0
71 74 77 80 83 86 89
Class Midpoint Value
Frequency Histogram
• Frequency histogram is a figure in which the areas of vertical, adjacent rectangles

are made proportional to frequencies of the classes.
• In histogram the width of a rectangle is corresponding to (upper class boundary
value – lower class boundary value) and height corresponding to the class frequency.
• The easiest way to draw a histogram is to mark class mid-point values on the
horizontal scale and to draw the rectangles symmetrically about the appropriate
class mid-point values and touching one another.
• A frequency histogram is a graphical way to summarize a frequency distribution.

• It is a bar graph with the following properties:
1. The horizontal scale is quantitative and measures the data values.
2. The vertical scale measures the frequencies of the classes.
3. Consecutive bars must touch.
As a result, the class boundaries are the numbers that separate classes without forming
gaps. They will be the lower limits of classes as calculated for a frequency distribution.
84
Exercise
1.21 bricks have a mean mass of 24.2 kg, and 29 similar bricks have a mass of 23.6 kg.
Determine the mean mass of the 50 bricks.
2. The frequency distribution given below refers to the heights in centimetres of 100 people.
Determine the mean value of the distribution, correct to the nearest millimetre.
150 –156 5
157 – 163 18
164 – 170 20
171 – 177 27
178 – 184 22
185 – 191 8
4. The gain of 90 similar transistors is measured and the results are as shown.
83.5 – 85.5 6
86.5 – 88.5 39
89.5 – 91.5 27
92.5 – 94.5 15
95.5 – 97.5 3
5. The diameters, in centimetres, of 60 holes bored in engine castings are measured and the
results are as shown.
85
2.011 – 2.014 7
2.016 – 2.019 16
2.021 – 2.024 23
2.026 – 2.029 9
2.031 – 2.03 45
6. The values of capacitances, in microfarads, of ten capacitors selected at random from a

large batch of similar capacitors are:
34.3, 25.0, 30.4, 34.6, 29.6, 28.7, 33.4, 32.7, 29.0 and 31.3
Determine the standard deviation from the mean for these capacitors, correct to 3
significant figures.
7. 21 bricks have a mean mass of 24.2 kg, and 29 similar bricks have a mass of 23.6 kg.
Calculate the standard deviation from the mean for the mass of the 50 bricks.
8.The frequency distribution for the values of resistance in ohms of 48 resistors is as shown.
Calculate the standard deviation from the mean of the resistors, correct to 3 significant
figures.
20.5 – 20.9 3
21.0 – 21.4 10
21.5 – 21.9 11
22.0 – 22.4 13
22.5 – 22.9 9
23.0 – 23.4 2
Exercise
1.The data given below refer to the gain of each of a batch of 40 transistors, expressed
correct to the nearest whole number.
81, 83, 87, 74, 76, 89, 82, 84, 86, 76, 77, 71, 86, 85, 87, 88, 84, 81, 80, 81, 73, 89, 82, 79, 81, 79,
78, 80, 85, 77, 84, 78, 83, 79, 80, 83, 82, 79, 80, 77.
2. The amount of money earned weekly by 40 people working part-time in a factory,
correct to the nearest £10, is shown below.
86
3. The masses of 50 ingots in kilograms are measured correct to the nearest 0.1kg and the
results are as shown below.
8.0, 8.6, 8.2, 7.5, 8.0, 9.1, 8.5, 7.6, 8.2, 7.8, 8.3, 7.1, 8.1, 8.3, 8.7, 7.8, 8.7, 8.5, 8.4, 8.5, 7.7, 8.4,
7.9, 8.8, 7.2, 8.1, 7.8, 8.2, 7.7, 7.5, 8.1, 7.4, 8.8, 8.0, 8.4, 8.5, 8.1, 7.3, 9.0, 8.6, 7.4, 8.2, 8.4, 7.7,
8.3, 8.2, 7.9, 8.5, 7.9, 8.0.
4. The mass in kilograms, correct to the nearest one-tenth of a kilogram, of 60 bars of
metal are as shown.
39.8, 40.3, 40.6, 40.0, 39.6, 39.6, 40.2, 40.3, 40.4, 39.8, 40.2, 40.3, 39.9, 39.9, 40.0, 40.1, 40.0,
40.1, 40.1, 40.2, 39.7, 40.4, 39.9, 40.1, 39.9, 39.5, 40.0, 39.8, 39.5, 39.9, 40.1, 40.0, 39.7, 40.4,
39.3, 40.7, 39.9, 40.2, 39.9, 40.0,40.1, 39.7, 40.5, 40.5, 39.9, 40.8, 40.0, 40.2, 40.0, 39.9 ,39.8,
39.7, 39.5, 40.1, 40.2, 40.6, 40.1, 39.7, 40.2, 40.3.
5. The information given below refers to the value of resistance in ohms of a batch of 48
resistors of similar value.
21.0, 22.4, 22.8, 21.5, 22.6, 21.1, 21.6, 22.3, 22.9, 20.5, 21.8, 22.2, 21.0, 21.7, 22.5, 20.7, 23.2,
22.9, 21.7, 21.4, 22.1, 22.2, 22.3, 21.3, 22.1, 21.8, 22.0, 22.7, 21.7, 21.9, 21.1, 22.6, 21.4, 22.4,
22.3, 20.9, 22.8, 21.2, 22.7, 21.6, 22.2, 21.6, 21.3, 22.1, 21.5, 22.0, 23.4, 21.2.
6. The diameter in millimetres of a reel of wire is measured in 48 places and the results are
as shown.
2.10, 2.29, 2.32, 2.21, 2.14, 2.22, 2.28, 2.18, 2.17, 2.20, 2.23, 2.13,2.26,2.10, 2.21, 2.17, 2.28,
2.15, 2.16, 2.25, 2.23, 2.11, 2.27, 2.34, 2.24, 2.05, 2.29, 2.18, 2.24, 2.16, 2.15, 2.22, 2.14, 2.27,
2.09, 2.21, 2.11, 2.17, 2.22, 2.19, 2.12, 2.20, 2.23, 2.07, 2.13, 2.26, 2.16, 2.12.
87
Problem
Represent the given engineering data, the diameter in millimetres of a reel of wire
measured in 48 places in tabular form (frequency distribution) and graphical (histogram)
form.
The diameter in millimetres of a reel of wire is measured in 48 places and the results
are as shown.
2.11 2.30 2.33 2.22 2.15 2.23

2.29 2.19 2.18 2.21 2.24 2.14
2.27 2.11 2.22 2.18 2.29 2.16
2.17 2.26 2.24 2.12 2.28 2.35
2.25 2.06 2.30 2.19 2.25 2.17
2.16 2.23 2.15 2.28 2.10 2.22
2.12 2.18 2.23 2.20 2.13 2.21
2.24 2.08 2.14 2.27 2.17 2.13
Solution
The diameter in millimetres of a reel of wire is measured in 48 places and the results
are as shown.
2.11 2.30 2.33 2.22 2.15 2.23

2.29 2.19 2.18 2.21 2.24 2.14
2.27 2.11 2.22 2.18 2.29 2.16
88
2.17 2.26 2.24 2.12 2.28 2.35
2.25 2.06 2.30 2.19 2.25 2.17
2.16 2.23 2.15 2.28 2.10 2.22
2.12 2.18 2.23 2.20 2.13 2.21
2.24 2.08 2.14 2.27 2.17 2.13
In ascending order,
2.06,2.08,2.10,2.11,2.11,2.12,2.12,2.13,2.13,2.14,2.14,2.15,2.15,2.16,2.16,2.17,2.17,2.17,2.18,
2.18,2.18,2.19,2.19,2.20,2.21,2.21,2.22,2.22,2.22,2.23,2.23,2.23,2.24,2.24,2.24,2.25,2.25,2.26,
2.27, 2.27, 2.28, 2.28, 2.29, 2.29, 2.30, 2.30, 2.33, 2.35
The shortest diameter of the reel of wire = 2.06 mm
The longest diameter of the reel of wire = 2.35 mm
Range
= The largest diameter of wire – The shortest diameter of wire
= 2.35 – 2.06
= 0.29 mm
Number of classes = 6
Range 0.29
Each size of class interval = = = 0.048 0.05
Number of classes 6
Tabular forms
(1) Tally diagram

(2) Frequency distribution
Tally diagram
Table (1) Tally diagram
Class interval Tally

2.06 - 2.10 ///
2.11 - 2.15 //// ////
89
2.16 - 2.20 //// //// /
2.21 - 2.25 //// //// ///
2.26 - 2.30 //// ////
2.31 - 2.35 //
Frequency Distribution
For class interval a-b,
Class midpoint value
Lower class boundary value+Upper class boundray value

=
2
a+b
=
2
For class interval 2.06 - 2.010,
2.06+2.010
Class midpoint value= = 2.08
2
2.11+2.15
Class midpoint value = = 2.13
2
2.16+2.20
2
2.21+ 2.25
2
2.26+2.30
2
90
2.31+ 2.35
2
Table (2) Frequency distribution
Class interval Class midpoint value Frequency

2.06 - 2.010 2.08 3
2.11 - 2.15 2.13 10
2.16 - 2.20 2.18 11
2.21 - 2.25 2.23 13
2.26 - 2.30 2.28 9
2.31 - 2.35 2.33 2
Graphical forms
(1) Frequency Polygon

(2) Frequency Histogram
Frequency Polygon
14
12
10
0
2.05 2.1 2.15 2.2 2.25 2.3 2.35
Class midpoint value
Figure (1) Frequency Polygon
91
14
12
10
0
2.08 2.13 2.18 2.23 2.28 2.33
Class midpoint values
Figure (2) Frequency Histogram
Problem
Determine measures of central tendency and dispersion (the arithmetic mean value of
diameters, the mean deviation from the arithmetic mean of diameters and the standard
deviation from the mean of diameters, correct to 3 significant figures). Use the following
data.
The diameters, in centimetres, of 60 holes bored in engine castings are measured and the
results are as shown.
2.011 – 2.014 9
2.016 – 2.019 14
2.021 – 2.024 22
2.026 – 2.029 10
2.031 – 2.034 5
Table (1) The table of class interval, class midpoint value, frequency and f.x
Class Interval Class Mid-point Frequency (f) f.x

values(x)
92
2.011 – 2.014 2.0125 9 18.1125
2.016 – 2.019 2.0175 14 28.245
2.021 – 2.024 2.0225 22 44.495
2.026 – 2.029 2.0275 10 20.275
2.031 – 2.034 2.0325 5 10.1625
∑ f = 60 ∑ f . x = 121.29
The arithmetic mean value of diameters = x́ or μ =

∑ f . x = 121.29 = 2.022 cm
n 60
∴The arithmetic mean value of diameters is 2.022 cm.
Table (2) The table of class interval, class midpoint value, frequency, f.x,|x− x̅ |, f (x− x̅ ), (
x−x́)2 and f (x−x́)2
Class Class Frequency f.x |x− x̅ | f(x−x́) (x−x́)2 f(x−x́)2

Interval Midpoint (f)
(x)
2.011 –2.014 2.0125 9 18.1125 0.0095 0.0855 9.025×10−5 7.31×10−3
2.016 –2.019 2.0175 14 28.245 0.0045 0.063 2.025×10−5 3.969×10−3
2.021 –2.024 2.0225 22 44.495 0.0005 0.011 2.5×10−7 0.121×10−3
2.026 –2.029 2.0275 10 20.275 0.0055 0.055 3.025×10−5 3.025×10−3
2.031 – 2.034 2.0325 5 10.1625 0.0105 0.0525 1.1025×10−4 2.76×10−3
2
∑ f = 60 ∑ f .x ∑ f (x− x̅ ) ∑ f (x− x̅ )
= 121.29 = 0.267 = 1.955×10−3
93
The mean deviation from the arithmetic mean of diameter =
∑ f ( x−x̅ ) = 0.267 = 0.00445
∑f 60
cm
∴ The mean deviation from the arithmetic mean of diameters is 0.00445 cm, correct to 3
significant figures.
∑ f (x− x́ )2 =
Standard deviation from arithmetic mean of diameters = σ =
√ ∑f √ 1.955 ×10−3
60
= 0.0737 ×10−3cm
∴ Standard deviation from the arithmetic mean of diameters is 0.0737 ×10−3cm, correct to
3 significant figures.
Chapter 7
Binomial Distribution and Normal Distribution
Binomial Distribution is a frequency distribution of the possible number of successful
outcomes in a given number of trials in each of which there is the same probability of
success.
The binomial distribution is used only when both of two conditions are met- the test has
only two possible outcomes, and the sample must be random.
Trial
In probability theory the term ‘trial’ means a single execution of an experiment.
Generally the probability of obtaining x successes in n independent trials is given by
x n− x n!
P (X = x) = nC x p q = p x q n−x
x !( n−x )!
Where X is the random variable representing the number of successes in n trails,
94
x is the total number of “successes’’ (pass or fail, heads or tails etc.),
q = 1- p and
n is the number of independent trials.
• The probability distribution
x n− x n!
P (X = x) = nC x p q = p x q n−x
x !( n−x )!
is called the binomial distribution and is denoted by B (n, p)
Where X is the random variable representing the number of successes in n trails,
x is total number of “successes’’ (pass or fail, heads or tails etc.),
q = 1- p and
n is the number of independent trials.
Exercises
1. A machine is producing a large number of bolts automatically. In a box of these bolts, 95% are
within the allowable tolerance values with respect to diameter, the remainder being outside of the
diameter tolerance values. Seven bolts are drawn at random from the box. Determine the
probabilities that
(a) exactly 2 out of tolerance
(c) more than two are out of tolerance
(d) fewer than three are out of tolerance
(e) at least 3 will be out of tolerance.
Solution
Let n denote the number of independent bolts produced by a machine.
n=7
Let G and D denote good and defective bolts produced by the machine respectively.
95
Probability of good bolts = P (G) = p = 95% = = 0.95
100
Probability of defective bolts = P (D) = q = 1 – p = 1 – 0.95 = 0.05
The probability of obtaining x defective bolts in n independent bolts is given by
95
n!
P (X = x) = n C x q x pn− x = q x p n−x
x ! ( n−x ) !
Where, q = 1 – p and
X is the random variable representing the number of defective bolts in n bolts.
The probability that no defective bolts = P (X = 0) = 7 C 0 (0.05)0 (0.95)7−0 = 0.6983

The probability that one defective bolt = P (X = 1) = 7 C 1(0.05)1 (0.95)7−1 = 0.2573
a) Probability that exactly two defective bolts = P (X = 2)= 7 C 2(0.05)2 (0.95)7−2= 0.0406
b) The probability that more than two are defective bolts
= The sum of the probabilities of three bolts, four bolts, five bolts, six bolts and seven bolts
being defective
= 1− (sum of probabilities of zero bolt, one bolt and two bolts being defective)
= 1 – {P (X = 0) + P (X = 1) + P (X = 2)}
= 1 – {0.6983+¿ 0.2573+ 0.0406}
= 0.0038
c) The probability that fewer than three are defective bolts
= Sum of probabilities of zero bolt, one bolt and two bolts being defective
= P (X = 0) + P (X = 1) + P (X = 2)
= 0.6983+¿ 0.2573+ 0.0406
= 0.9962
d) The probability that at least 3 will be out of tolerance
= 1 – P (less than 3 will be out of tolerance)
= 1− P (sum of zero bolts, one bolt and two bolts being defective)
= 1 – {P (X = 0) + P (X = 1) + P (X = 2)}
= 1 – {0.6983+¿ 0.2573+ 0.0406}
= 0.0038
2. A package contains 50 similar components and inspection shows that four have been damaged
during transit. If six components are drawn at random from the contents of the package
determine the probabilities that in this sample (a) one and (b) fewer than three are damaged.
3. Concrete blocks are tested and it is found that, on average, 7% fail to meet the required
specification. For a batch of nine blocks, determine the probabilities that (a) three blocks and
(b) fewer than four blocks will fail to meet the specification.
96
If the failure rate of the blocks rises to 15%, find the probabilities that (c) no blocks and (d) more
than two blocks will fail to meet the specification in a batch of nine blocks.
4. The average number of employees absent from a firm each day is 4%. An office within the
firm has seven employees. Determine the probabilities that (a) no employee and (b) three
employees will be absent on a particular day.
5. A manufacturer estimates that3%of his output of a small item is defective. Find the
probabilities that in a sample of ten items (a) fewer than two and (b) more than two items will be
defective.
6. Five coins are tossed simultaneously. Determine the probabilities of having 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
heads upwards, and draw a histogram depicting the results.
7. If the probability of rain falling during a particular period is 2/5, find the probabilities of
having 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 wet days in a week.
8. An automatic machine produces, on average, 10% of its components outside of the tolerance
required. In a sample of ten components from this machine, determine the probability of having
three components outside of the tolerance required by assuming a binomial distribution.
9. On average, 7% of the motors produced by a machine are faulty. A random sample of

5 motors is selected from a large batch so that the probability remains constant.
Determine the probabilities that
a 1 motor is faulty
b 2 motors are faulty
c 3 motors are faulty
d 4 motors are faulty
e all 5 motors are faulty
f no motor is faulty.
Solution
Let n denote the number of independent motors produced by a machine.
n=5
Let F and N denote faulty and good motors produced by the machine respectively.
7
Probability of faulty motors = P (F) = p = 7% = = 0.07
100
Probability of good motors = P (N) = q = 1 – p = 1 – 0.07 = 0.93
The probability of obtaining x faulty motor in n independent motors is given by
n!
P (X = x) = n C x p x qn− x = p x q n−x
x ! ( n−x ) !
Where, q = 1 – p and
97
X is the random variable representing the number of faulty motors in n motors.
a) The probability that 1 motor is faulty = P (X = 1) = 5 C 1(0.07)1(0.93)5−1 = 0.2618

b) The probability that 2 motors is faulty = P (X = 2) = 5 C 2(0.07)2( 0.93)5 −2= 0.0394
c) The probability that 3 motors is faulty = P (X = 3) = 5 C 3 (0.07)3 (0.93)5−3 = 0.0029
d) The probability that 4 motors is faulty = P (X = 4) = 5 C 4 (0.07)4 (0.93)5−4 = 0.0001
e) The probability that 5 motors is faulty = P (X = 5) = 5 C 5 (0.07)5 (0.93)5−5 = 0.000001
f) The probability that no motor is faulty = P (X = 0) = 5 C 0 (0.07)0 (0.93)5−0 = 0.6957
10. From previous tests it is known that the probability of a resistor being out of tolerance
is 0.15. From a large batch, a random sample of 20 resistors is chosen so that the
probability remains constant. Evaluate the probabilities that
a exactly 7 will be out of tolerance
b at least 3 will be out of tolerance.
11. 10% of the resistors produced by a manufacturer are out of tolerance. If a sample of 5
resistors is selected at random, find the probability that
a exactly 3 resistors are out of tolerance
b 3 or fewer than 3 resistors are out of tolerance.
12. A component has a 1 in 25 chance of failing. Five components are chosen from a large
batch so that the probability of failure remains constant. Determine the probability of
a 1 component failing
b more than 3 components failing.
13. The probability of an integrated circuit passing a quality test is 0.86. In a batch of 10
integrated circuits find the probabilities that
i 2 will fail
ii 8 will pass
iii at least 2 will fail
iv fewer than 2 will fail.
Normal Distribution
• Normal Distribution is a function that represents the distribution of many random

variables as a symmetrical bell-shaped graph.
• A normal distribution is a very important statistical data distribution pattern

occurring in many natural phenomena, such as height, blood pressure, lengths of
objects produced by machines, marks in a test, errors in measurements, and so on.
Two principal applications of the normal distribution to engineering and reliability
• One application deals with the analysis of items which exhibit failure to wear, such
as mechanical devices – frequently the wear-out failure distribution is sufficiently
98
close to normal that the use of this distribution for predicting or assessing reliability
is valid.
• Another application is in the analysis of manufactured items and their ability to

meet specifications.
Normal curve
An extremely important symmetrical distribution curve is called the normal curve.
Normal distribution curves can differ from one another in the following four ways:
(a) by having different mean values
(b) by having different values of standard deviations
(c) the variables having different values and different units and
(d) by having different areas between the curve and the horizontal axis.
A normal distribution curve is standardized as follows:
The horizontal axis is scaled in standard deviations.
x−x́
This is done by letting z = ,
σ
where z is called the normal standard variate,
x is the value of the variable,
99
x́ is the mean value of the distribution and
σ is the standard deviation of the distribution.
The area under part of a normal probability curve is directly proportional to probability
and the value of the shaded area shown in the Figure can be determined by evaluating:
2
z
1 ( 2 ) where z = x−x́
∫ 2 π dz ,
e σ
• If you are given that a random variable X has a normal distribution, finding
probabilities corresponds to finding the area between the standard normal curve
and the x-axis, using the table of z-scores.
• The mean (expected value) and standard deviation should be given in the problem.
• For the probability that X < a, convert a into a z-score using
a−μ
z=
σ
and use the table of z-scores to find the area to the left of the z-value.
• For the probability that X > b ,convert b into a z-score using
b−μ
z=
σ
and use the table of z-scores to find the area to the right of the z-score.
• For the probability that a < X < b (X is between two numbers, a and b),
convert a and b into z-scores using
100
a−μ b−μ
z= and z =
σ σ
and use the table of z-scores to find the area between the two z-values.
Exercise
The mean diameter of holes produced by a drilling machine bit is 4.05 mm and the
standard deviation of the diameters is 0.0028 mm. For 20 holes drilled using this machine,
determine, correct to the nearest whole number, how many are likely to have diameters of
(a) between 4.048 and 4.0553 mm and
(b) more than 4.035 mm,
(c) less than 4.055 mm assuming the diameters are normally distributed.
101
102
Exercises
1. A component is classed as defective if it has a diameter of less than 69mm. In a batch of 350
components, the mean diameter is 75mm and the standard deviation is 2.8mm. Assuming the
diameters are normally distributed, determine how many are likely to be classed as defective.
2. For the 350 components in Problem 1, if those having a diameter of more than 81.5mm are
rejected, find, correct to the nearest component, the number likely to be rejected due to being
oversized.
3. 500 tins of paint have a mean content of 1010 ml and the standard deviation of the contents is
8.7 ml. Assuming the volumes of the contents are normally distributed, calculate the number of
tins likely to have contents whose volumes are less than (a) 1025 ml (b) 1000 ml and (c) 995 ml.
4. The mean diameter of holes produced by a drilling machine bit is 4.05mm and the standard
deviation of the diameters is 0.0028mm. For 20 holes drilled using this machine, determine,
correct to the nearest whole number, how many are likely to have diameters of
(a) between 4.048 and 4.0553mm and
(b) between 4.052 and 4.056mm, assuming the diameters are normally distributed.
5. Some engineering components have a mean length of 20mm and a standard deviation of
0.25mm.Assume that the data on the lengths of the components is normally distributed.
In a batch of 500 components, determine the number of components likely to:
(a) have a length of less than 19.95mm,
(b) be between 19.95mm and 20.15mm,
(c) be longer than 20.54mm.
6. In a factory, cans are packed with an average of 1.0 kg of a compound and the masses
are normally distributed about the average value. The standard deviation of a sample of
the contents of the cans is 12 g. Determine the percentage of cans containing
(a) less than 985 g,
(b) more than 1030 g,
(c) between 985 g and 1030 g.
7. The lengths of 1500 bolts are normally distributed with a mean of 22.4 cm and a
standard deviation of 0.0438 cm. Determine the percentage of the length of bolts
(a) less than 22.35 cm,
(b) more than 22.42 cm,
103
(c) between 22.35cm and 22.45 cm.
8. A power punch produces 1800 washers per hour. The mean inside diameter of the
washers is 1.70 cm and the standard deviation is 0.013 cm. Determine the percentage of the
diameter of the washers
(a) less than 1.85 cm,
(b) more than 1.65 cm,
(c) between 16.35cm and 1.82 cm.
9. A large batch of electric light bulbs have a mean time to failure of 800 hours and the
standard deviation of the batch is 60 hours.
Determine the percentage of the time to failure of hours
(a) less than 788 hurs,
(b) more than 810 hours,
(c) between 790 hours and 810 hours.
10. If a random sample of 64 light bulbs is drawn from the batch, determine the probability
that the mean time to failure will be less than 785 hours, correct to three decimal places.
11. Determine the probability that the mean time to failure of a random sample of 16 light
bulbs will be between 790 hours and 810 hours, correct to three decimal places.
12. For a random sample of 64 light bulbs, determine the probability that the mean time to
failure will exceed 820 hours, correct to two significant figures.
13. The contents of a consignment of 1200 tins of a product have a mean mass of 0.504 kg
and a standard deviation of 92g. Determine the probability that a random sample of 40 tins
drawn from the consignment will have a combined mass of
(a) less than 20.13 kg,
(b) between 20.13 kg and 20.17 kg, and
(c) more than 20.17 kg, correct to three significant figures.
14. 1200 metal bolts have a mean mass of 7.2 g and a standard deviation of 0.3 g. Calculate
the probability that a sample of 60 bolts chosen at random, without replacement, will have
a mass of
(a) between 7.1 g and 7.25 g, and
(b) more than 7.3 g.
104
15. The resistance values of resistors in a batch follow a normal distribution with a mean of
(1×10 3 ¿ Ωand a standard deviation of 100Ω . Evaluate the probability of a resistor having a
resistance of
a more than (1.2×10 3 ¿ Ω
b less than (0.8×10 3 ¿ Ω
c between (0.9×10 3 ¿ Ω and (1.1×10 3 ¿ Ω.
16. The lifetime of light bulbs follows a normal distribution with a mean of 500 hours and a
standard deviation of 22 hours. Find the probability of a bulb lasting fewer than 540 hours.
17. The wearout times of a machine are normally distributed with a mean of 200 hours and
a standard deviation of 10 hours. What is the probability that a machine has a wearout
time of more than 220 hours?
18.The wearout times of a product have a normal distribution with a mean of 600 hours
and a standard deviation of 20 hours. Determine the probability that such a product will
have a wearout time of
a more than 660 hours
b fewer than 550 hours.
19. Fuses follow a normal distribution with a mean current of 2 amp and a standard
deviation of 0.15 amp. Evaluate the proportion of fuses blowing with currents between 1.75
amp and 2.13 amp.
Chapter 8
105
Correlation
• Correlation is a measure of the amount of association existing between two
variables.
Introduction to linear correlation
• For linear correlation, if points are plotted on a graph and all the points lie on a
straight line, then perfect linear correlation is said to exist.
Positive or direct linear correlation
When a straight line having a positive gradient can reasonably be drawn through points on
a graph, positive or direct linear correlation exists.
Negative or inverse linear correlation
106
When a straight line having a negative gradient can reasonably be drawn through points
on a graph, negative or inverse linear correlation exists.
No correlation
• When there is no apparent relationship between co-ordinate values plotted on a

graph then no correlation exists between the points.
Scatter diagram
107
• In statistics, when two variables are being investigated, the location of the
coordinates on a rectangular co-ordinate system is called a scatter diagram.
• The product-moment correlation coefficient measures the strength of the linear

association between variables.
Product-moment formula
• The amount of linear correlation between two variables is expressed by a coefficient

of correlation, given the symbol r .
The product-moment formula for determining the linear correlation

coefficient
Coefficient of correlation, r = ∑ xy
√ ¿¿ ¿
• A positive value indicates a positive correlation and the higher the value, the
stronger the correlation.
• Similarly, a negative value indicates a negative correlation and the lower the value
the stronger the correlation.
• The results of the determination give values of Coefficient of correlation, r lying

between +1 and −1, where +1 indicates perfect direct correlation,−1 indicates perfect
inverse correlation and 0 indicates that no correlation exists.
Between these values, the smaller the value of r, the less is the amount of correlation
which exists.
Generally, values of r in the ranges 0.7 to 1 and − 0.7 to − 1 show that a fair amount of
correlation exists.
Examples
• 0.996 shows that a very good direct correlation exists between two variables.
• −0.830 shows that there is fairly good inverse correlation between two variables.
• 0.667 shows that there is no appreciable correlation between two variables.
Exercises
108
1. In an experiment to determine the relationship between force on a wire and the resulting
extension, the following data is obtained:
Force (N) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Extension (mm) 0.22 0.40 0.61 0.85 1.20 1.45 1.70
Solution
In the following relation between Force (N) and Extension (mm)
Let x be Force (N).
Let y be Extension (mm).
Table (1) The table of the relation between Force and Extension
Force (x) Extension (y)
10 0.22
20 0.40
30 0.61
40 0.85
50 1.20
60 1.45
70 1.70
Table (2) The table of the values of x, y, x 2, y 2, xy

x y x2 y2 xy
10 0.22 100 0.0484 2.2
20 0.40 400 0.16 8
30 0.61 900 0.3721 18.3
40 0.85 1600 0.7225 34
50 1.20 2500 1.44 60
109
60 1.45 3600 2.1025 87
70 1.70 4900 2.89 119
∑ x 2=14000 ∑ y2 =8.1675 ∑ xy =328.5
Extension (y)
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
8 18 28 38 48 58 68
+
Force (x)
Figure (1) The scatter ddiagram
By the scatter diagram in the above figure, there is a positive or direct linear correlation.
By using the product-moment formula for determining the linear correlation coefficient,
∑ xy = 328.5
Coefficient of linear correlation = r = = 0.9715
√ ¿¿ ¿ √( 14000 )( 8.1675 )
2. The relationship between expenditure on welfare services and absenteeism for similar
periods of time is shown below for a small company.
Expenditure (£_000) 3.5 5.0 7.0 10 12 15 18
110
Days lost 241 318 174 110 147 122 86
3. The relationship between monthly car sales and income from the sale of petrol for a
garage is as shown:
Cars sold 2 5 3 12 14 7 3 28 14 7 3 13
Income from petrol sales (£_000) 12 9 13 21 17 22 31 47 17 10 9 11
4. In an experiment to determine the relationship between the current flowing in an

electrical circuit and the applied voltage, the results obtained are:
Current (mA) 5 11 15 19 24 28 33
Applied voltage (V) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
5. A gas is being compressed in a closed cylinder and the values of pressures and corresponding
volumes at constant temperature are as shown:
Current
6. The data shown below refers to the number of times machine tools had to be taken out of
service, in equal time periods, due to faults occurring and the number of hours worked by
maintenance teams.
7. In an experiment to determine the relationship between frequency and the inductive reactance
of an electrical circuit, the following results were obtained:
111
8. The experimental values relating centripetal force and radius for a mass travelling at constant
velocity in a circle are as shown:
9. The relationship between the voltage applied to an electrical circuit and the current
flowing is as shown:
10. In an experiment to determine the relationship between force and momentum, a force
X, is applied to a mass, by placing the mass on an inclined plane, and the time, Y , for the
velocity to change from u m/s to v m/s is measured. The results obtained are as follows:
112
11. The data given below gives the experimental values obtained for the torque output, X,
from an electric motor and the current, Y, taken from the supply.
12. Some results obtained from a tensile test on a steel specimen are shown below:
113
Chapter 9
Vectors
Vectors are an important part of the language of science, mathematics, and
engineering. They are used to discuss multivariable calculus, electrical circuits with
oscillating currents, stress and strain in structures and materials, and flows of atmospheres
and fluids, and they have many other applications.
Scalars
Quantities such as time, temperature and mass are entirely defined by a numerical
value and are called scalars or scalar quantities.
Examples of scalars
• A temperature of 70◦C
• 5m3 volume
• 500 J of work
• 30 cm 2 area
114
• 50 m distance
Vectors
Quantities such as velocity, force and acceleration, which have both a magnitude and a
direction, are called vectors.
Examples of vectors
• A downward force of 20N
• A south-westerly wind of 10knots
• An acceleration of 15m/s2 at 60◦ to the horizontal
Resolving a vector into components is a precursor to computing things with or about

a vector quantity. Because position, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, and angular
momentum are all vector quantities, resolving vectors into components is a most important
skill required in any engineering studies.
Drawing a vector
A vector quantity can be represented graphically by a line, drawn so that:

(a) the length of the line denotes the magnitude of the quantity, and
(b) the direction of the line denotes the direction in which the vector quantity acts.
An arrow is used to denote the sense, or direction, of the vector. The arrow end of a vector
is called the ‘nose’ and the other end the ‘tail.
For example, a force of 9N acting at 45◦ to the horizontal is shown in the following figure.
Note that an angle of +45◦ is drawn from the horizontal and moves anticlockwise.
A velocity of 20 m/s at −60◦ is shown in the following figure.
115
Note that an angle of−60◦ is drawn from the horizontal and moves clockwise.
Representing a vector
There are a number of ways of representing vector quantities. These include:

1. Using bold print
2. ⃗AB where an arrow above two capital letters denotes the sense of direction, where A is
the starting point and B the end point of the vector
3. AB´ or á i.e. a line over the top of letters
4. á i.e. an underlined letter
Adding vectors by drawing
Adding two or more vectors by drawing assumes that a ruler, pencil and protractor are available.
Results obtained by drawing are naturally not as accurate as those obtained by calculation.
(a) Nose-to-tail method

Two force vectors, F1 and F2, are shown in the following figure. When an object is
subjected to more than one force, the resultant of the forces is found by the addition of
vectors.
To add forces F1 and F2:

(i) Force F1 is drawn to scale horizontally, shown as 0a in the following figure.
(ii) From the nose of F1, force F2 is drawn at angle θ to the horizontal, shown as ab.
116
(iii) The resultant force is given by length 0b, which may be measured.
This procedure is called the ‘nose-to-tail’ or ‘triangle’ method.
(b) Parallelogram method

To add the two force vectors, F1 and F2
(i) A line cb is constructed which is parallel to and equal in length to 0a
(ii) A line ab is constructed which is parallel to and equal in length to 0c.
(iii) The resultant force is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram, i.e. length 0b.
This procedure is called the ‘parallelogram’ method.
Example
A force of 5N is inclined at an angle of 45◦ to a second force of 8 N, both forces acting at a
point. Find the magnitude of the resultant of these two forces and the direction of the
resultant with respect to the 8N force by:
(a) the ‘nose-to-tail’ method, and (b) the ‘parallelogram’ method.
Solution
The two forces are shown in the following figure. (Although the 8N force is shown
horizontal, it could have been drawn in any direction.)
117
(a) ‘Nose-to tail’ method
(i)The 8 N force is drawn horizontally 8 units long, shown as 0a in the following figure.
(ii) From the nose of the 8N force, the 5N force is drawn 5 units long at an angle of 45◦ to
the horizontal, shown as ab.
(iii) The resultant force is given by length 0b and is measured as 12N and angle θ is
measured as 17◦
(b) ‘Parallelogram’ method

(i) In the following figure, a line is constructed which is parallel to and equal in length to
the 8N force
(ii) A line is constructed which is parallel to and equal in length to the 5N force
(iii) The resultant force is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram, i.e. length 0b, and is
measured as 12N and angle θ is measured as 17°.
Thus, the resultant of the two force vectors in the above figure is 12N at 17◦ to the 8N force.
The scalar product or dot product of two vectors
The scalar or dot product of two vectors and is defined as the product of their
magnitudes multiplied by the cosine of the angle between them.
v1 . v 2=v 1 v 2 cosθ
118
• Let a = a 1i +a 2 j +a 3k.
Let b = b 1i + b 2j +b 3k.
a•b
= (a 1i +a 2 j +a 3k) • (b 1i + b 2j +b 3k)
= a 1 b1 (i •i)+a 2 b 2( j . j)+a 3 b 3(k.k)
= a 1 b1 (1)+a2 b2 (1)+ a3 b3(1)
= a 1 b1 +a 2 b 2+ a3 b3
where i.i = 1
j.j = 1
k.k = 1
The length or modulus or magnitude or norm of vector
let a = a 1i + a 2 j + a 3k
The length or modulus or magnitude or norm of vector, a
= |a| = |a 1 i+a2 j+a 3 k| = √ ¿ ¿
The angle between two vectors
From a • b = a b cosθ
a •b
cos θ =
ab
119
where θ is the angle between two vectors a and b.
Applications of scalar products
One of the applications of scalar products is to the work done by a constant force when
moving a body.
The work done is the product of the applied force and the distance moved in the
direction of the force.
Work done = Applied force. Distance = F • d
Exercise
1. If p = 2i + j –k and q = i − 3j + 2k, determine: (a) p•q (b) p + q (c) |p + q| (d) |p| + |q|.
Solution
p = 2i + j –k
q = i − 3j + 2k
a ) p.q
= [2i + j –k ].[ i − 3j + 2k ]
= (2) (1) (i.i) + (1) (-3) (j.j) – (1) (2) (k.k)
= 2 (1) – 3 (1) – 2(1)
=2–3–2
=-3
b ) p + q = [2i + j –k ] + [ i − 3j + 2k ] = 3i – 2j – k
c) |p + q| = |3i – 2j – k | = √ 32 +¿ ¿ = √ 14
d) |p| = |2i +j – k | = √ 22+ 12+(−1)2 = √ 6
|q| = |i -3j +2k | = √ 12+(−3)2 +22 = √ 14
|p| + |q| = √ 6+ √ 14
120
2. Find the scalar product a•b when (a) a = i + 2j – k and b = 2i + 3j + k (b) a = i − 3j + k
and b = 2 i + j + k.
3. Given p = 2i − 3j, q = 4j –k and r = i + 2j −3k, determine
(a) p•q
(b) p•r
(c) q•r
(d) r•q
(e) |p|
(f) |r|
(g) p•(q + r)
(h) 2r•(q − 2p)
(i) |p + r|
(j) |p| + |r|
(k) Find the angle between p and q.
(l ) Find the angle between q and r.
5. Determine the angle between the forces: F1 = 3i + 4j + 5k and F2 = i + j + k.
Solution
F1 = 3i + 4j + 5k
F2 = i + j + k
The angle between the forces
F1° F2
= cos
−1
( |F1||F 2| )
[3 i+ 4 j+5 k ]° [i+ j+k ]
= cos
−1
(| 3 i+ 4 j+5 k||i+ j+k| )
121
( 3 ) ( 1 ) (i .i ) + ( 4 ) ( 1 )( j. j ) +(5)(1)(k . k )
= cos
−1
[ √ 32 +4 2+ 52 √ 12 +12+ 12 ]
3 ( 1 ) +4 ( 1 )+5 (1)
= cos
−1
[ √ 50 √ 3 ]
3+ 4+5
= cos
−1
[√ √ ]
50 3
12
= cos
−1
[√ √ ]50 3
= 11.54°
6. Find the angle between the velocity vectors v1 = 5 i + 2j + 7k and v2 = 4i + j –k.
7. Calculate the work done by a force F = (− 5i + j + 7k) N when its point of application
moves from point (−2i − 6j + k)m to the point (i − j +10k)m.
8. A constant force of F = 10i + 2j – k newtons displaces an object from A = i + j + k to
B = 2i – j + 3 k (in metres).Find the work done in newton metres.
Vectors product or cross product of two vectors
A second product of two vectors is called the vector or cross product. It is defined in terms
of its modulus and the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the angle between
them. The vector product of vectors oa and ob is written as oa×ob and is defined by:
|oa×ob| = oa ob sin θ
where θ is the angle between the two vectors.
Let a = a 1i+a 2 j +a 3k.
Let b = b 1i+ b 2j +b 3k.
a ×b
¿( a1 i+a 2 j+ a3 k) ×(b1 i+ b2 j+b3 k )
122
i j k
|
= 1 2 a3
a a
b 1 b2 b3 |
a 2 a3 a a a a
=i | | | || |
b 2 b3
− j 1 3 +k 1 2
b 1 b3 b1 b 2
Practical applications of vector products
The moment M about point B of a force vector F which has a position vector of r from A is
given by:
M=r×F
where r is the vector from B to A, i.e. r = BA.
The magnitude of Moment =|M| = |r × F| = √ (r •r )( F • F )−(r • F)2
Exercise
1. For the vectors a = i +4j − 2k and b = 2 i – j +3k find (a) a × b and (b) |a×b|.
Solution
a) Let a = i+4 j -2k.
Let b = 2i - j +3k.
a ×b
¿(i+ 4 j−2 k) ×(2i− j+3 k )
i j k
|
= 1 4 −2
2 −1 3 |
=i |−14 −23 |− j|12 −23 |+ k|12 −14 |
= i [(4) (3) – (-1) (-2)] – j [(1)(3) –(2)(-2)]+k [(1)(-1) –(2)(4)]
= i [12 – 2] – j [3+4] + k[ -1 -8]
123
= 10 i – 7j -9 k
|a×b|= | 10 i – 7j -9 k| = √ 102 +(−7)2 +(−9)2 = √ 230
2. If p = 4i + j − 2k, q = 3i − 2j +k and r = i – 2k find (a) (p − 2q)×r (b) p × (2r × 3q).
3. Find the moment and the magnitude of the moment of a force of (i + 2j −3k)
newtons about point B having co-ordinates (0,1,1),when the force acts on a line
through A whose co-ordinates are (1,3,4).
Solution
Force F = (i + 2j −3k) newtons
Point A = (1,3,4)
Point B = (0,1,1)
Position vector of A = OA = i + 3j + 4k
Position vector of B = OB = j + k
AB = OB – OA = j + k – (i + 3j + 4k) = j + k – i - 3j - 4k = – i - 2j - 3k
Moment
=M
= The vector from A to B × Force vector
=r×F
= AB × F
¿(−i−2 j−3 k ) ×(i+2 j −3 k )
i j k
|
= −1 −2 −3
1 2 −3 |
124
=i |−22 −3
−3| | 1 −3| | 1
−j
−1 −3
+k
2|
−1 −2
= i [(-2) (-3) – (-3) (2)] – j [(-1)(-3) –(1)(-3)]+k [(-1)(2) –(1)(-2)]
= i [6 +6] – j [3+3] + k[ -2 +2]
= (12 i – 6j ) Nm
The magnitude of Moment =|M| =|12 i – 6j |= √ 122+(−6)2 = 6 √ 5
r •r
= (−i−2 j−3 k ). (−i−2 j−3 k )
= (-1) ( -1) (i.i) + (-2) (-2) (j.j) + (-3) (-3) (k.k)
= 1 (1) + 4 (1) + 9 (1)
= 1+ 4 + 9
= 14
F•F
= (i+2 j−3 k ). (i +2 j−3 k )
= (1) ( 1) (i.i) + (2) (2) (j.j) + (-3) (-3) (k.k)
= 1 (1) + 4 (1) + 9 (1)
= 1+ 4 + 9
= 14
r•F
= (−i−2 j−3 k ) . (i +2 j−3 k )
= (-1) (1) (i.i) + (-2) (2) (j.j) + (-3) (-3) (k.k)
= -1 (1) -4 (1) +9 (1)
125
= - 1 -4 + 9
=4
The magnitude of Moment
=|M|
= |r × F|
= √ (r •r )(F • F )−(r • F)2
= √ (14)(14 )−(4)2
= 6 √5
4. Determine the quantities stated when p = 3i + 2k, q = i − 2j + 3k and r = −4i + 3j –k
i. (a) p × q (b) q × p
ii.(a) |p × r| (b) |r × q|
iii. (a) 2p × 3r (b) (p + r) × q
iv. (a) p × (r × q) (b) (3p × 2r) × q
5. For vectors p = 4i – j + 2k and q = − 2i + 3j − 2k determine:
(a) p•q (b) p×q (c) |p×q| (d) q×p and (e) the angle between the vectors.
6. For vectors a = − 7i + 4j + 1 2k and b = 6 i − 5j − k find
(a) a•b (b) a×b (c) |a×b| (d) b×a and (e) the angle between the vectors.
7. Forces of (i + 3j), (−2i − j), (i − 2j) newtons act at three points having position vectors of
(2i + 5j), 4 j and (−i + j) metres respectively. Calculate the magnitude of the moment.
8. A force of (2i – j +k) newtons acts on a line through point P having co-ordinates (0,3,1)
metres. Determine the moment vector and its magnitude about point Q having co-ordinates
(4,0,−1)metres.
126
Chapter 10
Calculus
• Differentiation
127
Let y = f (x).
• Derivative of y with respect to x
= Average Rate of change of y at a point
= Slope of a tangent to the graph of y = f (x) at the point
= Gradient of a tangent to the graph of y = f (x) at the point
= Differential coefficient of y
dy
=
dx
Higher Order Derivatives [Successive Differentiation]
Let y = f(x).
dy
First order derivative = = y'= y°
dx
d2 y '' ˚˚
Second order derivative = 2 = y = y
dx
d3 y
Third order derivative = = y' '' = y° °°
d x3
d4 y
Fourth order derivative = = y (4)
d x4
th dn y
n order derivative = n = y
(n )
dx
Transcendental Functions
1. Algebraic function
2. Trigonometric functions
128
3. Exponential function
4. Logarithmic function
5. Natural Logarithm
6. Inverse trigonometric functions
Differentiation Rules
Let y = f(x).
1. Power Rule
d
( x n ¿=n x n−1
dx
2. Constant Multiple Rule

d d
( k x n ¿=¿ k ( x n ¿ = k n x n−1
dx dx
 Power Chain Rule

d n du
( u ¿=n un−1
dx dx
3. Sum or Difference Rule

d d d
[ f ( x ) + g ( x )]= [ f ( x ) ]+ dx [ g(x) ]
dx dx
d d d
[ f ( x )−g ( x ) ]= [ f ( x ) ]− [ g(x) ]
dx dx dx
4. Product Rule
Let u = u (x) and v = v (x).
d dv du
[ uv] = u +v
dx dx dx
5. Quotient Rule
Let u = u (x) and v = v (x).
129
du dv
d u v −u
[ ] = dx dx
dx v 2
v
• Notes
d
[Constant] = 0
dx
d
[x] = (1) x 1−1 = x 0 = 1
dx
Function of Function Rule or Chain Rule
Let y = f(u) and u = g(x).
dy dy du
• = .
dx du dx
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d
• [sin x] = cos x
dx
d du
[sin u ] = cos u
dx dx
d
• [cos x] = - sin x
dx
d du
[cos u] = - sin u
dx dx
d
• [sec x] = sec x tan x
dx
d du
[sec u ] =sec u tan u
dx dx
d
• [csc x] = - csc x cot x
dx
d du
[csc u ] = - csc u cot u
dx dx
130
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
d sin −1 u ¿= 1 ¿ du
• [
dx √ 1−u 2 dx
d 1 du
• [cos−1 u ¿ ¿ = - 2
dx √1−u dx
d 1 du
• [ tan−1 u ¿ ¿=
dx 1+ u2 dx
d 1 du
• [cot −1 u ¿= -
dx 1+ u2 dx
d 1 du
• [ sec−1 u ] =
u √ u −1 dx
2
dx
d 1 du
• [csc −1 u ¿ ¿=- 2
dx u √ u −1 dx
Derivative of Exponential Function
d
• [ e x ]=e x
dx
d u du
• [e ] = e u
dx dx
Derivative of a x
d
• [ a x ]=a x ln a
dx
d du
• [a u] = a u ln a
dx dx
Derivative of Natural Logarithm
131
d 1
• [ ln x] =
dx x
d 1 du
• [ ln u] =
dx u dx
Properties of Natural Logarithm
• Product Rule for Natural Logarithm
ln [xy] = ln x + ln y
• Quotient Rule for Natural Logarithm
x
ln[ ]= ln x - ln y
y
• Power Rule for Natural Logarithm
ln x n=n lnx
Logarithmic Function
log e x ln x
• log b x = =
log e b ln b
Properties of Logarithmic Function
• Product Rule for Logarithm
log b xy=¿ log b x +¿ log b y ¿ ¿
• Quotient Rule for Logarithm
x
log b ¿ log b x−¿ log b y ¿
y
132
• Power Rule for Logarithm
log b x n=n log b x
Derivative of Logarithmic Function
d d log e x
• [ log b x ¿¿ = [ ]
dx dx log e b
d ln x
= [ ]
dx ln b
1 d
= [ ln x]
ln b dx
1 1
= .
ln b x
d 1 1 du
• [ log b u ¿ ¿= .
dx ln b u dx
Applications of Derivatives
• Distance, x = s(t)
ds
• Velocity, v(t) = s' (t) =
dt
d2 s
• Acceleration, a(t) = v'(t) = s''(t) =
dt2
• Speed = |v (t)|
Exercise
1. Differentiate the following functions.
133
(a) y = x3
Solution
y = x3
dy d 3
= [x ] = 3x2
dx dx
(b) y =12x3
Solution
y =12x3
dy d d 3
= [12x3] = 12 [x ] = 12( 3x2) = 36 x2
dx dx dx
12
(c) y =
x3
(d) y = x- 3
(e) y = 3√ x
Solution
y = 3√ x
dy d d 1 1 −2 1 1
= [3 x ] = 3 [ ] = 3. x 3 = 2 =
dx dx √
3
dx x 3 x3
3
√ x2
(f) y = 5 √3 x 4
5
(g) y = 3
√ x4
134
(h) y = 3 sin4x
Solution
y = 3 sin4x
dy d d d
= [3 sin 4 x ] = 3 [sin 4 x] = 3 (cos 4x ) ( 4x) = 3 cos 4x (4) = 12 cos 4x
dx dx dx dx
(i) f(t) = 2 cos3t
(j) y = 3 e5x
Solution
y = 3 e5x
dy d 5x d 5x d
= [ 3 e ] = 3 [e ] = 3e 5 x [5 x ] = 3e 5 x [ 5] = 15e 5 x
dx dx dx dx
(k) f(x) = 2 e3x
(l) y = 6 ln [2x]
Solution
y = 6 ln [2x]
dy d d 1 d 3 6
= [6 ln (2 x )] = 6 [ ln (2 x )] = 6. (2 x) = (2) =
dx dx dx 2 x dx x x
2. Find the gradient to the curve y = 3x4 − 2x2 + 5x – 2 at the points (0, − 2) and (1,4).
Solution
Curve y = 3x4 − 2x2 + 5x – 2
The gradient to the curve at (x,y)

135
d
= [3x4− 2x2 + 5x – 2]
dx
d d d d
= [3x4] - [2x2] + [5x] - [2]
dx dx dx dx
d 4 d 2 d d
=3 [x ] - 2 [x ] + 5 [x] - [2]
dx dx dx dx
= 3(4x3) – 2 (2x) + 5(1) -0
= 12 x3- 4x + 5
The gradient to the curve at (0, - 2) = 12 (0)3- 4(0) + 5 = 5
3. Determine the co-ordinates of the point on the graph y = 3x2 −7x + 2 where the gradient
is −1.
Solution
Graph y = 3x2 -7x + 2
The gradient to the curve at (x,y)
d
= [3x2 -7x + 2]
dx
d d d
= [3x2] - [7x] + [2]
dx dx dx
d 2 d
=3 [x ] - 7 [x] + 0
dx dx
= 3(2x) - 7(1)
= 6x – 7
The gradient = −1
136
6x – 7 = -1
6x = - 1 + 7
6x = 6
x=1
If x = 1,
y = 3(1)2 −7(1) + 2 = 3 – 7 +2 = - 2
The co-ordinates of the point on the graph is (1, - 2).
4. Find the differential coefficients of the given functions with respect to the variable.
(a) 5x5
(b) 2√ x
3
(c) 3
√ x5
(d) (x−1)2
(e) 2 sin3x
(f) −4 cos2x
(g) 2e6x
(h) 4ln9x
(i) ex – e-x2
(c) 1− √ x
137
7. Find the gradient of the curve y = 2t4 + 3t3 – t +4 at the points (0,4) and(1,8).
8. Find the co-ordinates of the point on the graph y = 5x2 − 3x + 1 where the gradient is 2.
9. Find the rate of change of y with respect to x given y = 3√ x ln 2x.
10. Determine the rate of change of voltage, given v = 5t sin2t volts when t = 0.2s.
Solution
v = 5t sin2t
The rate of change of voltage
dv
=
dt
d
= [5t sin2t]
dt
d d
= 5t [sin2t] + sin 2t [5t] by using Product Rule.
dt dt
d
= 5t [cos 2t] [2t] + sin 2t [5]
dt
= 5t cos 2t [2] + 5 sin 2t
= 10t cos 2t + 5 sin 2t
= 5 [2t cos 2t + sin 2t ]
When t = 0.2s,
The rate of change of voltage
= 10(0.2) cos 2(0.2) + 5 sin 2(0.2)
138
= 2.03
11. Differentiate the given products with respect to the variable.
1. x sinx
2. x2 e2x
3. x2 lnx
4. 2x3 cos3x
5. √ x 3 ln3x
6. e3t sin4t
7. e4x ln3x
8. et lnt cost
4 sin 5 x
9.
5x4
t e2 t
10.
2cos t
Differentiate the following functions with respect to the variable.
sin x
1.
x
2cos 3 x
2.
x3
2x
3.
x2 +1
139
4.√ x cosx
5. 3 √ θsin2θ
6. y = (3x −1)9
7. y = (4t3 −3t)6
8. y = √ 3 x2 + 4 x−2
9. y = 2 sin(3θ − 2)
10. y = 4 cos (5t2)
11. The current i flowing in an inductor of inductance 100 mH is given by: i = 5sin 100t
amperes, where t is the time t in seconds. The voltage v across the inductor is given by: v =
di
L volts. Determine the voltage when t = 10 ms.
dt
12. Determine the rate of change of voltage, given v = 5t sin2t volts when t = 0.2s.
−t
13.The charge q on the plates of a capacitor is given by q = CV e CR , where t is the time, C is
the capacitance and R the resistance. Determine
dq
(a) the rate of change of charge, which is given by
dt
d2q
(b) the rate of change of current, which is given by .
d t2
14. The length l metres of a certain metal rod at temperature θ ◦C is given by
l =1+0.00005θ + 0.0000004θ2. Determine the rate of change of length, in mm/◦C, when the
temperature is (a) 100◦C and (b) 400◦C.
15. The luminous intensity I candelas of a lamp at varying voltage V is given by
dI
I = 4×10-4 V2. The rate of change of light with respect to voltage is given by .
dV
Determine the voltage at which the light is increasing at a rate of 0.6 candelas per volt.
16. Newton’s law of cooling is given by θ = θ0 e-kt, where the excess of temperature at zero
time is θ0◦C and at time t seconds is θ ◦C. Determine the rate of change of temperature
after 40s, given that θ0 =16◦C and k = 0.03.
17. An alternating current, i amperes, is given by i =10sin2πf t, where f is the frequency in
hertz and t the time in seconds. Determine the rate of change of current when t = 20ms,
given that
f =150Hz.
140
18. The luminous intensity, I candelas, of a lamp is given by I = 6×10-4 V2, where V is the
voltage. Find (a) the rate of change of luminous intensity with voltage when V = 200volts,
and
(b) the voltage at which the light is increasing at a rate of 0.3candelas per volt.
19. The bending moment, M(kN m), of a beam of length 8 m is given by
2.16 x ,0 ≤ x< 5
M= {28.8−3.6 x ,5 ≤ x ≤ 8
dM
where x is the distance along the beam. The shear force, V, is given by V = .Sketch for
dx
V ≤ x≤8 .
−t
20. The voltage across the plates of a capacitor at any time t seconds is given by v = V e CR ,
where V , C and R are constants. Given V = 300volts, C = 0.12×10-6 F and R = 4×106 Ω find
(a) the initial rate of change of voltage, and (b) the rate of change of voltage after 0.5s.
21. The current, i, through an inductor is given by
i= {4−tt , 0,2<t
≤t ≤2
≤4
.
di
Sketch the current i. The voltage, , applied across the inductor is given by V = 0.25 .
dt
Sketch the voltage, V , on different axes.
22. Faraday’s law states that the electromotive force, E , induced by N turns of a coil with a
d∅
flux,∅ , passing through it, is given by E = - N .If ∅=K sin (2 π ft )where K and F are
dt
constants, determine E.
−t
23. The voltage, v = 1 - e (2 ×10 −6
) , across a capacitor of capacitance C = 0.2 ×10−6 F , has a
dv
current i, given by i = C .Find i.
dt
−3
24. The current, i , in a circuit is given by i = ( 5×10−3) [ 1−e−(1 ×10 ) ].Find the voltage, v,
di
where v = ( 3×10−3) .
dt
25. The voltage, v, across a capacitor of capacitance C, in series with a resistor of resistance
−t dv
R, is given by v = E e R C where E ¿ 0 is a constant. Determine i where i = C .
dt
141
11600 v
[ ]
26. The current, i, through a diode is given by i = I s e ηT −1 where is the voltage, V is the
emission coefficient, T is the temperature and I sis the saturation current. The a.c.
1
resistance, r, of a diode is defined as r = di .
dv
αv
27. The flow of charge, q = I e η , is given by where τ is the mean lifetime, I sis the
s
saturation current, v is the voltage, ηis the emission coefficient and α is a constant. The
dq
diffusion capacitance C D = . Find τ , I s α ∧η by considering as constants.
dv
di
28. The current, i, through an inductor is given by i = 5t e−5 t .Find .
dt
dv
29. The current, i, through a capacitor of capacitance is given by i = C where v is the
dt
3
voltage across the capacitor. For v = (t +1) e−( 1× 10 ) tand C = 1 μ F, find i.
Maxima and Minima values
• For stationary points or turning points or maximum and minimum points,
• The first order derivative is equal to zero.
dy
• i.e., =0
dx
• We get the values of x.
• Then we will find the second order derivative.
• We have to substitute the value of x in the second order derivative.
• When we substitute the values of x in the second order derivative,
• If the value of second order derivative is greater than zero,
d2 y
• i.e., 2 ¿ 0
dx
142
• It has minimum value.
• To find minimum value, we have to substitute the value of x in the given function.
• If the value of second order derivative is less than zero,
d2 y
• i.e., 2 ¿ 0
dx
• It has maximum value.
• To find maximum value, we have to substitute the value of x in the given function.
Exercises
1. Determine the area of the largest piece of rectangular ground that can be enclosed by 100m of
fencing, if part of an existing straight wall is used as one side.
2. Determine the maximum area of a rectangular piece of land that can be enclosed by 1200m of
fencing.
3. The power developed in a resistor R by a battery of emf E and internal resistance r is
E2 R
given by P = 2 . Differentiate P with respect to R and show that the power is a
(R+r )
maximum when R = r.
4. An electrical voltage E is given by E = (15sin50πt +40cos50πt) volts, where t is the time in
seconds. Determine the maximum value of voltage.
Solution
An electrical voltage E is given by
E = (15sin50πt + 40cos50πt) volts,
where t is the time in seconds.
The first order derivative of E with respect to time t
= The rate of change of electrical voltage E with respect to time t
143
dE
=
dt
d
= {15sin50πt + 40 cos50πt}
dt
d d
= 15 cos (50 πt) [50πt] + 40 (- sin 50 πt) [50πt]
dt dt
= 15 cos (50 πt) [50π] - 40 sin (50 πt) [50π]
= 750 π cos (50 πt) - 2000 π sin (50 πt)
= 50 π [15 cos (50 πt) - 40 π sin (50 πt)]
For maximum or minimum points,
dE
=0
dt
50 π [15 cos (50 πt) - 40 π sin (50 πt)] = 0
15 cos (50 πt) - 40 π sin (50 πt) = 0

15 cos (50 πt) = 40 π sin (50 πt)
sin(50 πt) 15
=
cos ( 50 πt ) 40
3
tan (50 πt ¿=
8
50 πt = tan ( 38 )
−1
1 3
tan ( )
−1
t=
50 π 8
t = 130.86 ×10−3s
t = 130.86 ms
The value of t is 130.86 ms.
The second order derivative of E with respect to t
d2 E
=
dt2
d dE
= [ ]
dt dt
144
d
= [750 π cos (50 πt) - 2000 π sin (50 πt)]
dt
d d
= 750 π [-sin (50 πt)] [50πt] - 2000 π cos (50 πt) [50πt]
dt dt
= - 750 π sin (50 πt) [50π] - 2000 π cos (50 πt) [50π]
= - 37500 π2 sin (50 πt) - 100000 π cos (50 πt)
When the value of t is substituted in the second derivative of E with respect to t,
The second order derivative of E with respect to t
= - 37500 π2 sin [50 π (130.86×10−3)] - 100000 π cos [50 π(130.86×10−3) ]
= - 362507.2 ¿0[maximum]
It has maximum value of voltage.
Maximum value of voltage
=E
= 15 sin50π (130.86×10−3) + 40 cos50π (130.86×10−3)
= 7.7 Volts
Maximum value of voltage is 7.7 Volts.
5. The signalling range, x, of a submarine cable is given by the formula: x = r 2 ln ¿ ] where r

is the ratio of the radii of the conductor and cable. Determine the value of r for maximum
range.
6. The heat capacity C of a gas varies with absolute temperature θ as shown:
C = 26.50 + 7.20 ×10-3 θ −1.20×10- 6 θ2 .Determine the maximum value of C and the
temperature at which it occurs.
7. A fence has dimensions x and y. The perimeter of the fence is 100 m. Show that the area,
A, constrained by the fence is A = 50x – x2. Find the values of x and y for which the area A
is a maximum.
8. The bending moment, M, at a distance x of a beam of length L is given by

WLx W x 2
M= − where W is the weight per unit length. Find the value of x which gives the
2 2
maximum bending moment and evaluate this maximum.
145
Solution
The bending moment, M, at a distance x of a beam of length L is given by
WLx W x 2
M= −
2 2
where W is the weight per unit length.
W
M= ¿]
2
The first order derivative of M with respect to x
= The rate of change of bending moment, M with respect to distance x
dM
=
dx
d W
= { ¿]}
dx 2
W d
= ¿]
2 dx
W
= ¿]
2
W
= ¿]
2
For maximum or minimum points,
dM
=0
dx
W
¿] = 0
2
L−2 x = 0
2x = L
L
x=
2
L
The value of x is .
2
The second order derivative of M with respect to x
d2 M
=
d x2
146
d dM
= [ ]
dx dx
d W
= { ¿]}
dx 2
W d
= ¿]
2 dx
W
= ¿]
2
W
= ¿]
2
= - W ¿ 0 (maximum)
It has maximum bending moment.
Maximum bending moment
WLx W x 2
= −
2 2
W
= ¿]
2
W
= ¿]
2
W
= ¿]
2
W
= ¿]
2
W 2
= L
8
W 2
Maximum bending moment is L.
8
9. The downward deflection, y, of a cantilever of length L with a load W is given by
W W
y= [3L x 2−x 3 ¿ ( ¿ 0 ¿where x is the horizontal distance from the fixed end. Find the
6 EL EI
maximum deflection and the value of x to achieve this.
10. The torque, T, of an electric machine is given by T = 3 sin (2θ ¿+6 sin (θ)where is the
torque position 0 ≤ θ< π.
i Find the value of θfor which maximum torque occurs.
147
ii Determine the maximum torque.
11. A capacitor is formed by two concentric spheres of radii a and b respectively. The
Vb 2
electric stress, E, is given by E = 2 ( ba - a ≠ 0 ¿ where V¿ 0 is the potential difference
ba−a
b
between the spheres. Show that the minimum electric stress occurs at a = .
2
12. The induced e.m.f., E, in a coil is given by E = 2πfk cos (¿ 2 πft )¿.Find the maximum
value of E.
13. The loading distribution, w, on a beam is given by w = -36 x 2+ 50 x where x is the
distance in metres from one end of the beam. Find the value of x at which maximum
loading occurs.
14. A beam of length 8m has a deflection y (m) at a distance x (m) from one end given by
1
y= (x4 – 14 x3 + 36 x2).Determine the maximum deflection, and the value of x to
12×10 3
achieve this.
30.5
Integration
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. It is sometimes called anti-
differentiation.
148
 Indefinite Integral
 Definite Integral
Indefinite Integral
• ∫ f ( x ) dx=F ( x ) +C
Where
∫ ❑= Integral sign,
f = Integrand,
x = Variable of integration,
F(x) = Antiderivative,
C = Constant of integration.
Rules for Integration
Rules for Indefinite Integrals

n+1
1.∫ x n dx = x + C, n≠ - 1
n+1
n n
2.∫ k x dx = k ∫ x dx
x n+1
=k +C
n+1
where k is a real number.
3.∫ [ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ] dx=∫ f ( x ) dx ±∫ g ( x)dx
Rules for Definite Integrals
149
b n+1
x
• ∫ x n dx=¿ ¿[ n+1 b
¿a
a
b b
x n+1 b
• ∫ k x n dx=k ∫ x n dx = k [ n+1 a
¿¿
a a
b b b
• ∫ ¿ ¿]dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ±∫ g(x )dx

a a a
Notes for Integrals
0 x 0+1
∫ dx=∫ 1 dx = ∫ x dx =
0+1
+C
∫ dx=¿ ¿ x + C
∫ dy=¿ ¿y + C
∫ d θ=θ+ C
Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
• ∫ sinx dx=−cosx+C
• ∫ cosx dx=sinx+ C
• ∫ sec2 x dx=tanx+C
• ∫ cosec2 xdx=−cotx+C
• ∫ secx tanx dx=secx+ C
• ∫ cosecx cotx dx=−cosecx + C
• ∫ sinu du=−cosu+C
150
• ∫ cosu dx=sinu+ C
• ∫ sec2 u du=tanu +C
• ∫ cosec2 udx=−cotu+C
• ∫ secutanu dx=secu +C
• ∫ cosecu cotx dx=−cosecu+ C
Integrals of Exponential Functions
• ∫ e x dx=e x+ C
• ∫ eu du=eu +C
Integration by parts
• Integration by Parts Formula
∫ u dv =uv−¿ ∫ v du ¿
Exercise
Evaluate the following integrals.
2 +1 3
1.∫ x 2 dx = x + C = x + C
2+ 1 3
−2 x−2+1 x−1
2. ∫ x dx = +C= + C = - x−1+ C
−2+1 −1
151
−3 −3 x−3+ 1 x−2
3.∫ 4 x dx = 4 ∫ x dx = 4. + C = 4. + C = -2 x−2 + C
−3+1 −2
2
4.∫ dx
x3
1
+1
x2
1 3
5.∫ √ x dx= ∫ x dx = 1 + C = 2 x 2 + C = 2 √ x 3 + C
2
3
6. ∫ 3 dx
√ x7
2
7.∫ [x +3 x−7]dx
8.∫ [5 x ¿¿ 2−3 x +2]dx ¿
2
= ∫ 5 x dx −∫ 3 xdx +∫ 2 dx
2
= 5∫ x dx −3 ∫ xdx +2∫ dx
x3 C x2
= 5. + 1- 3. + C 2 + 2x + C 3
3 2
5 3 3 2
= x - x + 2x + C where C = C 1+C 2 +C3
3 2
cos 2 x
9.∫ sin 2 x d x = +C
2
x
cos
x 2 x
10.∫ sin dx = + C = 2 cos +C
2 1 2
2
11.∫ cos 5 x dx
152
2
12.∫ cos x .2 xdx
Let u = x 2 .
du d
= [ x 2 ¿ = 2x
dx dx
du = 2x dx
∫ cos x2 .2 xdx = ∫ cos u du = sin u + C = sin x 2 + C
2 tan 3 x
13. ∫ sec 3 x dx = +C
3
14.∫ sec 2 x tan 2 x dx
15.∫ e3 x dx
−5 x e−5 x
16.∫ e dx = +C
−5
1
17.∫ dx
e√x
18.∫ e√ x dx
19. ∫ cos (3 x+ 7)dx
20.∫ sin (5 x−7)dx
7
21.∫ (2 x −5) dx
10
6 x−1
22. Evaluate ∫ 2 e dx, correct to 4significantfigures.
0
153
Solution
10
e6 x−1 10 1 6(10−1) 6(0−1)
∫ 2 e 6 x−1 dx= 2. 6
¿
0
= {e
3
-e } = 94.36 ×10 21
0
5
23. Determine∫ 3 x ( 4 x 2 +3 ) dx.
Solution
Let u = 4 x2 +3 .
du d
= [4 x2 +3 ¿ = 8x
dx dx
du = 8x dx
1
x dx = du
8
1 3 6
u6 (4 x 2+3)6
∫ 3 x ( 4 x 2 +3 ) dx = 3∫ ( 4 x2 +3 ) . xdx = 3∫ u 5 8 du = 8 . u6
5 5
+C= +C= +C
16 16
π
6
24. Evaluate ∫ 24 sin5 θ cosθ dθ.
0
Solution
Let u = sinθ.
du d
= [sinθ ¿ = cos θ
dθ dθ
cos θ dθ = du
Let u = sinθ.
154
If θ = 0, u = sin( 0 ) =0
π π 1
If θ =
6
, u = sin()=
6 2
6 1
π 1
u 6
¿ 2 = 4{[ 1 ] −0] = 1
6 2
5 =
∫ 24 sin θ cosθ dθ 24 ∫ u du = 24.
5
6 2 16
0 0 0
1
5
25.Evaluate the definite integral ∫ ( 3 x +1 ) dθ correct ¿ 4 significantfigures .
0
π
3
26. Evaluate ∫ 2 sin(3 θ+ π ) dθ correct ¿ 4 significantfigures .
0 4
2
2
27. Evaluate.∫ x √ 2 x + 1 correct ¿ 4 significantfigures.
0
x
28. Determine∫ dx .
2+3 x 2
Solution
Let u = 2+3 x 2 .
du d
= [2+ 3 x 2 ] = 6x
dx dx
du = 6x dx
du
x dx =
6
du
x
∫ 2+3 x 2 = ∫ 6 dx = 16 ∫ du
dx
u
1 1
dx = lnu + C = ln(2+3 x 2 ¿ + C
6 6
u
155
2x
29. Determine∫ dx .
√ 4 x 2−1
30. Determine ∫ x cos x dx.
31. Determine ∫ x sin x dx.
2
32. Determine ∫ x cos x dx.
Solution
2
For ∫ x cos x dx,
Let u = x 2 and dv = cos x dx.
du d
= [ x 2 ¿ = 2x
dx dx
du = 2x dx
dv = cos x dx
∫ dv=∫ cos x dx
v = sin x
Using integration by parts formula, ∫ u dv =uv−∫ v du
∫ x 2 cos x dx = x 2 sin x - ∫ sin x 2 xdx
∫ x 2 cos x dx = x 2 sinx - 2∫ x sin x dx (1)
For∫ x sin x dx,
Let u = x and dv = sin x dx.
156
du d
= [x ¿ = 1
dx dx
du = dx
dv = sin x dx
∫ dv=∫ sin x dx
v = - cos x
∫ x sin x dx = x (- cos x) - ∫−cos x dx
∫ x sin x dx = - x cos x + sin x + C 1
From equation 1,
∫ x 2 cos x dx = x 2 sinx – 2{- x cos x + sin x + C }

1
∫ x 2 cos x dx = x 2 sinx + 2x cos x - 2 sin x - 2C 1
∫ x 2 cos x dx = x 2 sinx + 2x cos x - 2 sin x + C where C = - 2C 1
2
33. Determine ∫ x sin x dx.
2t
34. Find ∫ 3 t e dt .
35. Determine ∫ x ln x dx.
Solution
Let u = ln x and dv = x dx.
157
du d 1
= [lnx] =
dx dx x
1
du= dx
x
dv = x dx
∫ dv=∫ x dx
x2
v=
2
2 2
∫ x ln x dx =ln x . x2 −∫ x2 . 1x dx
1 2 x2 1
∫ x ln x dx = 2 x lnx−∫ 2 . x dx
1 x
∫ x ln x dx = 2 x 2 lnx−∫ 2 dx
x ln x dx
1 2
x lnx−¿ x2
∫ =
2 4
+C
36. Determine ∫ ln x dx.
37. The p.d. between boundaries a and b of an electric field is given by:
b
Q
V=∫ dr
a 2 π r ε0 ε r
If a =10, b = 20, Q = 2×10-6 coulombs, ε0 =8.85×10-12 and εr =2.77, show that V = 9kV.
38. The average value of a complex voltage waveform is given by:
158
π
1
VAV =
π ∫ ¿ ¿ + 2 sin ωt) d (ωt ¿.
0
Evaluate VAV correct to 2 decimal places.

39. The power, P, in a circuit is given by
2π
ω
P = ωR ∫ i 2 dt ,
2π 0
I2 R
where i = I sin(ωt ¿ ,R is resistance and ω is angular frequency. Show that P = .
2
Solution
The power, P, in a circuit is given by
2π
ω
P = ωR ∫ i 2 dt ,
2π 0
where i = I sin(ωt ¿ ,
R is resistance and
ω is angular frequency.
2π
ω
P = ωR ∫ i 2 dt
2π 0
2π
ω
P = ωR ∫ [I sin ( ωt ) ]2 dt
2π 0
2π
ω
P = ωR ∫ I 2 sin2 (ωt )dt
2π 0
2π
2 ω
P = ωR I ∫ 12 ¿
2π 0
2π
2 ω
P = ωR I ∫ [1−cos ( 2 ωt ) ]dt
2π 0
2π
ωR I 2 sin 2ωt
P= [t - ]ω
2π 2ω
0
ωR I 2 2 π −0 ¿ 1
P= {( - ¿) – sin(0)]}
2π ω 2ω
159
ωR I 2 2 π 1
P= { - ¿ – 0]}
2π ω 2ω
ωR I 2 2 π 1
P= { - ¿0]}
2π ω 2ω
ωR I 2 2 π
P= { - 0}
2π ω
ωR I 2 2 π
P= { }
2π ω
I2 R
∴P =
2
40. The average value of current, IAV, for a rectified alternating current is given by
π
ω
IAV = ω ∫ i dt
π 0
where , ωis angular frequency, i is instantaneous current, I is peak current and t is time.
2
Show that IAV = i.
π
41. The voltage, v, across a capacitor is given by
t
1 3
v=
10× 10−6
∫ 100 e−( 5× 10 ) t dt.
0
Evaluate v.
42. The magnetising force, F, of an infinite wire is given by
π
I sinθ
F=∫ dθ
0 4 πr
where r is perpendicular distance, θis angle and I is current. Evaluate F.
43. The energy stored, W, in an inductor is given by
1
W = ∫ (10 ×10 )t e−2 t dt

−3
Find the exact value of W.
160
44. The energy stored, W, in an inductor is given by
2
W = ∫ ¿ ¿t2-2t) e−2 t dt.

0
Evaluate W.
45. The current, i, through an inductor with inductance L is given by
t
1
i=
L ∫ v dt
0
where v is the voltage across the inductor. For a circuit with L = 10×10−3 H and v = 5t e−5 t ,
find i.
46. The energy W of an inductor with inductance L is given by
t
1 2
[ v dt ¿ ¿ .
L ∫
W=
0
where v is the voltage across the inductor. For L = 10 mH and v = t cos (t), find w.
47. The current, i, through an inductor with inductance L is given by
1
1
i=
L ∫ v dt
0
where v is the voltage across the inductor. For a circuit with L = 1×10−3 H and v = t 2 e−t ,
find i.
48. The average power, P of an a.c circuit is given by
2π
ω
P = ω ∫ i 2 R dt ,
2π 0
where i = I sin(ωt ¿ , ωis angular frequency, I is peak current, R is resistance and ω is
I2 R
angular frequency and t is time. Show that P = .
2
49. The average power, P of an a.c circuit is given by
2π
ω
P = ω ∫ vidt ,
2π 0
where i = I sin(ωt ¿ , v=V sin ( ωt ) , ωis angular frequency, I is peak current, V is peak
VI
voltage, R is resistance and ω is angular frequency and t is time. Show that P = .
2
161
Formulating models of exponential growth and decay using integration
methods
Consider y = e kt .
Let u = kt.
∴ y = eu
dy d
= [e¿¿ u]¿ = e u
du du
By using the Chain Rule,
dy dy du
= .
dt du dt
dy u du
=e .
dt dt
dy
= e kt .k
dt
dy
= k e kt
dt
dy
=ky
dt
dy
= C e kt
dt
where C is any constant
If k ¿ 0 , it is exponential growth function .
If k ¿ 0 , it is exponential decay function .
dy
• = C e kt
dt
dy = C e kt dt
162
∫ dy=¿∫ C e kt dt ¿
The basic formula for the exponential growth and decay of a quality is
y = ce kt
where y represents the size of the quality at time t,
c is a positive real number constant, and
k is a non- zero constant.
If k¿ 0, this is an exponential growth function
If k¿ 0, this is an exponential decay function
The following exponential growth model can be formulated.
Exponential Growth Model
The initial value problem for exponential growth of the sizes of the quality at time is given
by
dy
=ky , y ( 0 )= y 0
dt
has particular solution,
y ( t ) = y 0 ekt
Where y 0= initial size of the quality
k = relative growth rate of the size of the quality that is constant
t = the time taken in which the growth size of the quality
y ( t ) = what the size of the quality grows to after time taken.
The following exponential decay model can be formulated.
Exponential Decay Model
The initial value problem for exponential decay of the size of the quality at time t is given
by
163
dy
=ky , y ( 0 )= y 0
dt
has particular solution,
y ( t ) = y 0 ekt
Where y 0= initial size of the quality
k = relative decay rate of the size of the quality that is constant
t = the time taken in which the decay size of the quality
y ( t ) = what the size of the quality decays to after time taken.
1. The streamlines of a fluid flow are given by

dy
= ex
dx
2. The current through the circuit is given by
di −iR
= .
dt L
3. The voltage, v, across the capacitor of capacitance C at time t is given by
dv −v
= .
dt RC
4. The temperature of the body at time t is given by
dθ
= k (θ−T ¿
dt
where T is the constant surrounding temperature.
5. The velocity, v, of a vehicle during the application of brakes is given by

dv
= -kv
dt
where t is time and k is a constant.
164

Math for Construction

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Math for Construction

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT 8

The dimension of the base quantity by the quantity itself

Derived Dimensions of Mechanical Quantities

 Dimension of linear velocity

• Dimension of Linear Acceleration

 Dimension of Kinetic Energy

• Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time.

• Angular Velocity is the rate of change of angular position of a rotating body.

Dimension of Angular Velocity

Dimension of Angular Velocity

Dimension of Angular Acceleration

• Momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object.

• Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force.

 Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an

Dimensions of Some Common Mechanical Quantities

Velocity L.T −1 m. s−1

Acceleration L.T −2 m. s−2

Angular Velocity T −1 rad ⋅ s−1

• Progression is a sequence in which each term is related to the previous term or

 Arithmetic progressions are used in simulation engineering and in the reproductive

Some uses of Arithmetic progressions in daily life

• uniform increase in speed at regular intervals

• When a sequence has a constant difference between successive terms it is called an

General expression for the nth term of an AP

where U n = nth term

a = The first term

where Sn = The sum of n terms

n = The number of terms

where Sn = The sum of n terms

n = The number of terms

The arithmetic mean

The first term = U 1= a = 2

The second term = U 2= 7

The third term = U 3= 12

a) The ninth term = U 9 = ?

The ninth term = U 9 =¿2 + (9 −1) (5) = 42

The ninth term = U 16=¿2 + (16 −1) (5) = 79

The sixth term of an AP = U 6 = 17

The thirteenth term = U 13 = 38

The 13thterm of AP = U 13=¿ a + (13 −1) d = a + 12d

Equation (2) - (1) gives

The common difference = d = 3

The first term = U 1= 2

The nineteenth term = ?

The second term = U 2= 4

The number of terms = n = ?

The first term = U 1= a = 5

The second term = U 2= 9

The third term = U 3= 13

The cost for first depth of hole = U 1= a = £ 30

The cost for second depth of hole = U 2= £ 32

The cost for third depth of hole = U 3= £ 34

The common difference = d = 2

= Sum of cost for 80m depth of hole

The second term = U 2= 12

The third term = U 3= 16

The sum of the ﬁrst 12 terms

The last term = l = U 6 = 22.5

The common difference = d = ?

The third term = U 3= a + 2d = 5 + 2 (3.5) = 12

The fourth term = U 4 = a + 3d = 5 +3 (3.5) = 15.5

The fifth term = U 5= a + 4d = 5 +4 (3.5) = 19