Professional Documents
Culture Documents
in
GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
STANDARD NINE
SCIENCE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
ii
T
his Science book for Standard
IX has 25 units. HOW
E
ach unit has simple activities TO USE
that can be demonstrated by THE BOOK?
the teacher. Few group activities
are given for students to do under the guidance of
the teacher.
Infographics and Info-bits are added to enrich the learner’s
scientific perception.
“Do you know?” and “More to know” placed in the units will be an
eye opener.
Glossary has been introduced to learn scientific terms.
ICT corner and QR code are introduced in each unit for the digital
native generation.
iii
Table of Contents
Unit Title Page No Month
1 Measurement 1 June
2 Motion 14 July
3 Fluids 26 August
4 Electric charge and Electric current 39 October
5 Magnetism and Electromagnetism 52 November
6 Light 66 December
7 Heat 80 January
8 Sound 91 February
9 Universe 102 March
10 Matter Around Us 113 June
11 Atomic Structure 125 July
12 Periodic Classification of Elements 138 August
13 Chemical Bonding 148 October
14 Acids, Bases and Salts 162 November
15 Carbon and its Compounds 172 January
16 Applied Chemistry 185 February
17 Animal Kingdom 199 June
18 Organisation of Tissues 210 July
19 Plant Physiology 226 August
20 Organ Systems in Animals 233 October
21 Nutrition and Health 247 November
22 World of Microbes 258 November
23 Economic Biology 273 January
24 Environmental Science 290 February
25 Computer – LibreOffice Impress 302 September
Practicals 309
Glossary 318
UNIT
1 MEASUREMENT
Learning Objectives
Earlier, different unit systems were used The units used to measure the
by people from different countries. Some of the fundamental quantities are called fundamental
unit systems followed earlier are given below in units and the units which are used to measure
Table 1.1. the derived quantities are called derived units.
Table 1.1 Unit systems of earlier times Table 1.2 Fundamental quantities and their units
System Length Mass Time
Fundamental
CGS centimetre gram second Unit Symbol
quantities
FPS foot* pound second Length metre m
MKS metre kilogram second Mass kilogram kg
* foot is the singular of feet Time second s
At the end of the Second World War Temperature kelvin K
there was a necessity to use worldwide system Electric current ampere A
of measurement. Hence, SI (International Luminous intensity candela cd
System of Units) system of units was developed Amount of substance mole mol
and recommended by General Conference
on Weights and Measures at Paris in 1960 for With the help of these seven fundamental
international usage. units, the units for other derived quantities are
obtained and their units are given below in
1.2 SI System of Units Table 1.3.
Measurement 2
3 Measurement
the end of symbols. E.g. 50 m and not scale. To the left end of the main scale an upper
as 50 m. and a lower jaw are fixed perpendicular to the
5. The symbols of the units are not expressed
bar. These are named as fixed jaws. To the right of
in plural form. E.g. 10 kg not as 10 kgs. the fixed jaws, a slider with an upper and a lower
moveable jaw is fixed. The slider can be moved or
6. When temperature is expressed in kelvin, fixed to any position using a screw. The Vernier
the degree sign is omitted. E.g. 283 K not scale is marked on the slider and it moves along
as 283° K (If expressed in celsius scale, with the movable jaws and the slider. The lower
degree sign should be included e.g. 100°C jaws are used to measure the external dimensions
not as 100 C, 108° F not as 108 F). and the upper jaws are used to measure the
7. Use of solidus (/) is recommended for internal dimensions of the objects. The thin bar
indicating a division of one unit symbol attached to the right side of the Vernier scale is
by another unit symbol. Not more than used to measure the depth of hollow objects.
one solidus is used. E.g. ms-1 or m/s. Inside
J/K/mol should be JK-1mol-1. Jaws Main Scale
5 Measurement
Check whether the zero marking of the main left of the zero of the main scale. So, the obtained
scale coincides with that of the zero of the vernier reading will be less than the actual reading. To
scale. If they coincide then there is no zero error. correct this error we should first find which
If they do not coincide with each other, the vernier division is coinciding with any of the
instrument is said to possess zero error. Zero main scale divisions, as we found in the previous
error may be positive or negative. If the zero of case. In this case, you can see that sixth line is
a vernier is shifted to the right of main scale, it coinciding. To find the negative error, we can
is called positive error. On the other hand, if the count backward (from 10). Here, the fourth line is
zero of the vernier is shifted to the left of the zero coinciding. Therefore, negative zero error = –4 ×
of main scale, then the error is negative. LC = –4 × 0.01 = –0.04 cm. Then zero correction
is positive. Hence, zero correction is +0.04 cm.
Positive zero error
Figure 1.3 shows the positive zero error.
From the figure you can see that zero of the
vernier scale is shifted to the right of the zero of
the main scale. In this case the reading will be
more than the actual reading. Hence, this error
should be corrected. In order to correct this error,
find out which vernier division is coinciding with Figure 1.4 Negative zero error
any of the main scale divisions. Here, fifth vernier
division is coinciding with a main scale division. Problem 2
So, positive zero error = +5 × LC = +5 × 0.01 The main scale reading is 8 cm and vernier
= 0.05 cm and the zero correction is negative. coincidence is 4 and negative zero error is
Hence, zero correction is –0.05 cm. 0.02 cm. Then calculate the correct reading:
Solution:
Correct reading = 8 cm + (4 × 0.01 cm) + (0.02 cm)
= 8+0.04+0.02 = 8.06 cm.
1.6.3 Digital Vernier caliper The end of the screw has a plane surface
We are living in a digital world and (Spindle). A stud (Anvil) is attached to the other
the digital version of the vernier callipers are end of the frame, just opposite to the tip of the
available nowadays. Digital Vernier caliper screw. The screw head is provided with a ratchat
(Figure 1.5) has a digital display on the slider, arrangement (safety device) to prevent the user
which calculates and displays the measured from exerting undue pressure.
value. The user need not manually calculate the 1.7.2 Using the screw gauge
least count, zero error etc. The screw gauge works on the principal
that when a screw rotates in a nut, the distance
moved by the tip of the screw is directly
proportional to the number of rotations.
positive (Figure 1.7). Here, the 5th division of 1.8 Measuring Mass
the head scale coincides with the pitch scale axis.
Then the zero error is positive and is given by, We commonly use the term ‘weight’
which is actually the ‘mass’. Many things are
Z.E = + (n × LC) where ‘n’ is the head
measured in terms of ‘mass’ in the commercial
scale coincidence. In this case, Zero error
world. The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
= + (5 × 0.01) = 0.05mm. So the zero correction
In any case, the units are based on the items
is – 0.05 mm.
purchased. For example, we buy gold in
gram or milligram, medicines in milligram,
provisions in gram and kilogram and express
cargo in tonnes.
Can we use the same instrument for
measuring the above listed items? Different
measuring devices have to be used for items of
Figure 1.7 Positive Zero Error smaller and larger masses. In this section we will
study about some of the instruments used for
Negative zero error
measuring mass.
When the plane surface of the
screw and the opposite plane stud on the The shell of an egg is 12% of its
frame are brought into contact, if the zero mass. A blue whale can weigh as
of the head scale lies above the pitch scale much as 30 elephants and it is as
axis, the zero error is negative (Figure 1.8). long as 3 large tour buses.
Here, the 95th division coincides with the pitch
scale axis. Then the zero error is negative and is Common (beam) balance
given by,
A beam balance compares the sample
ZE = – (100 – n) × LC mass with a standard reference mass (Standard
ZE = – (100 – 95) × LC reference masses are 5g, 10g, 20g, 50g, 100g,
= – 5 × 0.01 200g, 500g, 1kg, 2kg, 5kg). This balance can
= – 0.05 mm measure mass accurately up to 5g (Figure 1.9).
The zero correction is + 0.05mm.
Figure 1.8 Negative Zero Error Figure 1.9 Common beam balance
Measurement 8
The standard reference masses used in attached to the rod which slides over a graduated
this physical balance are 10 mg, 20 mg, 50 mg, scale on the right. The spring extends according
100 mg, 200 mg, 500 mg, 1 g, 2g, 5 g, 10 g, 20 g, to the weight attached to the hook and the pointer
50 g, 100g, and 200 g. reads the weight of the object on the scale.
Problem 3
If a man has a mass 50 kg on the earth, then
Figure 1.11 Digital balance
what is his weight?
Activity 3 Solution:
Weight (w) = mg
With the resources such as paper plates, tea Mass of a man = 50 kg
cups, thread and sticks available at home His weight = 50 × 9.8
make a model of an ordinary balance. Using w = 490 newton
standard masses find the mass of some objects.
The pull of gravity on the Moon is 1/6
Spring balance times weaker than that on the Earth. This causes
This balance helps us to find the weight of the weight of the object on the Moon to be less
an object. It consists of a spring fixed at one end and than that on the Earth by six times. Acceleration
a hook attached to a rod at the other end. It works due to gravity on the Moon = 1.63 ms–2
by ‘Hooke’s law’ which states that the addition of If the mass of a man is 70 kg then his
weight produces a proportional increase in the weight on the Earth is 686 N and on the Moon
length of the spring (Figure 1.12). A pointer is is 114 N. But his mass is still 70 kg on the Moon.
9 Measurement
Mass Weight
2. It has magnitude alone – scalar quantity. It has magnitude and direction – vector quantity.
3. It is the amount of matter contained in a It is the normal force exerted by the surface on
body. the object against gravitational pull.
Faulty instruments and human error Light year is the distance travelled
can lead to inaccurate values. In order to get by light in one year in vacuum.
accurate values of measurement, it is always 1 Light year = 9.46 × 1015m.
important to check the correctness of the Parsec is the unit of distance used to
measuring instruments. Also, repeating the measure astronomical objects outside the
measurement and getting the average value solar system.
can correct the errors and give us accurate 1 Angstrom (A°) = 10−10 m.
value of the measured quantity.
SI Unit of volume is cubic metre or m3.
Points to Remember Generally volume is represented in litre
(l). 1ml=1cm3.
Quantities which cannot be expressed in
Least count of screw gauge is 0.01 mm.
terms of any other physical quantities are
Lease count of Vernier caliper is 0.01 cm.
called fundamental quantities. Example:
Length, mass, time, temperature etc. Common balance can measure mass
accurately upto 5 g.
Quantities which can be expressed in
terms of fundamental quantities are Accuracy of physical balance is 10 mg.
Measurement 10
GLOSSARY
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
VI. Answer very briefly. 3. Find the thickness of a five rupee coin
with the screw gauge, if the pitch scale
1. Define measurement. reading is 1 mm and its head scale
2. Define standard unit. coincidence is 68.
3. What is the full form of SI system? 4. Find the mass of an object weighing 98 N.
Measurement 12
Concept Map
Measurments
Fundamental Derived
Fundamental units Venthier Sctewguage
quantities quantities
Derived units
ICT CORNER
MEASUREMENT - VERNIER CALIPER
Vernier is a visual aid that helps the user to measure the internal and external diameter of the object.
This activity helps the students to understand the usage better
Step 1. Type the following URL in the browser or scan the QR code from your mobile.
Youcan see“Vernier caliper” on the screen.
Step 2.The yellow colour scale is movable. Now you can drag and keep the blue colour
cylinder in between. Now you can measure the dimension of the cylinder. Use the +
symbol to drag cylinder and scale.
Step 3. Now go to the place where you can enter your answer. An audio gives you the feedback
and you can see the answer on the screen also
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.ionicframework.vernierapp777926
13 Measurement
UNIT
2 MOTION
Learning Objectives
15 Motion
Activity 3 Problem 2
A sound is heard 5 s later than the lightning
Observe the motion of a car as shown in is seen in the sky on a rainy day. Find the
the figure and answer the following questions: distance of location of lightning? Given the
speed of sound = 346 ms–1
Solution:
Distance
Speed =
Time
Distance = Speed × Time = 346 × 5 = 1730 m
Thus, the distance of location of lightning is
Compare the distance covered by the car
1730 m.
through the path ABC and AC. What do
you observe? Which path gives the shortest
distance to reach D from A? Is it the path 2.4.2 Velocity
ABCD or the path ACD or the path AD? Velocity is the rate of
change of displacement. It
Speed, Velocity and is the displacement in unit
2.4 Acceleration time. It is a vector quantity.
The SI unit of velocity is ms–1.
Speed is the quantity which shows how fast Velocity = Displacement / Time taken
the body is moving but velocity is the quantity
which shows the speed as well as the direction 2.4.3 Acceleration
of the moving body.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
2.4.1 Speed or it is the change of velocity in unit time. It is a
vector quantity. The SI unit of acceleration is ms–2.
Speed is the rate of change of distance
or the distance travelled in unit time. It is a Acceleration
scalar quantity. The SI unit of speed is ms–1. = Change in velocity/Time
Speed = Distance travelled / Time taken = (Final velocity – Initial velocity)/Time
a = (v–u)/t
Problem 1
Consider a situation in which a body
An object travels 16 m in 4 s and then moves in a straight line without reversing
another 16 m in 2 s. What is the average its direction. From the above equation if
speed of the object? v > u, i.e. if final velocity is greater than initial
Solution: velocity, the velocity increases with time and
Total distance travelled by the object the value of acceleration is positive.
= 16 m + 16 m = 32 m If v < u, i.e. if final velocity is less
than initial velocity, the velocity decreases
Total time taken = 4s + 2s = 6s
with time and the value of acceleration is
Average speed = Total distance travelled 32m = 5.33 ms–1 negative. It is called negative acceleration.
Total time taken 6s
Negative acceleration is called retardation or
Therefore, the average speed of the object is
deceleration. If the acceleration has a value of
5.33 ms–1
–2 ms–2, we say that deceleration is 2 ms–2.
Motion 16
Scale
)
2500
ing
Walk
B
2000 s2
{
Distance (metre)
A
1500 s1 C
( )
S2 1000
t1 t2
S1 S2
Time (minute)
for Non-uniform motion
Figure 2.2 The distance – time graph for We can also plot the distance – time
Uniform motion graph for accelerated motion (non-uniform
When we look at the distance – time motion). Table 2.2 shows the distance travelled
graph, we notice few things. First, it is a by a car in a time interval of two seconds.
17 Motion
Table 2.2 Non-uniform motion moving with uniform velocity. Thus, the area
under the velocity – time graph is equal to the
Time (second) Distance (metre)
magnitude of the displacement. So, the distance
0 0
(displacement), S covered by the car in a time
2 1
interval of t can be expressed as,
4 4
6 9 S = AC × CD
8 16 S = Area of the rectangle ABCD (shaded
10 25 portion in the graph)
12 36
Motion 18
The speedometer of an
automobile measures the
instantaneous speed of the
automobile. In a uniform
motion in one dimension, the average
velocity is equal to instantaneous velocity. Figure 2.8 Equations of Motion
Instantaneous velocity is also called velocity
The initial velocity of the object = u = OD = EA
or instantaneous speed or simply speed.
The final velocity of the object = v = OC = EB
19 Motion
Time = t = OE = DA Problem 3
From the graph we know that, AB = DC
The brakes applied to a car produce an
First equation of motion acceleration of 6 ms–2 in the opposite
By definition, Acceleration direction to the motion. If the car takes 2 s to
stop after the application of brakes, calculate
= Change in velocity / Time
the distance traveled during this time.
= (Final velocity – Initial velocity)/Time
= (OC – OD) / OE S olution:
= DC / OE We have been given a = –6 ms–2, t = 2s and
v=0
a = DC / t
From the equation of motion,
DC = AB = at v = u + at
From the graph EB = EA + AB 0 = u + (‒6 × 2)
0 = u – 12 ∴u = 12 ms‒1
v = u + at (1)
s = ut + ½ at 2
Motion 20
reason? When all these objects are dropped in If you carefully observe, on being released
the absence of air medium (vacuum), all would the stone moves along a straight line tangential
have reached the ground at the same time. In air to the circular path. This is because once the
medium, air offers some resistance to the motion stone is released, it continues to move along
of freely falling objects. But, it is negligibly small the direction it has been moving at that instant.
when compared to the gravitational pull acting This shows that the direction of motion changes
on the stone and rubber. Hence, they reach the at every point when the stone was moving along
ground at the same time. the circular path.
It can be seen from these activities that When an object is moving with a constant
the magnitude of air resistance depends on the
speed along a circular path, the velocity changes
area of objects exposed to air. We know that an
due to the change in direction. Hence, it is an
object experiences acceleration during free fall.
accelerated motion. For example, revolution
This acceleration experienced by an object is
of earth around the sun, revolution of moon
independent of mass. This means that all objects
around the earth and the tip of the second’s
hollow or solid, big or small, should fall at the
hand of a clock are all accelarated motions.
same rate.
The equation of motion for a freely If an object, moving along a circular path
falling body can be obtained by replacing ‘a’ in of radius, r takes time, T to come back to its
equations with g, the acceleration due to gravity. starting position, then the speed, v is given by,
For a freely falling body which is initially at rest, Speed = Circumference/Time taken
u = 0. Thus we get the following equations. V = 2pr/T
v = gt, s = ½ gt2, v2 = 2gh
Centripetal Acceleration
2.9 and Centripetal Force
Can a body have zero velocity
and finite acceleration? Yes,
when a body is thrown vertically A body is said to be accelerated, if the
upwards in space, at the highest point, the velocity of the body changes either in magnitude
body has zero velocity but it has acceleration or in direction. So, the motion of a stone in
due to the gravity. circular path with constant speed and contineous
change of direction is an accelerated motion. In
When we throw an object vertically
this case, there must be an acceleration acting
upwards, it moves against the acceleration due
along the string directed inwards, which makes
to gravity. Hence, ‘a’ is taken to be –g and when
the stone to move in circular path.
moving downwards ‘a’ is taken as +g.
Activity 5
21 Motion
the centripetal force must act on the object In this activity, a pulling force that acts
radially towards the centre. away from the centre is experienced. This is
Let us consider an object of mass m, moving called as centrifugal force. Force acting on a
along a circular path of radius r, with a velocity, v. body away from the centre of circular path
Its centripetal acceleration is given by is called centrifugal force. Thus, centrifugal
force acts in a direction which is opposite
a = v2 /r
to the direction of centripetal force. Its
The magnitude of centripetal force is
magnitude is same as that of centripetal force.
given by,
The dryer in a washing machine is an example
F = Mass × Centripetal acceleration for the application of centrifugal force.
F = mv 2 /r
r M
otion is a change of position, which
(10)2 100 can be described in terms of the distance
a= = = 4 ms –2
GLOSSARY
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
I. Choose the correct answer. 3. Which of the following graph represents
1. The area under velocity – time graph uniform motion of a moving particle?
represents the
a) b)
a) velocity of the moving object.
b) displacement covered by the moving
object.
c) speed of the moving object.
d) acceleration of the moving object.
c) d)
23 Motion
Concept Map
Centripetal force Centrifugal force
Circular motion
Uniform and
MOTION Type of motion Oscillatory motion
non-uniform motion
Uniform motion
Graphical
representation Random motion
Distance Displacement
Equations of
motion Speed Velocity
Acceleration
ICT CORNER
FORCE AND MOTION
Newton’s second law says a force acting on the object either change it’s direction or acceleration or both. F=ma
This activity proves that:
Step 1. Type the following URL in the browser or scan the QR code from your mobile.Youcan see
a wheel barrow full of load on the screen. Below that you can see two sets of people also.
Step 2. Place different number of peoples on both the side of the rope. Click go. According
to the force given by the people the wheel barrow moves to anyone of the side. If the
number of people is equal on both the sides the load will not move.
Step 3. By changing the number of people you can see the force and motion.
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/forces-and-motion-basics
25 Motion
UNIT
3 FLUIDS
Learning Objectives
26
27 Fluids
Similarly, liquid pressure acts in lateral From this activity we can infer that pressure
sides also. When a bottle having water is pierced varies as depth increases. But, it is same at a
on the sides we can see water coming out with a particular depth independent of the direction.
speed as in Figure 3.3(c). This is because liquid
exerts lateral pressure on the walls the container. Activity 4
pressure in liquids
3.2.3 Pressure due to a liquid
Pressure exerted by a liquid at a point is
column
determined by,
(i) depth (h) A tall beaker is filled with liquid so that it
(ii) density of the liquid (ρ) forms a liquid column. The area of cross section
(iii) acceleration due to gravity (g). at the bottom is A. The density of the liquid is ρ.
The height of the liquid column is h. In other
Activity 3 words the depth of the water from the top level
surface is 'h' as shown in Figure 3.4.
Take a large plastic can.
Punch holes with a nail
in a vertical line on the
side of the can as shown in figure. Then fill the
can with water. The water may just dribble out l h
V
from the top hole, but with increased speed at
A
the bottom holes as depth causes the water to
squirt out with more pressure. Figure 3.4 Pressure due to a liquid column
Fluids 28
We know that, thrust at the bottom of the Figure 3.5 shows that air gets 'thinner' with
column (F) = weight of the liquid. increasing altitude. Hence, the atmospheric
Therefore, F = mg (1) pressure decreases as we go up in mountains.
On the other hand air gets heavier as we go
We can get the mass of the liquid by
down below sea level like mines.
multiplying the volume of the liquid and its
density.
Above each location on Earth is a column of air that
Mass, m = ρ V (2) stretches to the top of the atmosphere.
Vacuum Problem 3
A mercury barometer in a physics laboratory
Pressure exerted shows a 732 mm vertical column of mercury.
by the column
of mercury Calculate the atmospheric pressure in pascal.
4 –3
[Given density of mercury, ρ = 1.36 × 10 kg m ,
760 mm –2
g = 9.8 m s ]
Atmospheric
pressure Solution:
Atmospheric pressure in the laboratory,
Surface of
mercury
P = hρg = 732 × 10–3 × 1.36 × 104 × 9.8
= 9.76 × 104 Pa (or) 0.976 × 105 Pa
Figure 3.6 Mercury barometer
The barometer works by balancing the
3.3.2 Gauge pressure and
mercury in the glass tube against the outside air
absolute pressure
pressure. If the air pressure increases, it pushes
more of the mercury up into the tub and if the air Our daily activities are happening in the
atmospheric pressure. We are so used to it that
pressure decreases, more of the mercury drains
we do not even realise. When tyre pressure
from the tube. As there is no air trapped in the
and blood pressure are measured using
space between mercury and the closed end,
instruments (gauges) they show the pressure
there is vacuum in that space. Vacuum cannot
over the atmospheric pressure. Hence,
exert any pressure. So the level of mercury in the
absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a
tube provides a precise measure of air pressure
perfect vacuum and gauge pressure is zero-
which is called atmospheric pressure. This type
referenced against atmospheric pressure.
of instrument can be used in a lab or weather
For pressures higher than atmospheric pressure,
station.
absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure +
On a typical day at sea level, the height of the
gauge pressure
mercury column is 760 mm. Let us calculate the
For pressures lower than atmospheric pressure,
pressure due to the mercury column of 760 mm
absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure –
which is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
gauge pressure
The density of mercury is 13600 kg m–3.
We have seen that liquid column exerts
Pressure, P = hρg pressure. So the pressure inside the sea will be
= (760 3 10–3m) 3 (13600 kgm–3) 3 (9.8 ms–2) more. This is more than twice the atmospheric
= 1.013 3 105 Pa. pressure. Parts of our body, especially blood
This pressure is called one atmospheric vessels and soft tissues cannot withstand such high
pressure (atm). There is also another unit called pressure. Hence, scuba divers always wear special
(bar) that is also used to express such high suits and equipment to protect them (Fig. 3.7).
values of pressure.
1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa.
1 bar = 1 × 105 Pa.
Hence, 1 atm = 1.013 bar.
Expressing the value in kilopascal gives
101.3 k Pa. This means that, on each 1 m2 of
Figure 3.7 Scuba divers with special
surface, the force acting is 1.013 k N. protecting equipment
Fluids 30
3.4
Pascal's Law Comparing equations (1) and (2),we get
Pascal's principle is named after Blaise F1 F2 A2
Pascal (1623-1662), a French mathematician A1 = A2 . or F2 = F1 × A1
and physicist. The law states that the external
F2 F1
pressure applied on an incompressible liquid is
transmitted uniformly throughout the liquid.
Pascal’s law can be demonstrated with the help
of a glass vessel having holes all over its surface.
Fill it with water. Push the piston. The water A a
rushes out of the holes in the vessel with the
same pressure. The force applied on the piston P A2 P A1
exerts pressure on water. This pressure is
transmitted equally throughout the liquid in all
directions (Fig. 3.8). This principle is applied in
various machines used in our daily life. Figure 3.9 Hydraulic press
A2
Since, the ratio A is greater than 1, the
1
force F2 that acts on the larger piston is greater
than the force F1 acting on the smaller piston.
P
Hydraulic systems working in this way are
known as force multipliers.
Problem 4
A hydraulic system is used to lift a 2000 kg
Figure 3.8 Demonstration of Pascal’s Law vehicle in an auto garage. If the vehicle sits on
a piston of area 0.5 m2, and a force is applied to
3.4.1 Hydraulic press a piston of area 0.03 m2, what is the minimum
Pascal's law became the basis for one of the force that must be applied to lift the vehicle?
important machines ever developed, the hydraulic Given: Area covered by the vehicle on the
press. It consists of two cylinders of different piston A1 = 0.5 m2
cross-sectional areas as shown in Figure 3.9. They Weight of the vehicle, F1 = 2000 kg × 9.8 m s–2
are fitted with pistons of cross-sectional areas “a”
Area on which force F2 is applied, A2 = 0.03 m2
and 'A'. The object to be lifted is placed over the
piston of large cross-sectional area A. The force Solution:
F1 is applied on the piston of small cross-sectional F1 F2 F1
P1 = P2 ; A = A and F2 = A A2 ;
area 'a'. The pressure P produced by small piston is 1 2 1
31 Fluids
3.5
Density water at 4 °C is called the relative density. Thus
relative density of a substance is defined as ratio of
Activity 5 density of the substance to density of water at 4 °C.
Mathematically, relative density (R.D),
Take two identical flasks and fill one flask
Density of the substance
with water to 250 cm3 mark and the other =
Density of water at 4 °C
with kerosene to the same 250 cm3 mark. Mass
Measure them in a balance. The flask filled We know that, Density =
Volume
with water will be heavier than the one filled
with kerosene. Why? The answer is in fi
nding ∴ Relative density
the mass per unit volume of kerosene and Mass of the substance/Volume of the substance
=
water in respective flasks. Mass of water/Volume of water
kerosene Water
Since the volume of the substance is equal
to the volume of water,
Relative density
Mass of certain volume of substance
=
Mass of equal volume of water (at 4°C)
Thus, the ratio of the mass of a given volume
250 ml 250 ml
of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of
water at 4°C also denotes relative density.
280 g 330 g
3.5.2 Measurement of relative
To understand density better, let us assume density
that the mass of the flask be 80 g. So, the mass of Relative density can be measured using
the flask filled with water is 330 g and the mass of Pycnometer also called density bottle. It consists
flask filled with kerosene is 280 g. Mass of water of ground glass stopper with a fine hole through
only is 250 g and kerosene only is 200 g. Mass it. The function of the hole in a stopper is that,
per unit volume of water is 250/250 cm3. This when the bottle is filled and the stopper is
is 1g/cm3. Mass per unit volume of kerosene is inserted, the excess liquid rises through the hole
200 g/250 cm3. This is 0.8 g/cm3. The result 1 g/cm3 and runs down outside the bottle. By this way
and 0.8 gcm3 are the densities of water and kerosene the bottle will always contain the same volume
respectively. Therefore, the density of a substance is of whatever the liquid is filled in, provided the
the mass per unit volume of a given substance. temperature remains constant. Thus, the density
The SI unit of density is kilogram per meter of a given volume of a substance to the density
cubic (kg/m3) also gram per centimeter cubic of equal volume of referenced substance is called
(g/cm3). The symbol for density is rho (ρ). relative density or specific gravity of the given
substance. If the referenced substance is water
3.5.1 Relative Density then the term specific gravity is used.
Problem 5
You have a block of a mystery material, 12 cm 28
Solution:
Mass 1155g
(a) Density = =
Volume 12 cm × 11 cm × 3.5 cm
1155 g Figure 3.10 Hydrometer
= 3
462 cm
Hydrometers may be calibrated for different
= 2.5 g cm–3 uses such as lactometers for measuring the
density (creaminess) of milk, saccharometer for
(b) The mystery material is denser than the
measuring the density of sugar in a liquid and
water. So it sinks.
alcoholometer for measuring higher levels of
alcohol in spirits.
3.5.4 Application of principle
Lactometer
of flotation
One form of hydrometer is a lactometer,
Hydrometer
an instrument used to check the purity of milk.
A direct-reading instrument used for The lactometer works on the principle of gravity
measuring the density or relative density of the of milk.
liquid is called hydrometer. Hydrometer is based The lactometer consists of a long graduated
on the principle of flotation, i.e., the weight of test tube with a cylindrical bulb with the
the liquid displaced by the immersed portion graduation ranging from 15 at the top to 45 at
of the hydrometer is equal to the weight of the the bottom. The test tube is filled with air. This
hydrometer. air chamber causes the instrument to float. The
Hydrometer consists of a cylindrical stem spherical bulb is filled with mercury to cause
having a spherical bulb at its lower end and a the lactometer to sink up to the proper level and
narrow tube at its upper end. The lower spherical to float in an upright position in the milk.
bulb is partially filled with lead shots or mercury. Inside the lactometer there may be a
This helps hydrometer to float or stand vertically thermometer extending from the bulb up into
in liquids. The narrow tube has markings so that the upper part of the test tube where the scale
relative density of a liquid can be read directly. is located. The correct lactometer reading is
obtained only at the temperature of 60 °F. A
The liquid to be tested is poured into the lactometer measures the cream content of milk.
glass jar. The hydrometer is gently lowered in More the cream, lower the lactometer floats in
to the liquid until it floats freely. The reading the milk. The average reading of normal milk
against the level of liquid touching the tube is 32. Lactometers are used at milk processing
gives the relative density of the liquid. units and dairies.
33 Fluids
3.6 Buoyancy
We already saw that a body experiences
an upward force due to the fluid surrounding,
when it is partially or fully immersed in to it. We
also know that pressure is more at the bottom
and less at the top of the liquid. This pressure
difference causes a force on the object and pushes
it upward. This force is called buoyant force and
the phenomenon is called buoyancy (Fig.3.11). Figure 3.12 Cartesian diver
Most buoyant objects are those with a
relatively high volume and low density. If the 3.7 Archimedes' Principle
object weighs less than the amount of water it has
displaced (density is less), buoyant force will be Archimedes principle is the consequence
more and it will float (such object is known as of Pascal’s law. According to legend, Archimedes
positively buoyant). But, if the object weighs more devised the principle of the 'hydrostatic balance'
than the amount of water it has displaced (density after he noticed his own apparent loss in weight
is more), buoyant force is less and the object will while sitting in his bath. The story goes that
sink (such object is known as negatively buoyant). he was so enthused with his discovery that he
jumped out of his bath and ran through the town,
Weight of object
shouting 'eureka'. Archimedes principle states
that ‘a body immersed in a fluid experiences a
vertical upward buoyant force equal to the weight
Object of the fluid it displaces’.
When a body is partially or completely
Buoyant immersed in a fluid at rest, it experiences an
Fluid force
upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by it. Due to the upthrust acting on the
body, it apparently loses a part of its weight and
Figure 3.11 Buoyant force the apparent loss of weight is equal to the upthrust.
GLOSSARY
Altitude Vertical distance in the up direction.
Astronaut Person who is specially trained to travel into outer space.
Axes Simple machine to cut, shape and split wood.
35 Fluids
Deformation Changes in an object's shape or form due to the application of a force or forces.
Iceberg Large piece of ice floating in water.
Hydraulic systems Device that uses fluids and work under the fluid pressure to control valves.
Incompressible No change in volume if a pressure is applied.
Meteorological Weather condition.
Piston Movable disc fitted inside a cylinder.
Propellers Fan that transmits power in the form of thrust by rotation.
Syringe Simple pump made of plastic or glass to inject or withdraw fluid.
Therapy Treatment given for healing sickness.
Velocity Speed of an objects with direction.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
Fluids 36
37 Fluids
Concept Map
Steps
• Type the given URL to reach “pHET Simulation” page and download the “java” file of “Fluid Pressure
and Flow”.
• Open the “java” file. Open the water tap and observe the “Pressure” fluctuations by increasing “Fluid
density” and “Gravity”.
• Select the third picture and drop down a weight scales to transform weight into pressure.
• Switch to “Flow” tab from the top to simulate fluid motion under a given shape and pressure. Click
the “red” button to drop dots into the fluid and alter the pipe shape by dragging the yellow holders.
Fluids 38
UNIT
ELECTRIC CHARGE AND
4 ELECTRIC CURRENT
Learning Objectives
39
Electric potential is a measure of the did not affect the basic understanding of the
work done on unit positive charge to bring it electric current. The movement of the positive
to that point against all electrical forces. charge is called as ‘conventional current’. The
flow of electrons is termed as ‘electron current’.
Battery
Pump Bat tery
4
6
A
A
0 8
Ammeter
(a) Actual setup (b) Circuit diagram Water system Electric network
Figure 4.6 Ammeter in a circuit
Figure 4.7 Battery is analogues to
water pump
Problem 2
If, 25 C of charge is determined to pass Devices like electric cells and other
through a wire of any cross section in 50 s, electrical energy sources act like pump,
what is the measure of current? ‘pushing’ the charges to flow through a wire
or conductor. The ‘pumping’ action of the
Solution:
electrical energy source is made possible by the
I = q / t = (25 C) / (50 s) = 0.5 C/s = 0.5 A
‘electromotive force, (e.m.f). The electromotive
Problem 3 force is represented as (ε). The e.m.f of an
The current flowing through a lamp is 0.2A. electrical energy source is the work done (W)
If the lamp is switched on for one hour, by the source in driving a unit charge (q)
what is the total electric charge that passes around the complete circuit.
through the lamp?
ε = W/q where, W is the work done. The
Solution: SI unit of e.m.f is joules per coulomb (JC-1) or
I 5 q / t; q = I x t volt (V). In other words the e.m.f of an electrical
1hr 5 1 3 60 3 60 s 5 3600 s energy source is one volt if one joule of work
q 5 I 3 t 5 0.2 A 3 3600 s 5 720 C is done by the source to drive one coulomb of
charge completely around the circuit.
4.2.3 Electromotive force (e.m.f)
Problem 4
Imagine that two ends of The e.m.f of a cell is 1.5 V. What is the
a water pipe filled with water energy provided by the cell to drive 0.5 C
are connected. Although filled of charge around the circuit?
with water, the water will not
Solution:
move or circle around the
tube on its own. Suppose, you ε = 1.5 V and q 5 0.5 C
insert a pump in between and the pump pushes ε = W/q; W 5 ε 3 q;
the water, then the water will start moving in Therefore W = 1.5 3 0.5 = 0.75 J
the tube. Now the moving water can be used to
produce some work. We can insert a water wheel
4.2.4 Potential difference (pd)
in between the flow and make it to rotate and
further use that rotation to operate machinery. One does not just let the circuit connect
Likewise if you take a circular copper one terminal of a cell to another. Often we
wire, it is full of free electrons. However, they connect, say a bulb or a small fan or any
are not moving in a particular direction. You other electrical device in an electric circuit
need some force to push the electrons to move and use the electric current to drive them.
in a direction. The water pump and a battery This is how a certain amount of electrical
are compared in Figure 4.7. energy provided by the cell or any other
source of electrical energy is converted Note the positive (+) red terminal of the
into other form of energy like light, heat, voltmeter is connected to the positive side of
mechanical and so on. For each coulomb of circuit and the negative (–) black terminal is
charge passing through the light bulb (or any connected to the negative side of the circuit
appliances) the amount of electrical energy across a component (light bulb in the above
converted to other forms of energy depends illustration).
on the potential difference across the
electrical device or any electrical component 4.2.5 Resistance
in the circuit. The potential difference is The Resistance (R) is the measure of
represented by the symbol V. opposition offered by the component to the
flow of electric current through it. Different
V = W/q
electrical components offer different electrical
where, W is the work done, i.e., the resistance.
amount of electrical energy converted into Metals like copper, aluminium etc., have
other forms of energy measured in joule and very much negligible resistance. That is why
q is amount of charge measured in coulomb. they are called good conductors. On the other
The SI unit for both e.m.f and potential hand, materials like nicrome, tin oxide etc.,
difference is the same i.e., volt (V). offer high resistance to the electric current.
We also have a category of materials called
Problem 5 insulators; they do not conduct electric current
A charge of 2 3 104 C flows through an at all (glass, polymer, rubber and paper). All
electric heater. The amount of electrical these materials are needed in electrical circuits
energy converted into thermal energy is to have usefulness and safety in electrical
5 3 106 J. Compute the potential difference circuits.
across the ends of the heater. The SI unit of resistance is ohm with the
symbol (Ω). One ohm is the resistance of
Solution:
a component when the potential difference
V = W/q that is 5 3 106 J / 2 3 104 C = 250 V
of one volt applied across the component
drives a current of one ampere through it.
Voltmeter is an instrument used to
We can also control the amount of flow of
measure the potential difference. To measure
current in a circuit with the help of resistance.
the potential difference across a component
Such components used for providing resistance
in a circuit, the voltmeter must be connected
are called as ‘resistors’. The resistors can be fixed
in parallel to it. Say, you want to measure the
or variable.
potential difference across a light bulb, you
need to connect the voltmeter as given in
Figure 4.8.
4
Figure 4.9 Circuit symbol for resistor
2
V
0 8
Note: Difference between e.m.f and potential circuit. A uniform system of symbols has been
difference: evolved to describe them. It is like learning
As both e.m.f and potential difference are a sign language, but useful in understanding
measured in volt, they may appear the same. circuit diagrams. Some common symbols in
But they are not. The e.m.f refers to the voltage the electrical circuit are shown in Table 4.1.
developed across the terminals of an electrical
source when it does not produce current in Switch
G
or Switch Wires joined or` galvanometer
light-depemdent Semiconductor
bell
resistor (LDR) diode
Current
+
-
Time
DC
4.5.2 Alternating
DC Voltage current
AC Voltage
Circuit Symbol Circuit Symbol Figure 4.15 The symbol used in ac and dc
If the direction of the current in a resistor circuit diagrams
or in any other element changes its direction 4.5.3 Advantages of ac over dc
alternately, the current is called an alternating
current. The alternating current varies sinusoidally The voltage of ac can be varied easily using a
with time. This variation is characterised by a term device called transformer. The ac can be carried
called as frequency. Frequency is the number of over long distances using step up transformers.
complete cycle of variation, gone through by The loss of energy while distributing current in
the ac in one second. In ac, the electrons do not the form of ac is negligible. Direct current cannot
flow in one direction because the potential of the be transmitted as such. The ac can be easily
terminals vary between high and low alternately. converted into dc and generating ac is easier
Thus, the electrons move to and fro in the wire than dc. The ac can produce electromagnetic
carrying alternating current. It is diagrammatically induction which is useful in several ways.
represented in Figure 4.14.
4.5.4 Advantage of dc
GLOSSARY
Electric charge It is the fundamental property of matter.
The region around a charge in which another charge experiences
Electric field
electric force.
The electric lines of force are straight or curved paths along which a
Electric lines of force
unit positive charge tends to move in the electric field.
Measure of the work done on unit positive charge to bring it to that
Electric potential
point against all electrical forces.
Electric current is the rate at which charges flow across a conductor
Electric current
in a circuit.
Ammeter An instrument used for measuring the amount of electric current.
e.m.f Work done by the electrical energy source in driving a unit charge
around the complete circuit.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
III. State whether true or false. If false, 7. How are the home appliances connected in
correct the statement. general, in series or parallel. Give reasons.
1. Electrically neutral means it is either zero 8. List the safety features while handling
or equal positive and negative charges. electricity.
2. Ammeter is connected in parallel in any VII. Exercises.
electric circuit.
1. Rubbing a comb on hair makes the comb
3. The anode in electrolyte is negative.
get – 0.4C. (a) Find which material has
4. Current can produce magnetic field. lost electron and which one gained it.
(b) Find how many electrons are
IV. Fill in the blanks.
transferred in this process.
1. Electrons move from potential to
2. Calculate the amount of charge that would
potential.
flow in 2 hours through an element of an
2. The direction opposite to the movement electric bulb drawing a current of 2.5 A.
of electron is called current.
3. The values of current (I) flowing through
3. The e.m.f of a cell is analogues to
a resistor for various potential differences
of a pipe line.
V across the resistor are given below. What
4. The domestic electricity in India is an ac is the value of resistor?
with a frequency of Hz.
I (ampere) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
V. Conceptual questions. V (volt) 1.6 3.4 6.7 10.2 13.2
1. A bird sitting on a high power electric line [Hint: plot V-I a graph and take slope]
is still safe. How?
Concept Map
Electric Charges Electric Current Electric Ciruit Type of Current Effect of Electric
Current
Measuring Measurment of
Electric Charges Electric Current
Heating Effect
Potential
Electric Force
Difference
AC DC Chemical Effect
Electric Field Resistance
Series Parallel
Electric Potential Ohm’s Law Magnetic Effect
Step 1
• Type the URL link given below in the browser OR scan the QR code.
• You can vary the value of V and R to know the change the current flowing across the conductor
• On the right you can do the changes in V and R to learn the variations.
UNIT
MAGNETISM AND
5 ELECTROMAGNETISM
Learning Objectives
After completing this lesson, students
will be able to
understand the concept of magnetic field.
know the properties of magnetic field lines.
calculate the force exerted on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
understand the force between two parallel current carrying conductors.
know the concept of electromagnetic induction and apply it in the case of generators.
appreciate how voltage can be increased or decreased using transformers.
understand the applications of electromagnet and apply the knowledge in constructing
devices using electromagnets.
52
field is the region around the magnet where its 5.2.1 Magnetic flux
magnetic influence can be felt. It is denoted by B
and its unit is Tesla. Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic
The direction of the magnetic field field lines passing through a given area (Fig. 5.3).
around a magnet can be found by placing a It is denoted by ϕ and its unit is weber (Wb).
small compass in the magnetic field (Fig 5.1).
5.2.2
Properties of magnetic Oersted aligned a wire XY such that they
were exactly along the North-South direction.
lines of force
He kept one magnetic compass above the wire
• Magnetic lines of force are closed, at A and another under the wire at B. When the
continuous curves, extending through the circuit was open and no current was flowing
body of the magnet. through it, the needle of both the compass was
• Magnetic lines of force start from the North pointing to north. Once the circuit was closed
Pole and end at the South Pole. and electric current was flowing, the needle
• Magnetic lines of force never intersect. at A pointed to east and the needle at B to
the west as shown in Figure 5.5. This showed
• They will be maximum at the poles than at
that current carrying conductor produces
the equator.
magnetic field around it.
• The tangent drawn at any point on the
curved line gives the direction of magnetic The direction of the magnetic lines around
field. a current carrying conductor can be easily
understood using the right hand thumb rule.
Hold the wire with four fingers of your right
5.3
Magnetic effect of hand with thumbs-up position. If the direction
current of the current is towards the thumb then the
It was on 21st April 1820, Hans Christian magnetic lines curl in the same direction as
Oersted, a Danish Physicist was giving a lecture. your other four fingers as shown in Figure 5.6.
He was demonstrating electrical circuits in This shows that the magnetic field is always
that class. He had to often switch on and off perpendicular to the direction of current.
the circuit during the lecture. Accidentally, he The strength of the magnetic field at a point
noticed the needle of the magnetic compass due to current carrying wire depends on: (i) the
that was on the table. It deflected whenever current in the wire, (ii) distance of the point
he switched on and the current was flowing from the wire, (iii) the orientation of the point
through the wire. The compass needle moved from the wire and (iv) the magnetic nature of the
only slightly, so that the audience didn’t medium. The magnetic field lines are stronger
even notice. But, it was clear to Oersted that near the current carrying wire and it diminishes
something significant was happening. He as you go away from it. This is represented by
conducted many experiments to find out a drawing magnetic field lines closer together near
startling effect, the magnetic effect of current. the wire and farther away from the wire.
Activity 2
Figure 5.6 Right hand thumb rule From this activity, we infer that current
carrying wire has a magnetic field perpendicular
5.4
Force on a current to the wire (by looking at the deflection of the
carrying conductor in compass needle in the vicinity of a current
a magnetic field carrying conductor). The deflection of the needle
implies that the current carrying conductor
H.A.Lorentz found that a charge moving exerts a force on the compass needle. In 1821,
in a magnetic field, in a direction other than Michael Faraday discovered that a current
the direction of magnetic field, experiences a carrying conductor also gets deflected when it
force. It is called the magnetic Lorentz force. is placed in a magnetic field. In Figure 5.7, we
Since charge in motion constitutes a current, can see that the magnetic field of the permanent
a conductor carrying moving charges, placed magnet and the magnetic field produced by the
in magnetic field other than the direction of current carrying conductor interact and produce
magnetic field, will also experience a force and a force on the conductor. The view perpendicular
can produce motion in the conductor. to the direction of current is shown in Figure 5.8.
Magnetic field
into the page
S
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
N
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
I I
I=0
Circular
magnetic field
current which leads to magnetic property. In Figure. 5.12, a simple coil is placed inside
Here, every orbiting electron in its orbit is two poles of a magnet. Now look at the current
like a current carrying loop. Even though carrying conductor segment AB. The direction
in all the materials electrons orbit around of the current is towards B, whereas in the
the nucleus, only for certain special type of conductor segment CD the direction is opposite.
material called magnetic material the motion As the current is flowing in opposite directions
of electrons around the nucleus gets added up in the segments AB and CD, the direction of the B : Magneti
and as a result we have permanent magnetic motion of the segments would be in opposite I : Current
4. Magnetic
directions according fields due left
to Fleming’s to hand rule. F : Magneti
field. current and permanent
When two ends of the coil
magnets experience
combine to force in
opposite direction, they
form rotate.
catapult fields
5.6 Electric motor
An electric motor is 5. Magnetic forc
3. Current in the coil act on the sides
a device which converts produces a magnetic the coil beside th
field poles of the magn
electrical energy into
F
mechanical energy. Electric I B I
i. increasing the strength of current in the coil. in and out of the coil. The greater the number
ii. increasing the number of turns in the coil. of turns, the higher is the voltage generated.
iii. increasing the area of the coil and
iv. increasing the strength of the magnetic field.
S S
5.7
Electromagnetic
Small Medium Large
Voltage Voltage Voltage
N
Induction
N N
When it was shown by Oersted that magnetic Figure 5.15 Electromagnetic induction by
field is produced around a conductor carrying moving the magnet
current, the reverse effect was also attempted. In Experiment 3
1831, Michael Faraday explained the possibility
of producing an e.m.f across the conductor when In this experiment, the magnet is
the magnetic flux linked with the conductor is stationary, but the coil is moved in and out of
changed. In order to demonstrate this, Faraday the magnetic field (indicated by the magnetic
conducted few experiments. lines of force). Here also, current is induced.
Experiment 1
In this experiment, two coils were wound S N Magnetic S N
lines of
on a soft iron ring (separated from each other). force
The coil on the left is connected to a battery and
Switch
a switch K. A galvanometer is attached to the coil Induced
Layers of copper coil
on the right. When the switch interwoundis put with ‘on’, at that
cotton and cailco
current
+
instant, there is a deflection in the galvanometer. Galyanometer
Likewise, Battery
when thesoftswitch
iron ringis put ‘off ’, again there
is a deflection – but in the oppositeGalvanometer direction. Figure 5.16 Electromagnetic induction by
This proves the generation of current. moving the coil
N S N S
5.7.2 Fleming’s Right Hand Rule A D D A
B1 B1
S1 S1
Stretch the thumb, fore finger and S2
B2
S2
B2
middle finger of your right hand mutually Slip Rings Brushes Load Slip Rings Brushes Load
one brush is at all times in contact with the arm Depending upon the number of turns in
moving up in the field while the other is in contact the primary and secondary coils, we can step-
with the arm moving down. Thus, a unidirectional up or step-down the voltage in the secondary
current is produced. The generator is thus called a coil as shown in Figure 5.20.
DC generator (Figure 5.19).
Step up transformer: The transformer
used to change a low alternativing voltage
to a high alternating voltage is called a
step up transformer. ie Vs > Vp. In a step
up transformer, the number of turns in the
secondary coil is more than the number of
turns in the primary coil (Ns > Np).
Brush Brush
Solution:
In a transformer, Es / Ep = Ns / Np
Es = Ns / Np × Ep
= 8/800 × 220 = 220/100 = 2.2 volt
5.10 Applications of
Electromagnets
Electromagnetism has created a great Figure 5.21 Magnetic Levitation Trains
revolution in the field of engineering
applications. In addition, this has caused
a great impact on various fields such as 5.10.3 Medical System
medicine, industries, space etc.
Nowadays electromagnetic fields play
5.10.1 Speaker a key role in advanced medical equipments
such as hyperthermia treatments for cancer,
Inside the speaker, an electromagnet is placed
implants and magnetic resonance imaging
in front of a permanent magnet. The permanent
(MRI). Sophisticated equipments working
magnet is fixed firmly in position whereas the
based on electromagnetism can scan even
electromagnet is mobile. As pulses of electricity
minute details of the human body.
pass through the coil of the electromagnet, the
direction of its magnetic field is rapidly changed.
This means that it is in turn attracted to and
repelled from the permanent magnet vibrating
back and forth. The electromagnet is attached
to a cone made of a flexible material such as
paper or plastic which amplifies these vibrations,
pumping sound waves into the surrounding air
towards our ears.
GLOSSARY
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
Concept Map
Electromagnetism
Coil moves
Coil down
S N Magnetic S N
lines of
force
Induced
current
Galyanometer
Step Step
with
B1 d d cotton and
B1
+ cailco
S N S N Battery
soft iron ring
up down
B2
B2 Galvanometer
F1 F2 F1 F2 Iron core
I2
Step-up
transformer
Primary Secondary
coil coil
110/120 220/240
volts volts
Steps
• Click any one of the six activities to simulate
• Copy and paste the link given below or and understand the process.
type the URL in the browser. Click the
option Magnet and Compass. • Click any one of the three videos to understand
the concepts related to loudspeaker and
• You can find six activities and three videos magnets. Try all the other activities and videos
related to magnets and loudspeaker. as well.
UNIT
6 LIGHT
Learning Objectives
r
6.1 Reflection of Light
66
The angle made by the incident ray with the arrow from the right hand goes to the right
the normal (i = angle AON) is called angle of side of the mirror. Here, you can see that there is
incidence. The reflected ray OB makes an angle no switching. It is an optical illusion. Thus, the
(r = angle NOB) with the normal and this is apparent lateral inversion we observe is not caused
called angle of reflection. From the figure you by the mirror but the result of our perception.
can observe that the angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of reflection. i.e., i = r. Also, the
incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at
the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
These are called the laws of reflection. Laws of
reflection are given as:
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal at the point of incidence, all lie in
the same plane.
The angle of incidence is equal to angle of Figure 6.2 Lateral inversion
reflection.
6.2 Real and Virtual Image
The most common usage
of mirror writing can be found If the light rays coming from an object
on the front of ambulances, actually meet, after reflection, the image formed
where the word "AMBULANCE" is often will be a real iamage and it is always inverted.
written in very large mirrored text. A real image can be produced on a screen.
When the light rays coming from an
6.1.2 Lateral inversion object do not actually meet, but appear to meet
when produced backwards, that image will be
You might have heard about inversion. virtual image. The virtual image is always erect
But what is lateral inversion? The word and cannot be caught on a screen (Figure 6.3).
lateral comes from the Latin word latus which
means side. Lateral inversion means sidewise
inversion. It is the apparent inversion of left
and right that occurs in a plane mirror.
Why do plane mirrors reverse left and
right, but they do not reverse up and down?
Well, the answer is surprising. Mirrors do not
actually reverse left and right and they do
not reverse up and down also. What actually
mirrors do is reverse inside out.
Look at the image below (Figure 6.2) and
observe the arrows, which indicate the light ray
from the object falling on the mirror. The arrow
from the object’s head is directed towards the
top of the mirror and the arrow from the feet is
directed towards the bottom. The arrow from
left hand goes to the left side of the mirror and Figure 6.3 Real and virtual image
67 Light
Rule 2: A ray parallel to the principal axis a small linear object placed on the principal axis
passes through or appears to be coming of a concave mirror at different positions.
from the principal focus (in case of convex Case–I: When the object is far away (at
mirror) after reflection (Figure 6.5). infinity), the rays of light reaching the concave
mirror are parallel to each other (Figure 6.8a).
Position of the Image: The image is formed
at the principal focus F.
Nature of the Image: It is real, inverted and
highly diminished in size.
Figure 6.5 Ray parallel to prinicpal axis Case–II: When the object is beyond the
Rule 3: A ray passing through the focus gets centre of curvature (Figure 6.8b).
reflected and travels parallel to the principal Position of the image: Between the principal
axis (Figure 6.6). focus F and centre of curvature C.
Nature of the image: Real, inverted and
smaller than object.
Case – III: When the object is at the centre of
curvature (Figure 6.8c).
Position of the image: The image is at the
centre of curvature itself.
Figure 6.6 Ray travelling through the
principal focus Nature of the image: It is real, inverted and
same size as the object.
Rule 4: A ray incident at the pole of the mirror
gets reflected along a path such that the angle Case – IV: When the object is in between the
of incidence (APC) is equal to the angle of centre of curvature C and principal focus F
reflection (BPC) (Figure 6.7). (Figure 6.8d).
Position of the image: The image is beyond C
Nature of the image: It is real inverted and
magnified.
Case – V: When the object is at the principal
focus F (Figure 6.8e).
Nature of the image: No image can be captured
Figure 6.7 Angle of incidence equal to angle
on the screen nor any virtual image can be seen.
of reflection
Case – VI: When the object is in between the
6.4 Concave Mirror focus F and the pole P (Figure 6.8f).
Position of the image: The image is behind
6.4.1 Image Formation
the mirror.
We shall now find the position, size and
Nature of the image: It is virtual, erect and
nature of image by drawing the ray diagram for
magnified.
69 Light
Light 70
m= = = –2
–2 =
h2 = –2 × 1 = –2 cm
The height of image is 2 cm (negative
Note: A negative sign in the value of
sign shows that the image is formed below
magnification indicates that the image is real.
the principal axis).
A positive sign in the value of magnification
indicates that the image is virtual.
Problem 2
Problem 1 An object 2 cm high is placed at a distance
Find the size, nature and position of the of 16 cm from a concave mirror which
image formed when an object of size 1 produces a real image 3 cm high. Find the
cm is placed at a distance of 15 cm from a position of the image.
concave mirror of focal length 10 cm. Solution:
Solution: Height of object h1 = 2 cm
Object distance, u = –15 cm (to the left of mirror) Height of real image h2 = –3 cm
Image distance, v = ?
Focal length, f = –10 cm (concave mirror) Magnification m= = = –1.5
Using mirror formula,
We know that, m=
71 Light
–1.5 =
v = 16 × (–1.5) = –24 cm
The position of image is 24 cm in front
of the mirror (negative sign indicates that Figure 6.10 Image formation in a convex
the image is on the left side of the mirror). mirror
The ray OA parallel to the principal axis is
6.4.5 Uses of concave mirror reflected along AD. The ray OB retraces its path.
The two reflected rays diverge but they appear to
Dentist’s head mirror: In dentist’s head mirror,
intersect at I when produced backwards. Thus
a parallel beam of light is made to fall on the
II′ is the image of the object OO′. It is virtual,
concave mirror. This mirror focuses the light
erect and smaller than the object.
beam on a small area of the body (such as teeth,
throat etc.).
Activity 3
Make-up mirror: When a concave mirror is
held near the face, an upright and magnified Take a convex mirror. Hold it in one hand.
image is seen. Here, our face will be seen Hold a pencil close to the mirror in the upright
magnified. position in the other hand. Observe the image
Other applications: Concave mirrors are of the pencil in the mirror. Is the image erect
also used as reflectors in torches, head lights or inverted? Is it diminished or enlarged?
in vehicles and search lights to get powerful Move the pencil slowly
beams of light. Large concave mirrors are away from the mirror. Does
used in solar heaters. the image become smaller
or larger? What do you
Stellar objects are at an infinite observe?
distance. Therefore, the image
formed by a concave mirror
would be diminished, and 6.5.2 Uses of convex mirrors
inverted. Yet, astronomical telescopes use Convex mirrors are used as rear-view
concave mirrors. mirrors in vehicles. It always forms a virtual,
erect, small-sized image of the object. As the
6.5 Convex Mirror vehicles approach the driver from behind, the
size of the image increases. When the vehicles
6.5.1 Image Formation are moving away from the driver, then image
size decreases. A convex mirror provides a
Any two rays can be chosen to draw the much wider field of view (it is the observable
position of the image in a convex mirror (Figure area as seen through eye / any optical device
6.10): a ray that is parallel to the principal axis such as mirror) compared to plane mirror.
(rule 1) and a ray that appears to pass through Convex mirrors are installed on public
the centre of curvature (rule 2). roads as traffic safety device. They are used in
Note: All rays behind the convex mirror shall acute bends of narrow roads such as hairpin
be shown with dotted lines. bends in mountain passes where direct view of
Light 72
oncoming vehicles is restricted. It is also used in In 1665, the Danish astronomer Ole
blind spots in shops. Roemer first estimated the speed of light by
observing one of the twelve moons of the
In the rear view mirror, the planet Jupiter. He estimated the speed of light
following sentence is written. to be about 220,000 km per second.
“Objects in the mirror are
closer than they appear”. Why? Some organisms can make
their own light too? This ability
Problem 3 is called bioluminescence.
A car is fitted with a convex mirror of focal Worms, fish, squid, starfish and some
length 20 cm. Another car is 6 m away other organisms that live in the dark sea
from the first car. Find the position of the habitat glow or flash light to scare off
second car as seen in the mirror of the predators.
first. What is the size of the image if the
In 1849, the first land based estimate was
second car is 2 m broad and 1.6 m high?
made by Armand Fizeau. Today the speed of
Solution: light in vacuum is known to be almost exactly
Focal length = 20 cm (convex mirror) 300,000 km per second.
Object distance = –6m = –600 cm
Image distance v = ? 6.7 Refraction of light
Activity 4
75 Light
GLOSSARY
Spherical Mirror A reflecting surface which is a part of a sphere whose inner or outer surface
is reflecting.
Concave Mirror Part of a hollow sphere whose outer part is silvered and/or inner part is the
reflecting surface.
Convex Mirror Part of a hollow sphere whose inner part is silvered and/or outer part is the
reflecting surface.
Centre of The centre of the hollow sphere of which the spherical mirror forms a part.
curvature
Radius of The radius of the hollow sphere of which the spherical mirror forms a part.
curvature
Pole The midpoint of the spherical mirror.
Aperture The diameter of the circular rim of the mirror.
Principal axis The normal to the centre of the mirror is called the principal axis.
Principal focus The point on the principal axis of the spherical mirror where the rays of light
parallel to the principal axis meet or appear to meet after reflection from the
spherical mirror.
Light 76
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
77 Light
Light 78
Sign
convention
Cancave mirror Lateral inversion Refraction
Causes of refraction
Step 1. Type the following URL in the browser or scan the QR code from your mobile.
Youcan see“Bending light” on the screen. Click intro
Step 2. Now you can see light beam from the torch. Options are there
in the four corners. Select options of your choice and then
press the button in the torch. You can see the phenomeno of
refraction. The angles of refraction differ for different medium.
You can check it with the protractor
Step 3. Next select prism. Now explore with given tools and different
mediums and come out with different results
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/bending-light/latest/bending-light_en.html
79 Light
UNIT
7 HEAT
Learning Objectives
80
Takes place
Heat does not stay where we put it. Hot when there
Metals are good
is temperature
conductors of heat
things get colder and cold things get hotter. difference
between the objects
Heat is transferred from one place to another
Conduction
till their temperatures become equal. Heat
transfer takes place when heat energy flows Heat is conducted Liquids and gases
if the area of the also conduct heat
from an object with higher temperature to an object is large but very slowy
7.2.2 Convection
Activity 3
Rising air
Cold air descends
Land
Warm, low density air breeze
Air heated by the ground
Figure 7.3 Convection in air Figure 7.5 Land breeze and sea breeze
Heat 82
Winds: Air flows from area of high pressure to iii. Surface of airplane is highly polished
area of low pressure. The warm air molecules because it helps to reflect most of the heat
over hot surface rise and create low pressure. So, radiation from the sun.
cooler air with high pressure flows towards low
7.3 Concept of Temperature
pressure area. This causes wind flow.
Chimneys: Tall chimneys are kept in kitchen Temperature is the degree of hotness or
and industrial furnaces. As the hot gases and coolness of a body. Hotter the body, higher is its
smoke are lighter, they rise up in the atmosphere. temperature.
83 Heat
phases of water can coexist in equilibrium temperatures in the three temperature scales are
at 273.16 K. Kelvin is defined as 1/273.16 of shown in Table 7.1.
the triple point temperature. The formula for Table. 7.1 Baseline temperatures in three
converting a Celsius scale to Kelvin scale is: scales.
K = C 1 273.15
Degrees Degrees
Kelvins
Temperature Celcius Fahrenheit
Temperature Scales (K)
(°C) (°F)
Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
Boiling point
Boiling 373.15 100 212
212◦F 100◦C 373.15 K Point of of water
Water
Melting
273.15 0 32
point of ice
Absolute
0 –273 –460
32◦F 0◦C 273.15 K
Freezing
Point of
zero
0◦F -18◦C 255 K Water
Problem 1
Absolute
-460◦F -273◦C 0K
Zero Convert the following
i. 25 °C to Kelvin ii. 200 K to °C
Solution:
Figure 7.6 Types of temperature scales
i. TK = T°C + 273.15
TK = 25 + 273.15 = 298.15 K
Absolute zero
ii. T°C = TK – 273.15
The temperature at which the pressure T°C = 200 – 273.15 = –73.15 °C
and volume of a gas theoretically reaches
zero is called absolute zero. This is shown in
Problem 2
Figure 7.7.
Convert the following
i. 35° C to Fahrenheit (°F) ii. 14 °F to °C
P Gas 1
Solution:
i. T°F = T°C × 1.8 + 32
Gas 2
T°F = 25° C × 1.8 + 32 = 77 °F
Gas 3
ii. T°C = (T°F – 32)/ 1.8
T°C = (14°F – 32)/ 1.8 = –10 °C
amount of heat energy from the Sun, but they 4200 J/kg°K. So, water absorbs a large amount of
react differently. It is because both of them have heat for unit rise in temperature. Thus, water is
different properties. In general, the amount used as a coolant in car radiators and factories to
of heat energy absorbed or lost by a body is keep engines and other machinery parts cool. It is
determined by three factors. because of this same reason, temperature of water
in the lake does not change much during day time.
1. Mass of the body
2. Change in temperature of the body Problem 3
3. Nature of the material of the body
Calculate the heat energy required to raise
We can understand this from the following
the temperature of 2 kg of water from
observations.
10°C to 50°C. Specific heat capacity of
Observation:1 water is 4200 JKg–1 K–1.
Quantity of heat required to raise the
Solution:
temperature of 1 litre of water will be more
than the heat required to raise the temperature Given m = 2 Kg, ∆T = (50 – 10) = 40ºC In
of 500 ml of water. If Q is the quantity of heat terms of Kelvin, ∆T = (323.15 – 283.15) = 40K,
absorbed and m is the mass of the body, then C = 4200 J Kg–1 K–1
Q α m (7.1) ∴ Heat energy required, Q = m × C × ∆T
= 2 × 4200 × 40 = 3,36,000 J
Observation: 2
Quantity of heat energy (Q) required to
raise the temperature of 250 ml of water to 100°C Water in its various form,
is more than the heat energy required to raise the has different specific heat
temperature to 50 °C. Here, Q α ΔT, where ΔT is capacities.
the change in temperature of the body.
Water (Liquid state) = 4200 JKg–1 K–1
Thus, heat lost or gained by a substance Ice (Solid state) = 2100 JKg–1 K–1
when its temperature changes by ΔT is,
Steam (Gaseous state) = 460 JKg–1 K–1
Q α mΔT
85 Heat
Vaporizing
Condensing
id
qu
Melting Li
Point
Freezing
lid
So
Heat
Gas
Problem 6
How much boiling water at 100°C is needed
Temperature
Liquid
Latent heat of to melt 2 kg of ice so that the mixture which
vaporization
(Temperature remains
is all water is at 0°C?
constant as liquid
Solid
turns to gas) [Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 JKg–1
Latent heat of fusion
(Temperature remains
and Specific latent heat of ice = 336 Jg–1].
constant as solid turns
to liquid) Solution:
Heat supplied Given, mass of ice = 2 kg = 2000 g.
Figure 7.10 Latent heat Let ‘m’ be the mass of boiling water required.
Heat energy is absorbed by the solid during Heat lost = Heat gained.
melting and an equal amount of heat energy is m × c × Δt = m × L
liberated by the liquid during freezing, without m × 4.2 × (100 – 0) = 2000 × 336
any temperature change. It is called latent heat
2000 × 336
of fusion. In the same manner, heat energy is m =
absorbed by a liquid during vaporization and 4.2 × 100
an equal amount of heat energy is liberated by = 1600 g or 1.6 kg.
the vapor during condensation, without any
87 Heat
GLOSSARY
3. Two cylindrical rods of same length have 2. Assertion: Maximum sunlight reaches
the area of cross section in the ratio 2:1. If earth’s surface during the noon time.
both the rods are made up of same material, Reason: Heat from the sun reaches earth’s
which of them conduct heat faster?
surface by radiation.
a) Both rods b) Rod-2
3. Assertion: When water is heated up to
c) Rod-1 d) None of them
100oC, there is no raise in temperature until
4. In which mode of transfer of heat, molecules all water gets converted into water vapour.
pass on heat energy to neighbouring
molecules without actually moving from Reason: Boiling point of water is 10°C.
their positions? IV. Answer briefly.
a) Radiation b) Conduction 1. Define conduction.
c) Convection d) Both B and C 2. Ice is kept in a double-walled container. Why?
5. A device in which the loss of heat due to 3. How does the water kept in an earthen pot
conduction, convection and radiation is remain cool?
minimized is 4. Differentiate convection and radiation.
a) solar cell b) solar cooker 5. Why do people prefer wearing white clothes
during summer?
c) thermometer d) thermos flask
6. What is specific heat capacity?
II. Fill in the blanks. 7. Define thermal capacity.
1. The fastest mode of heat transfer is . 8. Define specific latent heat capacity.
2. During day time, air blows from V. Answer in detail.
to .
1. Explain convection in daily life.
3. Liquids and gases are generally
2. What are the changes of state in water?
conductors of heat.
Explain.
4. The fixed temperature at which matter
changes state from solid to liquid is called 3. How can you experimentally prove water is
. a bad conductor of heat? How is it possible
to heat water easily while cooking?
III. Assertion and reason type questions.
VI. Numerical Problems.
Mark the correct choice as:
1. What is the heat in joules required to raise the
a. If both assertion and reason are true
temperature of 25 grams of water from 0 °C to
and reason is the correct explanation of
assertion. 100 °C? What is the heat in Calories? (Specific
b. If both assertion and reason are true but heat of water = 4.18 J/g °C) (Ans. 10450 J)
reason is not the correct explanation of 2. What could be the final temperature of a
assertion. mixture of 100 g of water at 90 °C and 600g
c. If assertion is true but reason is false.
of water at 20°C. (Ans. 30°C)
d. If assertion is false but reason is true.
3. How much heat energy is required to change
1. Assertion: Food can be cooked faster in 2 kg of ice at 0°C into water at 20°C? (Specific
vessels with copper bottom. latent heat of fusion of water = 3,34,000 J/kg,
Reason: Copper is the best conductor of Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 JKg–1K–1).
heat. (Ans. 8,36,000 J)
89 Heat
Concept Map
Heat
Melting Freezing
Conduction
Specific Specific
heat latent
Capacity Thermal heat
Capacity
Heat 90
UNIT
8 SOUND
Learning Objectives
An electric bell and an airtight glass jar are enables the disturbance to be carried forward.
taken. The electric bell is suspended inside the This disturbance which is carried forward in a
airtight jar. The jar is connected to a vacuum medium is called wave.
pump, as shown in Figure 8.1. If the bell is
made to ring, we will be able to hear the sound 8.2.3 L
ongitudinal nature of
of the bell. Now, when the jar is evacuated with sound waves
the vacuum pump, the air in the jar is pumped
out gradually and the sound becomes feebler Activity 2
and feebler. We will not hear any sound, if the Take a coil or spring and move it forward
air is fully removed (if the jar has vacuum). and backward. What do you observe? You
Cork can observe that in some parts of the coil the
Wires Jar turns will be closer and in some other parts
the turns will be far apart. Sound also travels
Threads
in a medium in the same manner. We will
Electric Bell study about this now.
C R C R C R C R C
To Vacuum
pump
From the above activity you can see that
Figure 8.1 Bell-Jar experiment in some parts of the coil, the turns are closer
together. These are regions of compressions.
8.2.2 Sound is a wave In between these regions of compressions we
Sound moves from the have regions where the coil turns are far apart
point of generation to the called rarefactions. As the coil oscillates, the
ear of the listener through compressions and rarefactions move along
a medium. When an object the coil. The waves that propagates with
vibrates, it sets the particles compressions and rarefactions are called
of the medium around to vibrate. But, the longitudinal waves. In longitudinal waves the
vibrating particles do not travel all the way from particles of the medium move to and fro along
the vibrating object to the ear. A particle of the the direction of propagation of the wave.
medium in contact with the vibrating object is
Compression Compression
displaced from its equilibrium position. It then
exerts a force on an adjacent particle. As a result
of which the adjacent particle gets displaced
from its position of rest. After displacing the
adjacent particle the first particle comes back to
Rarefaction Rarefaction
its original position. This process continues in
the medium till the sound reaches our ears. It is
to be noted that only the disturbance created by
Figure 8.2 Sound is a wave
a source of sound travels through the medium
not the particles of the medium. All the particles Sound also is a longitudinal wave. Sound can
of the medium restrict themselves with only a travel only when there are particles which can be
small to and fro motion called vibration which compressed and rarefied. Compressions are the
Sound 92
regions where particles are crowded together. frequency of the wave. It is denoted as n. The SI
Rarefactions are the regions of low pressure unit of frequency is s–1 (or) hertz (Hz). Human
where particles are spread apart. A sound wave ear can hear sound of frequency from 20 Hz
is an example of a longitudinal mechanical wave. to 20,000 Hz. Sound with frequency less than
Figure 8.2 represents the longitudinal nature of 20 Hz is called infrasonic sound. Sound with
sound wave in the medium. frequency greater than 20,000 Hz is called
ultrasonic sound. Human beings cannot hear
8.3 Characteristics of infrasonic and ultrasonic sounds.
a Sound Wave
Time period (T)
The time required to produce one complete
Activity 3
vibration (wave or cycle) is called time period of
Listen to the audio of any musical instrument the wave. It is denoted as T. The SI unit of time
like flute, nathaswaram, tabla, drums, veena period is second (s). Frequency and time period
etc., Tabulate the differences between the are reciprocal to each other (T = 1 ).
n
sounds produced by the various sources.
Wavelength (λ)
A sound wave can be described completely by The minimum distance in which a sound
five characteristics namely amplitude, frequency, wave repeats itself is called its wavelength.
time period, wavelength and velocity or speed. In a sound wave, the distance between the
Wavelength
centers of two consecutive compressions or
λ two consecutive rarefactions is also called
wavelength. The wavelength is usually denoted
Displacement
Amplitude
A
as λ (Greek letter, lambda). The SI unit of
x
Distance wavelength is metre (m).
Velocity or speed (v)
Period
T The distance travelled by the sound wave in
one second is called velocity of the sound. The
Displacement
Amplitude
A
SI unit of velocity of sound is m s–1.
t
Time
93 Sound
of the wave. If we strike a table lightly, we hear The intensity of sound heard at a place
a soft sound because we produce a sound wave depends on the following five factors.
of less amplitude. If we hit the table hard we i. Amplitude of the source.
hear a louder sound. Loud sound can travel a
ii. Distance of the observer from the source.
longer distance as loudness is associated with
iii. Surface area of the source.
higher energy. A sound wave spreads out from
its source. As it move away from the source iv. Density of the medium.
its amplitude decreases and thus its loudness v. Frequency of the source.
decreases. Figure 8.4 shows the wave shapes of a The unit of intensity of sound is decibel (dB).
soft and loud sound of the same frequency. It is named in honour of the Scottish-born scientist
Alexander Graham Bell who invented telephone.
Time
Amplitude
2. Pitch
Soft sound Pitch is one of the characteristics of sound
by which we can distinguish whether a sound is
Amplitude
If the distance traveled by one wave is which is much less than the speed of light. The
taken as one wavelength (λ), and the time taken speed of sound depends on the properties of the
for this propagation is one time period (T), medium through which it travels.
then The speed of sound is less in gaseous medium
One wavelength (λ) λ compared to solid medium. In any medium
Speed (v) = (or) v =
One time period (T) T the speed of sound increases if we increase the
1 temperature of the medium. For example the
As, T = , the speed (v) of sound is also speed of sound in air is 330 m s–1 at 0 °C and 340
n
written as, v = n λ. m s–1 at 25 °C. The speed of sound at a particular
The speed of sound remains almost the temperature in various media is listed in Table 8.1.
same for all frequencies in a given medium Table 8.1 Speed of sound in different
under the same physical conditions. media at 25° C.
Problem 1 State Medium Speed in m s-1
Aluminum 6420
A sound wave has a frequency of 2 kHz and
wavelength of 15 cm. How much time will Nickel 6040
it take to travel 1.5 km? Steel 5960
Solids
Solution: Iron 5950
Speed, v = n λ Brass 4700
Here, n = 2 kHz = 2000Hz Glass 3980
λ = 15 cm = 0.15 m Water (Sea) 1531
v = 0.15 × 2000 = 300 m s–1 Water (distilled) 1498
Liquids
Ethanol 1207
Distance (d)
Time (t) = Methanol 1103
Velocity (v)
1500 Hydrogen 1284
t= =5s
300 Helium 965
The sound will take 5 s to travel a distance Gases Air 340
of 1.5 km.
Oxygen 316
Problem 2 Sulphur dioxide 213
reflections. The roaring of thunder is due to their sound absorbing properties. There is a
the successive reflections of the sound from a separate branch in physics called acoustics which
number of reflecting surfaces, such as the clouds takes these aspects of sound in to account while
at different heights and the land. designing auditoria, opera halls, theaters etc.
•• Ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from This method is called echo-ranging. Sonar
various parts of the heart and form the technique is used to determine the depth of
image of the heart. This technique is called the sea and to locate underwater hills, valleys,
‘echo cardiography’. submarine, icebergs etc.
•• Ultrasound may be employed to break
small ‘stones’ formed in the kidney into 8.11 Electrocardiogram
fine grains. These grains later get flushed
(ECG)
out with urine.
The electrocardiogram (ECG) is one of the
8.10 SONAR simplest and oldest cardiac investigations available.
SONAR stands for SOund Navigation And It can provide a wealth of useful information
Ranging. Sonar is a device that uses ultrasonic and remains an essential part of the assessment
waves to measure the distance, direction and of cardiac patients. In ECG, the sound variation
speed of underwater objects. Sonar consists of a produced by heart is converted into electric signals.
transmitter and a detector and is installed at the Thus, an ECG is simply a representation of the
bottom of boats and ships. electrical activity of the heart muscle as it changes
The transmitter produces and transmits with time. Usually it is printed on paper for easy
ultrasonic waves. These waves travel through analysis. The sum of this electrical activity, when
water and after striking the object on the seabed, amplified and recorded for just a few seconds is
get reflected back and are sensed by the detector. known as an ECG.
The detector converts the ultrasonic waves
into electrical signals which are appropriately 8.12 Structure of Human
interpreted. The distance of the object that Ear
reflected the sound wave can be calculated
How do we hear? We are able to hear with
by knowing the speed of sound in water and
the help of an extremely sensitive device called the
the time interval between transmission and
ear. It allows us to convert pressure variations in
reception of the ultrasound.
air with audible frequencies into electric signals
Let the time interval between transmission that travel to the brain via the auditory nerve. The
and reception of ultrasound signal be ‘t’. Then, auditory aspect of human ear is discussed below.
the speed of sound through sea water is 2d /t = v.
The outer ear is called ‘pinna’. It collects the
Problem 4 sound from the surroundings. The collected sound
A ship sends out ultrasound that returns passes through the auditory canal. At the end of
from the seabed and is detected after 3.42 s. the ear is eardrum or tympanic membrane. When
If the speed of ultrasound through sea water a compression of the medium reaches the eardrum
is 1531m s-1, what is the distance of the seabed the pressure on the outside of the membrane
from the ship? increases and forces the eardrum inward.
Solution: Similarly, the eardrum moves outward when a
We know, distance = speed × time rarefaction reaches it. In this way the eardrum
vibrates. The vibrations are amplified several times
2d = speed of ultrasound × time
by three bones (the hammer, anvil and stirrup)
2d = 1531 × 3.42 in the middle ear. The middle ear transmits the
5236 amplified pressure variations received from the
∴d = = 2618 m
2 sound wave to the inner ear. In the inner ear,
Thus, the distance of the seabed from the the pressure variations are turned into electrical
ship is 2618 m or 2.618 km. signals by the cochlea. These electrical signals are
Sound 98
sent to the brain via the auditory nerve and the The law of reflection of sound: (i) The angle
brain interrupts them as sound. of incidence, the angle of reflection and
normal drawn at the point of incidence
Helix Ear canal all lie in the same plane (ii) The angle of
incidence (i) and the angle of reflection (r)
Cochlear
nerve are always equal.
Cochlea The speed of sound depends primarily
on the nature and the temperature of the
transmitting medium.
Tympanic
membrane For hearing distinct echo sound, the time
Tympanic
Earlobe
Cartilage
Cavity interval between the original sound and the
reflected sound must be at least 0.1 s.
Figure 8.10 Human ear The persistence of hearing sound in an
auditorium is the result of repeated reflections
Points to Remember of sound and is called reverberation.
The amount of sound energy passing each
Sound is produced due to vibration. second through unit area is called the
Sound cannot travel through vacuum. intensity of sound.
Sound travels as a longitudinal wave through The audible range of hearing for average
a material medium. human being is in the frequency range of
Sound travels as successive compressions 20 Hz to 20000 Hz
and rarefactions in the medium. Sound waves with frequencies below
In sound propagation, it is the energy of the audible range are termed as 'Infrasonics'
sound that travels and not the particles of and those above audible range are termed as
the medium. 'Ultrasonics'.
The speed (v), frequency (n), and The SONAR technique is used to determine
wavelength (λ), of sound are related by the the depth of the sea and to locate under water
equation, v = n λ. hills, valleys, submarines, icebergs, etc.
GLOSSARY
Amplitude The maximum displacement of a particle.
Compressions The region of increased pressure.
Echo The repetition of sound caused by the reflection of sound.
Frequency Number of waves produced in one second.
Longitudinal wave The wave that propagates with compressions and rarefactions.
Pitch Characteristics of sound based on frequency.
Rarefactions The region of decreased pressure.
Reverberation The repeated reflection that results in persistence of sound is called reverberation.
Timbre (or quality) Characteristic which distinguishes the two sounds of same loudness and pitch
emitted by two different instruments.
Time period Time taken to produce one wave.
Ultrasonic sound Sound waves with frequencies greater than 20,000 Hz.
Wave The propagating disturbance that travels in a medium.
Wavelength The minimum distance in which a sound wave repeats itself.
99 Sound
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
Concept Map
ICT CORNER
Sound
Steps
• Type the given URL to reach “pHET Simulation” page and download the “java” file of Sound.
• Open the “java” file and plug in your headphone. Click “Audio enabled” box from right side to hear
the sound waves.
• Switch the tabs from the top to simulate various properties of sound waves. Watch the longitudinal
sound waves from different interfaces by altering “Frequency” and “Amplitude”.
• Alter “Air Density” and observe its effect on the sound waves. Use “Reset” to repeat the experiment.
Sound Simulator
URL: https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/sound or Scan the QR Code.
101 Sound
UNIT
9 UNIVERSE
Learning Objectives
Scientists think that the universe began Immediately after the Big Bang, clouds of
with the start of a massive explosion called the gases began to compress under gravity to form
Big Bang. According to Big Bang theory, all the building blocks of galaxies. A galaxy is a
the matter in the universe was concentrated massive collection of gas, dust, and billions of
in a single point of hot dense matter. About stars and their solar systems. Scientists believe
13.7 billion years ago, an explosion occurred and that there are one hundred billion (1011)
all the matter were ejected in all directions in the galaxies in the observable universe. Galaxies
form of galaxies. Nearly all of the matter in the are also in different shapes. Depending on their
universe that we understand is made of hydrogen appearance, galaxies are classified as spiral,
and helium, the simplest elements, created in elliptical, or irregular. Galaxies occur alone or
the Big Bang. The rest, including the oxygen, in pairs, but they are more often parts of groups,
the carbon, calcium, and iron, and silicon are clusters, and super clusters. Galaxies in such
formed in the cores of stars. The gravity that groups often interact and even merge together.
holds these stars together generally keeps these Our Sun and all the planets in the solar
elements deep inside their interiors. When these system are in the Milky Way galaxy. There
stars explode, these fundamental building blocks are many galaxies besides our Milky Way.
of planetary systems are liberated throughout Andromeda galaxy is our closest neighboring
the universe. galaxy. The Milky Way galaxy is spiral in shape.
Sun has hydrogen gas and one quarter has helium Table 9.1 Length of a day on each planet
gas. It is over a million times as big as the Earth.
Planets Length of a day
Hydrogen atoms combine or fuse together to
Mercury 58.65 days
form helium under enormous pressure. This
Venus 243 days
process, called nuclear fusion releases enormous
Earth 23.93 hours
amount of energy as light and heat. It is this energy
Mars 24.62 hours
which makes Sun shine and provide heat. Sun is
situated at the centre of the solar system. The Jupiter 9.92 hours
strong gravitational fields cause other solar matter, Saturn 10.23 hours
mainly planets, asteroids, comets, meteoroids and Uranus 17 hours
other debris, to orbit around it. Sun is believed to Neptune 18 hours
be more than 4.6 billion years old.
system. Farther from the Sun is the outer solar
Formation of the Sun
system, where the planets are much more spread
At the time of the Big Bang, hydrogen gas
out. Thus the distance between Saturn and
condensed to form huge clouds, which later
Uranus is much greater (about 20 times) than
concentrated and formed the numerous galaxies.
the distance between the Earth and the Mars.
Some of the hydrogen gas was left free and started
floating around in our galaxy. With time, due to The four planets grouped together in
some changes, this free-floating hydrogen gas the inner solar system are Mercury, Venus,
concentrated and paved way for the formation of Earth and Mars. They are called inner planets.
the Sun and solar system. Gradually, the Sun and They have a surface of solid rock crust and so
the solar system turned into a slowly spinning are called terrestrial or rocky planets. Their
molecular cloud, composed of hydrogen and insides, surfaces and atmospheres are formed
helium along with dust. The cloud started to in a similar way and form similar pattern. Our
undergo the process of compression, as a result planet, Earth can be taken as a model of the
of its own gravity. Its excessive and high-speed other three planets.
spinning ultimately resulted in its flattening into The four large planets Jupiter, Saturn,
a giant disc. Uranus and Neptune spread out in the outer solar
system and slowly orbit the Sun are called outer
9.2.2 Planets
planets. They are made of hydrogen, helium
A planet revolves around the Sun along a and other gases in huge amounts and have very
definite curved path which is called an orbit. It is dense atmosphere. They are known as gas giants
elliptical. The time taken by a planet to complete and are called gaseous planets. The four outer
one revolution is called its period of revolution. planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
Besides revolving around the Sun, a planet have rings whereas the four inner planets do not
also rotates on its own axis like a top. The time have any rings. The rings are actually tiny pieces
taken by a planet to complete one rotation is of rock covered with ice. Now let us learn about
called its period of rotation. The period of rotation each planet in the solar system.
of the Earth is 23 hours and 56 minutes and so
the length of a day on Earth is taken as 24 hours. Mercury: Mercury is a rocky planet nearest to
Table 9.1 tells about the length of a day on each the Sun. It is very hot during day but very cold at
planet. night. Mercury can be easily observed thorough
The planets are spaced unevenly. The first telescope than naked eye since it is very faint and
four planets are relatively close together and small. It always appears in the eastern horizon or
close to the Sun. They form the inner solar western horizon of the sky.
105 Universe
Venus: Venus is a special planet from the Sun, in its orbital motion it appears to roll on its
almost the same size as the Earth. It is the hottest side. Due to its peculiar tilt, it has the longest
planet in our solar system. After our moon, it summers and winters each lasting 42 years.
is the brightest heavenly body in our night sky.
Neptune: It appears as Greenish star. It is the
This planet spins in the opposite direction to
eighth planet from the Sun and is the windiest
all other planets. So, unlike Earth, the Sun rises
planet. Every 248 years, Pluto crosses its orbit.
in the west and sets in the east here. Venus can
be seen clearly through naked eye. It always This situation continues for 20 years. It has
appears in the horizon of eastern or western sky. 13 moons – Triton being the largest. Triton is
the only moon in the solar system that moves
in the opposite direction to the direction in
Activity 3
which its planet spins.
Watch the sky in the early morning. Do you
9.2.3 O
ther Bodies of the Solar
see any planet? What is its name? Find out
with the help of your teacher. System
Besides the eight planets, there are some
The Earth: The Earth where we live is the only other bodies which revolve around the Sun.
planet in the solar system which supports life. They are also members of the solar system.
Due to its right distance from the Sun it has the
right temperature, the presence of water and Asteroids
suitable atmosphere and a blanket of ozone. All There is a large gap in between the orbits of
these have made continuation of life possible on Mars and Jupiter. This gap is occupied by a broad
the Earth. From space, the Earth appears bluish belt containing about half a million pieces of rocks
green due to the reflection of light from water that were left over when the planets were formed
and land mass on its surface. and now revolve around the Sun. These are called
asteroids. The biggest asteroid is Ceres – 946 km
Mars: The first planet outside the orbit of the across. Every 50 million years, the Earth is hit by
Earth is Mars. It appears slightly reddish and an asteroid nearing 10 km across. Asteroids can
therefore it is also called the red planet. It has two only be seen through large telescope.
small natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos).
Comets
Jupiter: Jupiter is called as Giant planet. It is Comets are lumps of dust and ice that
the largest of all planets (about 11 times larger revolve around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits.
and 318 times heavier than Earth). It has Their period of revolution is very long. When
3 rings and 65 moons. Its moon Ganymede is approaching the Sun, a comet vaporizes and forms
the largest moon of our solar system. a head and tail. Some of the biggest comets ever
Saturn: Known for its bright shiny rings, Saturn seen had tails 160 million (16 crores) km long.
appears yellowish in colour. It is the second This is more than the distance between the Earth
biggest and a giant gas planet in the outer solar and the Sun. Many comets are known to appear
system. At least 60 moons are present - the largest periodically. One such comet is Halley’s Comet,
being Titan. Titan is the only moon in the solar which appears after nearly every 76 years. It was
system with clouds. Having least density of all last seen in 1986. It will next be seen in 2062.
(30 times less than Earth), this planet is so light. Meteors and Meteorites
Uranus: Uranus is a cold gas giant and it can Meteors are small piece of rocks scattered
be seen only with the help of large telescope. It throughout the solar system. Traveling with
has a greatly tilted axis of rotation. As a result, high speed, these small pieces come closer to
Universe 106
the Earth’s atmosphere and are attracted by the many artificial satellites are launched into the
gravitational force of Earth. Most of them are Earth’s orbit. The first artificial satellite Sputnik was
burnt up by the heat generated due to friction in launched in 1956. India launched its first satellite
the Earth’s atmosphere. They are called meteors. Aryabhatta on April 19, 1975. Artificial satellites
Some of the bigger meteors may not be burnt are made to revolve in an orbit at a height of few
completely and they fall on the surface of Earth. hundred kilometres. At this altitude, the friction
These are called meteorites. due to air is negligible. The satellite is carried
by a rocket to the desired height and released
horizontally with a high velocity, so that it remains
moving in a nearly circular orbit.
The horizontal velocity that has to be
imparted to a satellite at the determined
height so that it makes a circular orbit around
the planet is called orbital velocity.
Centripetal force
Instantaneous (Earth’s gravity)
Velocity
This is T ≈ 95 min
Figure 9.6 The Law of Ellipses
Universe 108
Second Law – The Law of Equal Areas in the ISS. According to the current plan, ISS
The line connecting the planet and the Sun will be operated until 2024, with a possible
covers equal areas in equal intervals of time. extension until 2028. After that, it could be
deorbited, or recycled for future space stations.
Blue areas equal
109 Universe
9.6.2 I
SS and International Depending on their appearance, galaxies
Cooperation are classified as spiral, elliptical, or irregular.
As great as the ISS’ scientific achievements Our Sun and all the planets in the solar
are, no less in accomplishment is the system are in the Milky Way galaxy.
international co-operation which resulted in A group of stars forms an imaginary outline
the construction of the ISS. An international or meaningful pattern on the space, called
collaboration of five different space agencies of constellations.
16 countries provides, maintains and operates
The Sun and celestial bodies which revolve
the ISS. They are: NASA (USA), Roskosmos
around it form the solar system.
(Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan) and CSA
(Cananda). Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, France, Due to its right distance from the Sun, Earth
Germany, Italy, Holland, Norway, Spain, has the right temperature, the presence of
Sweden, Switzerland and the UK are also part water and suitable atmosphere and a blanket
of the consortium. of ozone.
Millions of pieces of rocks that were left
over when the planets were formed and now
Points to Remember
revolve around the Sun are called asteroids.
The basic constituent of universe is galaxies A body moving in an orbit around a planet
which are really the collection of billions of is called satellite.
stars. The ISS is intended to act as a scientific
Scientists think that the universe began with laboratory and observatory. Its main
the start of a massive explosion called the purpose is to provide an international lab
Big Bang. for conducting experiments in space.
GLOSSARY
Asteroid Small, rocky object orbiting the Sun.
Comet A chunk of dirty, dark ice, mixed with dust which revolves around the Sun.
Constellation A group of stars that can be seen as a pattern from Earth.
Galaxy A group of stars, nebulae, star clusters, globular clusters and other matter.
Meteor A meteoroid that travels through the Earth’s atmosphere.
Meteorite A meteor that hits the Earth’s surface.
Milky Way A broad band of light that looks like a trail of spilled milk in the night sky.
Moon Any natural object which orbits a planet.
Planet A relatively large object that revolves around a star, but which is not itself a star.
Satellite Any object in outer space that orbits another object.
Space station A large, manned satellite in space used as a base for space exploration.
Star A ball of constantly exploding gases, giving off light and heat.
Universe Everything in space, including the galaxies and stars, the Milky Way and the
Solar System.
Universe 110
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
111 Universe
METEORS
COMETS
NAL SPAC
TIO E
A
INTERN
STA
TION
IVERSE IN G BLOC G A L A XY STARS LAR SYSTE EARTH
UN LD K SO
I.S.S
M
I
S
BU
ELLITES
SAT
ASTROIDS ER PLAN
TH E
TS
ICT CORNER
Building Blocks of Universe
Steps
• Type the given URL to reach interactive universe and allow the browser to play “JAVA Script”, if
asked.
• Click and drag the “Scale Pointer” present in the right side of the page or scroll the mouse to zoom
into the universe.
• Click and drag the mouse pointer to North-South (up-down) axis to observe the fabricating structure
of the galaxy.
• Zoom in on to extreme close up to view the solar system and to view the name of the objects present
in the galaxy.
Interactive Universe’s
URL: http://stars.chromeexperiments.com/ or Scan the QR Code.
Universe 112
UNIT
10 MATTER AROUND US
Learning Objectives
After completing this lesson, students will be able to
classify substances as elements, compounds and mixtures based on their
chemical composition.
group mixtures as homogeneous and heterogeneous.
identify suitable method to separate components of a mixture.
classify solutions based on the size of the solute particles and compare the true solutions,
colloids and suspensions based on their properties.
differentiate colloids based on the nature of dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
compare o/w and w/o emulsions.
discuss some important examples and uses of colloids.
Matter
Building block
H, He, Li……. 118 elements of all materials
Activity 1
1. Is air a pure substance or Mixture? Robert boyle used the name element
Justify for any substance that cannot be broken
2. You must have seen brass statues down further, into a simpler substance. This
in museums and places of worship. definition can be extended to include the fact
Brass is an alloy made up of approx. that each element is made up of only one kind
30% zinc and 70% copper. Is Brass of atom. For example, aluminium is an element
a pure substance or a mixture or which is made up of only aluminium atoms. It
compound? is not possible to obtain a simpler substance
chemically from the aluminium atoms. You can
10.1.1 Elements only make more complicated substances from
it, such as aluminium oxide, aluminium nitrate
Most of you may be interested in music,
and aluminum sulphate.
and some of you may know how it is composed.
Music is the combination of a few basic musical
notes i.e., Sa, Re, Ga,…Thus, the building blocks Atom: The smallest unit of an element which
of music are the musical notes. may or may not have an independent existence,
but always takes part in a chemical reaction is
Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa... Building blocks of music
called atom.
Likewise , all substances on earth are made Molecules: The smallest unit of a pure
up of certain simple substances called elements. substance, which always exists independently
Plants, cats, apples, rocks, cars and even our and can retain physical and chemical properties
bodies contain elements. Thus, elements are the of that substance is called a molecule.
building block of all materials. Examples:
Hydrogen molecule consists of two
In the modern periodic table hydrogen atoms (H2)
there are 118 elements known Water molecule consists of two hydrogen
to us, 92 of which are naturally atoms (H2) and one oxygen atom (O).
occurring while the remaining 26 have
been artificially created. But from these 118 All elements can be classified according
elements, crores of compounds are formed-
to various properties. A simple way to do this
some naturally occurring and some artificial.
is to classify them as metals, non metals and
Isn’t that amazing?
metalloids.
Matter Around Us 114
ELEMENT
Table 10.1 Difference between elements and
compounds.
METAL METALLOID NON-METAL Element Compound
Made up of only one Made up of more than
Copper, Boron, Carbon, kind of atom. one kind of atom.
Chromium, Silicon, Oxygen,
Gold, Germanium, Neon, The smallest particle The smallest particle that
Mercury Arsenic Chlorine that retains all its retains all its properties
properties is an atom. is the molecule.
It has a uniform composition and every part of the when cooled give back the solid substance. This
mixture has the same properties. Tap water, milk, process is known as sublimation. Examples:
air, ice cream, sugar syrup, ink, steel, bronze and salt Iodine, camphor, ammonium chloride etc.,
solution (Figure 10.4a) are homogeneous mixtures.
Cotton plug
A mixture in which the components can be seen Inverted funnel
separately is called a heterogeneous mixture. It does Solidified ammonium chloride
not have a uniform composition and properties. Soil, Vapours of ammonium chloride
a mixture of iodine and common salt, a mixture of China dish
sugar and sand, a mixture of oil and water, a mixture Ammonium chloride salt and sand
points (difference in boiling points is less based on the above basic principles. The
than 25 K) fractional distillation is employed. simplest type is paper chromatography.
Fractional distillation is used in Paper chromatography
petrochemical industry to obtain different
This method is used to separate the different
fractions of petroleum, to separate the
coloured dyes in a sample of ink. A spot of
different gases from air, to distill alcohols etc.
the ink (e.g. black ink) is put on to a piece of
Thermometer chromatography paper. This paper is then set
Water out in a suitable solvent as shown in figure 10.10.
The black ink separates into its constituent dyes.
Fractionating
Column As the solvent moves up the paper, the dyes
Alcohol and Water Cold Water are carried with it and begin to separate. They
Alcohol
separate because they have different solubility in
the solvent and are adsorbed to different extents
Figure 10.9 Fractional distillation by the chromatography paper. The chromatogram
shows that the black ink contains three dyes.
10.3.6 Chromatography
Before we discuss the technique we will 10.4 Solutions
take a look at the difference between the two A solution is a homogeneous mixture
important terms: Absorption and Adsorption of two or more substances. In a solution, the
Adsorption is the process in which the component present in lesser amount by weight
particles of a substance is concentrated only at is called solute and the component present in
the surface of another substance. larger amount by weight is called solvent.
Absorption is the process in which the In short, a solution can be represented as
substance is uniformly distributed throughout follows: solute + solvent solution
the bulk of another substance.
Example: salt + water salt solution
For example, when a chalk stick is dipped
in ink, the surface retains the colour of the ink 10.4.1 Types of solution
due to adsorption of coloured molecules while Based on the particle size of the solute,
the solvent of the ink goes deeper into the stick the solutions are divided into three types. Let
due to absorption. Hence, on breaking the chalk us study them through an activity.
stick, it is found to be white from inside.
Chromatography is also a separation Activity 5
technique. It is used to separate different
Take bottles containing sugar, starch and
components of a mixture based on their
wheat flour. Add one tea spoon full of each one
different solubilities in the same solvent. to a glass of water and stir well. Leave it aside for
There are several types of chromatography about ten minutes. What do you observe?
Ink spot
Water
Water Ink
Start End Sugar in Starch Flour in
water in water water
We can see that in the case of sugar we get a different combinations possible (Table 10.4). The
clear solution and the particles never settle combination of gas in gas is not possible because
down. This mixture is called as true solution. gas in gas always forms a true solution.
In the case of starch and water we get a cloudy
Brownian movement
mixture. This mixture is called as colloidial
When colloidal solution are viewed under
solution In the case of wheat flour mixed with
water we get a very turbid mixture and fine powerful microscope, it can be seen that
particles slowly settle down at the bottom after colloidal particles are moving constantly and
some time. This mixture is called as suspension. rapidly in zig-zag directions. The Brownian
movement of colloidal particles is due to the
What are the differences among True
unbalanced bombardment of the particles by
solutions, colloids and suspensions?
the molecules of dispersion medium.
The major difference is the particle size of
the solute. In fact interconversions of these
mixtures are possible by varying the particle
sizes by certain chemical and physical methods.
Table 10.4 Classification of colloids based on physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium
<1nm
GLOSSARY
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
Concept Map
Solid Liquid Gas
Matter
Homogenous Heterogenous
Elements Compounds
mixture mixture
Separation
Atoms Molecules
UNIT
11 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Learning Objectives
Later, Rutherford generalized these results as in the solar system, the Sun is at the centre
of alpha particles scattering experiment and and the planets revolve around it, similarly in an
suggested a model of the atom that is known as atom the nucleus present at the centre and the
Rutherford’s Atomic model. electrons revolve around it in orbits or shells.
Figure 11.3 Rutherford's model of the atom 11.2 Bohr’s model of an atom
was some what like that of the solar system.
In 1913, Neils Bohr, a Danish physicist,
Rutherford’s model of atomic structure is explained the causes of the stability of the atom
similar to the structure of the solar system. Just in a different manner. The main postulates are:
Atomic Structure 126
i. In atoms, the electron revolve around the These emitted particles carried no
nucleus in stationary circular paths called electrical charges. They were called as neutrons.
orbits or shells or energy levels. It is denoted by 0n1. The superscript 1 represents
ii. While revolving around the nucleus in an its mass and subscript 0 represents its electric
orbit, an electron neither loses nor gains charge.
energy.
Properties of Neutrons
iii. An electron in a shell can move to a higher or
1. This particle was not found to be deflected
lower energy shell by absorbing or releasing
by any magnetic or electric field, proving
a fixed amount of energy.
that it is electrically neutral.
iv. The orbits or shells are represented by
the letters K,L,M,N,… or the numbers, 2. Its mass is equal to 1.676 × 10−24 g (1 amu).
n= 1,2,3,4,….
In 1920 Rutherford predicted
the presence of another
particle in the nucleus as
neutral. James Chadwick, the inventor of
neutron was student of Rutherford
11.4
Characteristics of
Figure 11.5 Energy levels around the Fundamental particles
nucleus of an atom: Bohr's model.
The atom is built up of a number of sub-
The orbit closest to the nucleus is the K atomic particles. The three sub-atomic particles
shell. It has the least amount of energy and the of great importance in understanding the
electrons present in it are called K electrons, structure of an atom are electrons, protons and
and so on with the successive shells and their neutrons, the properties of which are given in
electrons. These orbits are associated with fixed Table 11.1.
amount of energy , so Bohr called them as
energy level or energy shells. Table 11.1 Properties of sub-atomic particles
Charge
mass mass
11.2.1 Limitations of Bohr’s Particle Symbol (electronic
(amu) (grams)
units)
model
Electron –1
e0 –1 1/1837 9.1 × 10−28
One main limitation was that this model
Proton H1 +1 1 1.6 × 10−24
was applicable only to hydrogen and hydrogen 1
Atomic number and Mass Number of neutrons (n) = Mass number (A) – Atomic number (z)
11.5 number For example, the number of neutrons in one
atom of 24
Only hydrogen atoms have one proton in Mg is
their nuclei. Only helium atoms have two protons. 12
Number of neutrons (n) = 24 – 12 = 12
Indeed, only gold atoms have 79 protons. This (A) (Z)
shows that the number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom decides which element it is. This very Test Yourself
important number is known as the atomic number Calculate the number of neutrons in the
(proton number, given the symbol Z) of an atom. following atoms:
Atomic number(Z) = Number of protons = Number of electrons
a) 1327Al b) 31
15
P c)
190
76
Os d) 54
24
Cr
Protons alone do not make up all of the
mass of an atom. The neutrons in the nucleus Atomic number is designated as Z
also contribute to the total mass. The mass of the why?
electron can be regarded as so small that it can be Z stands for Zahl, which means
ignored. As a proton and a neutron have the same NUMBER in German.
mass, the mass of a particular atom depends on Z can be called Atomzahl or atomic number
the total number of protons and neutrons present. A is the symbol recommened in the ACS style
This number is called the mass number ( or guide instead of M (massenzahl in German).
nucleon number, given the symbol A) of an atom.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons Problem 1
For any element, the atomic numbers are shown Calculate the atomic number of an element
whose mass number is 39 and number of
as subscripts and mass number are shown as
neutrons is 20. Also find the name of the element.
superscripts.
Mass Solution
Number A Mass Number = Atomic number +
Symbol of
the element Number of neutrons
Atomic
Number Z
Atomic Number = Mass number –
14 Number of neutrons
For example, nitrogen is written as
N = 39 – 20
7 Atomic Number = 19
Here 7 is its atomic number and 14 is its
Element having atomic number 19 is Potassium (K)
mass number.
Atomic Structure 128
11.5.1 E
lectronic configuration Geometric Representation of
of atoms atomic structure of elements
You already know that electrons occupy Knowing the mass number and atomic
different energy levels called orbits or shells. number of an element we can represent atomic
The distribution of electrons in different structure.
shells is called electronic configuration. This
distribution of electrons is governed by certain Example:
rules or conditions, known as Bohr and Bury Geometric Representation of oxygen atom 16
8
O
Rules of electronic configuration. Mass number A = 16
Atomic number Z = 8
Rule 1: The maximum number of electrons that
Number of neutrons = A − Z = 16 − 8 = 8
can be accommodated in a shell is equal to 2n2
Number of protons = 8
where ‘n’ is the serial number of the shell from
Number of electron = 8
the nucleus.
Electronic configuration = 2, 6
Maximum number of 16
Shell Value of (n) Atom of Oxygen 8O
electrons (2n2)
K 1 2 × 12 = 2
L 2 2 × 22 = 8
8P
M 3 2 × 32 = 18 8n
N 4 2 × 42 = 32
The elements with same number of electrons respectively. Because 8 is the number of electrons
in the valence shell show similar properties and required by an element to attain stable electronic
those with different number of valence electrons configuration. Elements having completely filled
show different chemical properties. Elements, outermost shell show Zero valency.
which have 1 or 2 or 3 valence electrons (except For example: The electronic configuration
Hydrogen) are metals. Elements with 4 to 7 of Neon is 2,8 (completely filled). So valency is 0.
electrons in their valence shell are non-metals.
Problem 3
11.5.3 Valency Find the valency of Magnesium and Sulphur.
Valency of an element is Solution
the combining capacity of the Electronic configuration of magnesium is 2, 8, 2.
element with other elements So valency is 2.
and is equal to the number of Electronic configuration of sulphur is 2, 8, 6.
electrons that take part in a So valency is 2 i.e.(8 – 6).
chemical reaction. Valency of
the elements having valence electrons 1, 2, 3, 4 Activity 2
is 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively.
Valency of an element with 5, 6 and 7 valence Assign the valency for Phosphorus, Chlorine,
electrons is 3, 2 and 1 (8–valence electrons) Silicon and Argon
Table 11.2 Arrangement of electrons in atoms of elements having atomic from 1 to 20.
Atomic
No (Z) Mass No. (A) Electronic configuration
No. of Metal/
No. of No. of
Elements Symbol neutrons Valency non-metal/
protons/ protons
(A – Z) 1st or 2nd or 3rd or 4th or noble gas
No. of + neutrons
K-shell L-shell M-shell N-shell
electrons
Hydrogen H 1 1 – 1 1 Non-metal
Helium He 2 4 2 2 0 Noble gas
Lithium Li 3 7 4 2 1 1 Metal
Beryllium Be 4 9 5 2 2 2 Metal
Boron B 5 11 6 2 3 3 Non-metal
Carbon C 6 12 6 2 4 4 Non-metal
Nitrogen N 7 14 7 2 5 3 Non-metal
Oxygen O 8 16 8 2 6 2 Non-metal
Fluorine F 9 19 10 2 7 1 Non-metal
Neon Ne 10 20 10 2 8 0 Noble gas
Sodium Na 11 23 12 2 8 1 1 Metal
Magnesium Mg 12 24 12 2 8 2 2 Metal
Aluminium Al 13 27 14 2 8 3 3 Metal
Silicon Si 14 28 14 2 8 4 4 Non-metal
Phosphorus P 15 31 16 2 8 5 3 Non-metal
Sulphur S 16 32 16 2 8 6 2 Non-metal
Chlorine Cl 17 35, 37 18, 20 2 8 7 1 Non-metal
Argon Ar 18 40 22 2 8 8 0 Noble gas
Potassium K 19 39 20 2 8 8 1 1 Metal
Calcium Ca 20 40 20 2 8 8 2 2 Metal
2P 3P 4P
1P
2n 4n 5n
5P 6P 7P 8P
6n 6n 7n 8n
Activity 3 Activity 4
Look at the model given below. Make groups Draw the structures of the isotopes of oxygen
of five. Each group can make models of 4 O16 and O18
elements by using Atomic number of oxygen = 8
available materials
like balls, beads,
string etc. 11.6.2 Isobars
Let us consider two elements – calcium (atomic
number 20), and argon (atomic number 18).
Isotopes, Isobars and
11.6 Isotones
11.6.1 Isotopes
In nature, a number of atoms of
elements have been identified, which have
the same atomic number but different mass
numbers. For example, take the case of Figure 11.10 Isobars
hydrogen atom, it has three atomic species as
They have (Fig. 11.10) different number
shown below:
of protons and electrons. But, the mass number
of both these elements is 40. It follows that the
total number of nucleons in both the atoms
are the same. They are called isobars. Atoms
of different elements with different atomic
numbers, and same mass number are known as
isobars.
Figure 11.9 Isotopes
More to Know
The atomic number of all the three
isotopes is 1, but the mass number is 1, 2 and Thumb rule for isotopes and isobars.
3, respectively. Other such examples are: Remember t for top and b for bottom.
35
i) carbon,12C, 136C ii) Chlorine 17Cl 37Cl Isotope: Top value changes – Atomic mass
6 17
On the basis of these examples, Isobars: Bottom value changes – Atomic
isotopes are defined as the different atoms number
of the same element, having same atomic
number but different mass numbers. There 11.6.3 Isotones
are two types of isotopes: stable and unstable.
The isotopes which are unstable, as a result
of the extra neutrons in their nuclei are
radioactive and are called radioisotopes.
For example, uranium-235, which is a source
of nuclear reactors, and cobalt-60, which
is used in radiotherapy treatment are both
radioisotopes. Figure 11.11 Isotones
}
Ratio of different mass of hydrogen
(4g) and oxygen (32g) that combines 4:32 (or) 1:8---(1) 11.8 Quantum Numbers
with same mass of carbon When you specify the location of a
Now, hydrogen and oxygen combine to building, you usually list which country it is
form water (H2O). in, which state and city it is in that country.
Ratio of mass of Just like we have four ways of defining the
hydrogen to oxygen = 2:16 (or) 1:8 ---(2)
location of a building (country, state, city, and
From 1 and 2, the ratio is the same as that street address), we have four ways of defining
of the first obtained. Thus, the law of reciprocal the properties of an electron, i.e.four quantum
proportion is illustrated. numbers.
Thus, the numbers which designate
11.7.3 Gay Lussac’s Law of
and distinguish various atomic orbitals
Combining Volumes
and electrons present in an atom are called
According to Gay Lussac’s Law, whenever quantum numbers.
gases react together, the volumes of the Four types of Quantum number are as follows:
reacting gases bear a simple ratio, and the
ratio is extended to the product when the Information
Quantum Number Symbol
product is also in gaseous state, provided conveyed
all the volumes are measured under similar Principal quantum n Main energy
conditions of temperature and pressure. number level
This law may be illustrated by the following Azimuthal quantum l Sub shell/
example. number shape of orbital
It has been experimentally observed that Magnetic quantum m Orientation of
two volumes of hydrogen reacts with one number orbitals
volume of oxygen to form two volumes of water Spin quantum s Spin of the
as shown in the figure 11.12. number electron
The ratio of volume which gases bears is You will learn more details about this in
2:1:2 which is a simple whole number ratio. higher classes.
GLOSSARY
Atom The smallest component of an element which takes part in a chemical
reaction.
Electron A stable subatomic particle with a charge of negative electricity, found in all
atoms and acting as the primary carrier of electricity in solids.
Neutron A subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric
charge, present in all atomic nuclei except those of ordinary hydrogen.
Orbitals Atomic orbitals are region of space around the nucleus of an atom where an
electron is likely to be found.
Proton A stable subatomic particle occurring in all atomic nuclei, with a positive
electric charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron.
Quantum numbers The numbers which designate and distinguish various atomic orbitals and
electrons present in an atom.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
II. State true or false. If false, correct the VI. Answer very briefly.
statement.
1. Name an element which has the same
1. In an atom, electrons revolve around the number of electrons in its first and second
nucleus in fixed orbits. shell.
2. Isotopes of an element have different atomic 2. Write the electronic configuration of K and
numbers. Cl
3. Electrons have negligible mass and charge. 3. Write down the names of the particles
4. Smaller the size of the orbit, lower is the represented by the following symbols and
energy of the orbit. explain the meaning of superscript and
5. The maximum number of electron in L Shell subscript numbers attached.
is 10. 1
H1, 0n1, –1e0
4. For an atom ‘X’, K, L and M shells are
III. Fill in the blanks. completely filled. How many electrons will
1. Calcium and Argon are examples of a pair be present in it?
of _________________ 5. What is the same about the electron
structures of:
2. Total number of electrons that can be
accommodated in an orbit is given by a. Lithium, Sodium and Potassium.
______________ b. Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium.
Concept Map
Electrons Energy shell
Isotopes
Neutrons
Atoms Isobars
Isotones
n+P= Nucleus Chemical combination
mass number
Electronic configuration
Atomic number of atoms
Valency
ICT CORNER
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atoms are building blocks. They are made of neutrons, protons and electrons.
This activity help the students to explore more about atoms and its components.
Step 1. Type the following URL in the browser or scan the QR code from your mobile.You
can see on the screen. Click that.
Step 2. S elect atom. Atomic orbit you can see with multiple options. Select protons,
neutrons and electrons to their respective places. According to their numbers name of the elements appear
on the periodic table. You can also find out whether the selected element is neutral or charged(ions)
Step 3. click“symbol”now. When you arrange electrons, neutrons and protons on the orbits you can see the
name of the element, it’s atomic number, atomic mass and number of electrons.
Step 4. Third option is games. It’s an evaluation one to test your understanding
URL: https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/build-an-atom/latest/build-an-atom_en.html
UNIT
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION
12 OF ELEMENTS
Learning Objectives
138
(6.9 + 39.1)/2 = 23. So the atomic mass of Na Some elements, totally dissimilar in their
(middle element) is 23. properties, were fitted into the same group.
Limitations: (Arrangement of Co, Ni, Pd, Pt and Ir in the
row of halogens)
Dobereiner could identify only three triads
The law of octaves was not valid for elements
from the elements known at that time and
that had atomic masses higher than that of
all elements could not be classified in the
calcium.
form of triads.
The law was not applicable to elements Newlands’ table was restricted to only 56
having very low and very high atomic elements and did not leave any room for
mass. new elements.
Discovery of inert gases (Neon. Argon….)
12.1.2 Newlands’ Law at later stage made the 9th element similar
of Octaves to the first one. Eg: Neon between Fluorine
In 1866, John Newlands arranged 56 and Sodium.
known elements in the increasing order of their 12.1.3 Mendeleev’s Periodic
atomic mass. He observed that every eighth
Table
element had properties similar to those of the
first element like the eighth note in an octave of In 1869, Russian chemist, Dmitri
music is similar to the first. This arrangement Mendeleev observed that the elements of similar
was known as 'law of octaves'. properties repeat at regular intervals when the
elements are arranged in the order of their
The octave of Indian music system is sa, atomic masses. Based on this, he proposed the
re, ga, ma, pa, da, ni, sa. The first and last notes law of periodicity which states that “the physical
of this octave are same i.e. sa. Likewise, in the and chemical properties of the elements are
Newlands’ table of octaves, the element ‘F’ is the periodic functions of their atomic masses”.
eighth from the element ‘H’, thus they have He arranged 56 elements known at that time
similar properties. according to his law of periodicity. This was best
known as the short form of periodic table.
Activity 1
(a) Features of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table:
Find the pair of elements having similar It has eight vertical columns called ‘groups’
properties by applying Newlands’ law of and seven horizontal rows called ‘period’.
Octaves (Example: Mg & Ca): Each group has two subgroups ‘A’ and ‘B’.
Set I : F, Mg, C, O, B All the elements appearing in a group were
Set II: Al, Si, S, Cl, Ca found to have similar properties.
For the first time, elements were
Limitations:
comprehensively classified in such a way
There are instances of two elements being that elements of similar properties were
fitted into the same slot, e.g. cobalt and nickel. placed in the same group.
It was noticed that certain elements could and Eka Silicon to those elements which
not be placed in their proper groups in this were to be placed below Aluminium
manner. The reason for this was wrongly and Silicon respectively in the periodic
determined atomic masses. Consequently table and predicted their properties. The
those wrong atomic masses were corrected. discovery of Germanium later on, during
Eg: The atomic mass of beryllium was known his life time, proved him correct.
to be 14. Mendeleev reassessed it as 9 and
assigned beryllium a proper place. (b) Limitations:
Columns were left vacant for elements Elements with large difference in properties
which were not known at that time and their were included in the same group. Eg: Hard
properties also were predicted. This gave metals like copper (Cu) and silver (Ag)
motivation to experiment in Chemistry. were included along with soft metals like
Eg: Mendeleev gave names Eka Aluminium sodium (Na) and potassium (K).
Table 12.3 Mendeleev's Periodic Table
Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Oxide: R 2O RO R2 O3 RO2 R 2O 5 RO3 R 2O 7
RO4
Hydride: RH RH4 RH4 RH4 RH3 RH2 RH
Periods A B A B A B A B A B A B A B Transition series
H
1
1.008
Li Be B C N O F
2
6.939 9.012 10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.988
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
3
22.99 22.99 24.31 28.09 30.974 32.06 35.453
4 First K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn
Series 39.102 40.08 44.96 47.90 50.94 50.20 54.94 Fe Co Ni
Second Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br 55.85 58.93 58.71
series 63.54 65.54 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.909
5 First Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc
Series 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 99 Ru Rh Pd
Second Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I 101.07 102.91 106.4
series 107.87 112.40 114.82 118.69 121.60 127.60 126.90
6 First Cs Ba La Hf Ta W
Series 132.90 137.34 138.91 178.40 180.95 183.85 Os Ir Pt
Second Au Hg Tl Pb Bi 190.2 192.2 195.05
series 196.97 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.98
Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U
7
222 223 226 227 232 231 238
IX_SCI_EM_Unit-12_CHE.indd 142
1 1.008 2 4.0026
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
PERIOD
POTASSIUM CALCIUM SCANDIUM TITANIUM VANADIUM CHROMIUM MANGANESE IRON COBALT NICKEL COPPER ZINC GALLIUM GERMANIUM ARSENIC SELENIUM BROMINE KRYPTON
37 85.468 38 87.62 39 88.906 40 91.224 41 92.906 42 95.95 43 (98) 44 101.07 45 102.91 46 106.42 47 107.87 48 112.41 49 114.82 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.60 53 126.90 54 131.29
142
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
RUBIDIUM STRONTIUM YTTRIUM ZIRCONIUM NIOBIUM MOLYBDENUM TECHNETIUM RUTHENIUM RHODIUM PALLADIUM SILVER CADMIUM INDIUM TIN ANTIMONY TELLURIUM IODINE XENON
55 132.91 56 137.33 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22 78 195.08 79 196.97 80 200.59 81 204.38 82 207.2 83 208.98 84 (209) 85 (210) 86 (222)
57-71
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6 Cs Ba La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
CAESIUM BARIUM
Lanthanide HAFNIUM TANTALUM TUNGSTEN RHENIUM OSMIUM IRIDIUM PLATINUM GOLD MERCURY THALLIUM LEAD BISMUTH POLONIUM ASTATINE RADON
87 (223) 88 (226) (267) 105 (268) 106 (271) 107 (272) 108 (277) 109 (276) 110 (281) 111 (280) 112 (285) 113 (285) 114 (287) 115 (289) 116 (291) 117 (294) 118 (294)
89-103 104
7 Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
FRANCIUM RADIUM Actinide RUTHERFORDIUM DUBNIUM SEABORGIUM BOHRIUM HASSIUM MEITNERIUM DARMSTADTIUM ROENTGENIUM COPERNICIUM NIHONIUM FLEROVIUM MOSCOVIUM LIVERMORIUM TENNESSINE OGANESSON
LANTHANIDE
57 138.91 58 140.12 59 140.91 60 144.24 61 (145) 62 150.36 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 167.26 69 168.93 70 173.05 71 174.97
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
LANTHANUM CERIUM PRASEODYMIUM NEODYMIUM PROMETHIUM SAMARIUM EUROPIUM GADOLINIUM TERBIUM DYSPROSIUM HOLMIUM ERBIUM THULIUM YTTERBIUM LUTETIUM
ACTINIDE
89 (227) 90 232.04 91 231.04 92 238.03 93 (237) 94 (244) 95 (243) 96 (247) 97 (247) 98 (251) 99 (252) 100 (257) 101 (258) 102 (259) 103 (262)
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
ACTINIUM THORIUM PROTACTINIUM URANIUM NEPTUNIUM PLUTONIUM AMERICIUM CURIUM BERKELIUM CALIFORNIUM EINSTEINIUM FERMIUM MENDELEVIUM NOBELIUM LAWRENCIUM
06-02-2020 12:24:07
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In the periodic table, it is placed at the top (i) Alkali metals. e.g. Lithium to Francium
of the alkali metals. (top to bottom)
(i) Hydrogen can lose its only one electron to (ii) Alkaline earth metals. e.g: Beryllium to
form a hydrogen ion (H+) like alkali metals. Radium (top to bottom)
(ii) It can also gain one electron to form the (iii) Transition Metals. Group 3 to 12
hydride ion (H-) like halogens. (iv) p-block metals. e.g: Al, Ga, In, Tl, Sn, Pb
(iii) Alkali metals are solids while hydrogen is a and Bi.
gas. 4.3.2. Non-metals
Hence the position of hydrogen in the A non-metal is an element that does
modern periodic table is still under debate as not have the characters like hardness, shiny,
the properties of hydrogen are unique. malleable, suitable and ductile. In other words,
12.2.6. Position of Rare Gases a non-metal is an element that does not have the
properties of metal. All non metals are arranged
The elements Helium, Neon, Argon, in p-block only. E.g. C, N, O, P, S, Se, Halogen
Krypton, Xenon and Radon of group 18 in (F, Cl, Br and I) and inert gases (He to Rn).
the periodic table are called as Noble gases or
Rare gases. They are monoatomic gases and 12.3.3 Metalloids
do not react with other substances easily, due Elements which have the properties of both
to completely filled subshells. Hence they are metals and non-metals are called as metalloids.
called as inert gases. They are found in very small (eg) Boron, Arsenic.
quantities and hence they are called as rare gases.
12.4 Alloys
12.3 Metals, Non-Metals During 3500 BC(BCE),
and Metalloids people used an alloy named
‘bronze’. The idea of making
12.3.1 Metals
an alloy was quite old. The
Metals are typically hard, shiny, malleable majority of the metallic
(can be made as sheet), fusible and ductile (can substances used today are
be drawn into wire) with good electrical and alloys. Alloys are mixtures of two or more
thermal conductivity. Except mercury, most metals and are formed by mixing molten metals
of the metals are solids at room temperature. thoroughly. Rarely nonmetals are also mixed
Metals occupy larger area in the periodic table with metals to produce alloys.
and are categorized as:
GLOSSARY
Dobereiner’s Law of Triads The atomic mass of the middle element is nearly the same
as average of atomic masses of other two elements.
Newlands’ Law of Octaves Every eighth element had properties similar to those of the
first element like the eighth note in an octave of music is
similar to the first.
Mendeleev’s Law of Periodicity The physical and chemical properties of the elements are
the periodic functions of their atomic masses.
Modern Periodic Law The chemical and physical properties of the elements are
the periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
Periods Horizontal rows in the modern periodic table.
Columns Vertical columns in the modern periodic table
s block elements Elements whose valence electrons are added to s subshell.
p block elements Elements whose valence electrons are filled in p subshells.
d block elements Elements having their valence electrons in the d subshells.
f block elements Elements having their valence electrons in the f subshells.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
INTERNET RESOURCES
1. https://www.ptable.com/ 4. https://sciencestruck.com/periodic-table-
2. https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic- facts
table-of-elements/ 5. https://ww.teachbeside.com/memorize-
3. www.rsc.org/periodic-table periodictable
Concept Map
UNIT
13 CHEMICAL BONDING
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Nitrogen 7 2, 5 5
13.3 Types of chemical bond
Oxygen 8 2,6 6
All the elements have
Sodium 11 2, 8, 1 1 different valence shell
electronic configuration.
So the way in which they
13.2 Lewis dot structure combine to form compounds
When atoms combine to form also differs. Hence, there are
compounds, their valence electrons involve different types of chemical bonding possible
in bonding. Therefore, it is helpful to have between atoms which make the molecules.
a method to depict the valence electrons in Depending on the type of bond, they show
the atoms. This can be done using Lewis dot different characteristics or properties. Such
symbol method. The Lewis dot structure or types of bonding, that are considered to exist
electron dot symbol for an atom consists of in molecules, are categorized as shown Figure
the symbol of the element surrounded by 13.5. Among these, let us learn about the Ionic
dots representing the electrons of the valence bond, Covalent bond and Coordinate bond
shell of the atom. The unpaired electron in in this chapter and other types of bond in the
the valence shell is represented by a single dot higher classes.
whereas the paired electrons are represented
by a pair of dots. 13.3.1
Ionic (or) Electrovalent
bond
Symbols other than dots, like crosses or
circles may be used to differentiate the electrons An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed
of the different atoms in the molecule. by the electrostatic attraction between
Chemical Bonding 150
positive and negative ions. The bond is containing ionic bonds are called ionic
formed between two atoms when one or more compounds. Elements of Group 1 and 2 in
electrons are transferred from the valence periodic table, i.e. alkali and alkaline earth
shell of one atom to the valence shell of the metals form ionic compounds when they react
other atom. The atom that loses electrons with non-metals.
will form a cation (positive ion) and the
atom that gains electrons will form an anion
More to Know
(negative ion). These oppositely charged ions
come closer to each other due to electrostatic The number of electrons that an
force of attraction and thus form an ionic atom of an element loses or gains to
bond. As the bond is between the ions, it is form an electrovalent bond is called its
called Ionic bond and the attractive forces Electrovalency.
being electrostatic, the bond is also called
Electrostatic bond. Since the valence concept
has been explained in terms of electrons, it is
Illustration 1 – Formation of ionic bonding
also called as Electrovalent bond. in sodium chloride (NaCl)
Formation of ionic bond
The atomic number of Sodium is 11
Let us consider two atoms A and B. Let and its electronic configuration is 2, 8, 1. It
atom A has one electron in excess and atom B has one electron excess to the nearest stable
has one electron lesser than the stable octet electronic configuration of a noble gas -
electronic configuration. If atom A transfer Neon. So sodium has a tendency to lose one
one electron to atom B, then both the atoms will electron from its outermost shell and acquire
acquire stable octet electronic configuration. a stable electronic configuration forming
As the result of this electron transfer, atom A sodium cation (Na+).
will become positive ion (cation) and atom
The atomic number of chlorine is 17
B will become negative ion (anion). These
and its electronic configuration is 2, 8, 7. It
oppositely charged ions are held together by
has one electron less to the nearest stable
electrostatic force of attraction which is called
electronic configuration of a noble gas -
Ionic bond or Electrovalent bond.
Argon. So chlorine has a tendency to gain
In general, ionic bond is formed between one electron to acquire a stable electronic
a metal and non-metal. The compounds configuration forming chloride anion (Cl−).
Chemical bonding
Van der
Ionic Covalent Coordinate Metallic Hydrogen
walls
bond bond bond bond bond
interaction
As explained earlier two chlorine atoms will Density, hardness and brittleness: Ionic
gain two electrons lost by the magnesium atom compounds have high density and they are
forming magnesium chloride molecule (MgCl2) quite hard because of the strong electrostatic
as shown in Figure 13.7. force between the ions. But they are highly
brittle.
Characteristics of Ionic compounds
Reactions: Ionic compounds undergo ionic
The nature of bonding between the reactions which are practically rapid and
atoms of a molecule is the primary factor that instantaneous.
13.3.2
Covalent bond Illustration 1 – Formation of hydrogen
molecule (H2)
Atoms can combine with each other
by sharing the unpaired electrons in their Hydrogen molecule is formed by two
outermost shell. Each of the two combining hydrogen atoms. While forming the molecule,
atoms contributes one electron to the electron both hydrogen atoms contribute one electron
pair which is needed for the bond formation each to the shared pair and both atoms
and has equal claim on the shared electron acquire stable and completely filled electronic
pair. According to Lewis concept, when two configuration (resembly He).
atoms form a covalent bond between them,
each of the atoms attains the stable electronic Shared pair of electrons
configuration of the nearest noble gas. Since
the covalent bond is formed because of the
sharing of electrons which become common to Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen
both the atoms, it is also called as atomic bond. atom atom molecule
Ax B A x B (OR) A B
vFigure. 13.8 Schematic representation of
Chloride Chloride Chloride
covalent bond atom atom molecule
Figure. 13.10 Formation of covalent bond in
More to Know Cl2 molecule
Covalent bonds are of three types:
Illustration 3 – Formation of methane
1. Single covalent bond represented by a line
molecule (CH4)
(—) between the two atoms. Eg. H—H
2. Double covalent bond represented by a Methane molecule is formed by the
double line (=) between the two atoms. combination of one carbon and four hydrogen
atoms. The carbon atom has four valence
Eg. O=O
electrons (2, 4). These four electrons are shared
3. Triple covalent bond represented by a
with four atoms of hydrogen to achieve a stable
triple line (≡) between the two atoms. electronic configuration (octet) by sharing a
Eg. N ≡ N pair of electrons.
H N B F H N B F
H F H F
NH3 BF3 NH3 BF3 Oxidation: The chemical reaction which
involves addition of oxygen or removal of
Characteristics of coordinate covalent hydrogen or loss of electrons is called oxidation.
compounds
2 Mg + O2→2 MgO (addition of oxygen)
The compounds containing coordinate CaH2→ Ca + H2 (removal of hydrogen)
covalent bonds are called coordinate compounds. Fe2+→Fe3+ + e− (loss of electron)
Physical state: These compounds exist as Reduction: The chemical reaction which
gases, liquids or solids. involves addition of hydrogen or removal of
Electrical conductivity: Like covalent oxygen or gain of electrons is called reduction.
compounds, coordinate compounds also do
2 Na + H2→ 2 NaH (addition of hydrogen)
not contain charged particles (ions), so they
CuO + H2→ Cu + H2O (removal of oxygen)
are bad conductors of electricity.
Fe3++ e−→Fe2+ (gain of electron)
Melting point: These compounds have melting
Redox reactions: Generally, the oxidation
and boiling points higher than those of purely
and reduction occurs in the same reaction
covalent compounds but lower than those of
(simultaneously). If one reactant gets oxidised,
purely ionic compounds.
the other gets reduced. Such reactions are
Solubility: Insoluble in polar solvents like called oxidation-reduction reactions or Redox
water but are soluble in non-polar solvents like reactions.
benzene, CCl4, and toluene. 2 PbO + C → 2 Pb + CO2
Zn + CuSO4→ Cu + ZnSO4
Reactions: Coordinate covalent compounds
undergo molecular reactions which are slow.
Addition of oxygen
Oxidation Removal of hydrogen
Loss of electron
13.4 Oxidation, Reduction
Removal of oxygen
and Redox reactions
Reduction Addition of hydrogen
When an apple is cut and left for sometimes, Gain of electron
its surface turns brown. Similarly, iron bolts and
nuts in metallic structures get rusted. Do you Oxidising agents and Reducing agents
know why these are happening? It is because of Substances which have the ability to oxidise
a reaction called oxidation. other substances are called oxidising agents.
Chemical bond Force of attraction between the two atoms that binds them together
as a unit.
Coordinate covalent bond Bond formed between atoms by mutual sharing of electrons which
are supplied by one atom.
Covalent bond Bond formed between atoms by the mutual sharing of electrons.
Ionic / Electrovalent bond Bond formed between cation and anion because of the transfer of
electrons from one atom to other atom.
Octet rule or Rule of eight The tendency of atoms to have eight electrons in the valence shell.
Oxidation Chemical reaction which involves in the addition of oxygen or
removal of hydrogen or loss of electrons.
Oxidation number The formal charge which an atom has when electrons are counted.
Oxidising agents Substances which have the ability to oxidise other substances.
Redox reaction Oxidation and reduction occurs in the same reaction simultaneously.
Reducing agents Substances which have the ability to reduce other substances.
Reduction Chemical reaction which involves in the addition of hydrogen or
removal of oxygen or gain of electrons.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
4. Bond formed between a metal and non Atomic Electron Valence Lewis dot
Element
number distribution electrons structure
metal atom is usually __________
a) ionic bond b) covalent bond Lithium 3
c) coordinate bond
Boron 5
5. ______________ compounds have high
Oxygen 8
melting and boiling points.
a) Covalent b) Coordinate c) Ionic 7. Draw the electron distribution diagram for
6. Covalent bond is formed by __________ the formation of Carbon di oxide (CO2)
a) transfer of electrons molecule.
b) sharing of electrons 8. Fill in the following table according to
c) sharing a pair of electrons the type of bonds formed in the given
molecule. CaCl2, H2O, CaO, CO, KBr, HCl,
7. Oxidising agents are also called as
CCl4, HF, CO2, Al2Cl6
___________ because they remove
electrons form other substances.
Ionic bond Covalent Coordinate
a) electron donors b) electron acceptors bond covalent
bond
8. Elements with stable electronic
configurations have eight electrons in
their valence shell. They are ___
a) halogens b) metals
c) noble gases d) non metals
159 Chemical Bonding
Concept Map
Steps
• C
opy and paste the link given below or type the URL in the browser.
• In the Simulations section, scroll down and select Ionic & Covalent Bonding option.
• Select any two elements which are highlighted in the periodic table.
• Once selected, two options called Ionic Bond or Covalent Bond will appear. In it, click
any one of the options to find number of atoms option. Select the numbers and submit
the answers to verify.
UNIT
Learning Objectives
which means sour taste. Substances with sour The following table enlists various
taste are called acids. acids and the ions formed by them in water.
Table 14.1 Acid and its source
Table 14.2 Ions formed by acids
Source Acid Present
Molecular No. of
Apple Malic acid Acid Formula Ions formed replaceable
Lemon Citric acid hydrogen
Grape Tartaric acid Acetic
CH3COOH H+ CH3COO- 1
Acid
Tomato Oxalic acid
Formic
Vinegar Acetic acid HCOOH H+ HCOO- 1
Acid
Curd Lactic acid
Nitric Acid HNO3 H+ NO3- 1
Orange Ascorbic acid
Tea Tannic acid Sulphuric
H2SO4 2H+ SO42-
Acid 2
Stomach juice Hydrochloric acid
Stings of Ant, Bee Formic acid Phosphoric
H3PO4 3H+ PO43-
Acid 3
In 1884, a Swedish chemist Svante
Arrhenius proposed a theory on acids and 14.1.1 Classification of Acids
bases. According to Arrhenius theory, an acid
Acids are classified in different ways as
is a substance which furnishes H+ ions or
given below:
H3O+ ions in aqueous solution. They contain
one or more replaceable hydrogen atoms. For (a) Based on their sources:
example, when hydrogen chloride is dissolved Organic Acids: Acids present in plants and
in water, it gives H1 and Cl2 ions in water. animals (living things) are organic acids.
HCl(aq)→H1(aq)1 Cl2(aq) Example: HCOOH, CH3COOH
What happens to an acid or a base in Inorganic Acids: Acids prepared from rocks
water? Do acids produce ions only in aqueous and minerals are inorganic acids or mineral
solution? Hydrogen ions in HCl are produced acids. Example: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4
in the presence of water. The separation of H+ (b) Based on their Basicity
ion from HCl molecules cannot occur in the
absence of water. Monobasic Acid: Acid that contain only one
replaceable hydrogen atom per molecule is
HCl 1 H2O → H3O1 1 Cl2 called monobasic acid. It gives one hydrogen ion
Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, per molecule of the acid in solution. Example:
but they exist in combined state with water HCl, HNO3
molecules. Thus, hydrogen ions must always
For acids, we use the term
be H+ (or) Hydronium (H3O+).
basicity that refers to the number
H+ + H2O → H3O+ of replaceable hydrogen atoms
All acids essentially present in one molecule of an
contain one or more hydrogens. acid. For example, acetic acid (CH3COOH)
But all the hydrogen containing has four hydrogen atoms but only one can
substances are not acids. For be replaced. Hence it is monobasic.
example, methane (CH4) and ammonia Dibasic Acid: An acid which gives two
(NH3) also contain hydrogen. But they do hydrogen ions per molecule of the acid in
not produce H+ ions in aqueous solution. solution. Example: H2SO4, H2CO3
Tribasic Acid: An acid which gives three f) Acids react with metallic oxides to give
hydrogen ions per molecule of the acid in salt and water.
solution. Example: H3PO4
CaO + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O
(c) Based on Ionisation g) Acids react with bases to give salt and water.
Acids get ionised in water (produce H+ HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
ions) completely or partially. Based on the The reaction is known as neutralisation
extent of ionisation acids are classified as below. reaction.
Strong Acids: These are acids that ionise Activity 1
completely in water. Example: HCl
Take about 10 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid
Weak Acids: These are acids that ionise in a test tube and add a few pieces of zinc
partially in water. Example: CH3COOH. granules into it. What do you observe? Why
are bubbles formed in the solution? Take a
Ionisation is the condition burning candle near a bubble containing
of being dissociated into ions hydrogen gas, the flame goes off with a
by heat or radiation or chemical ‘Popping’ sound. This confirms that metal
reactions or electrical discharge. displaces hydrogen gas from the dilute acid.
'LOXWH+&O
beaker. Connect VROXWLRQ
5XEEHU
The term acidity is used for the nails to the FRUN
Zinc coated
screw
LED
Figure 14.3 Test for acid and base using
litmus paper
14.2.3 Uses of Bases
c) Test with an indicator Methyl orange:
(i) Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture
In acid medium, methyl orange is pink
of soap.
in colour. In basic medium, methyl orange is
(ii) Calcium hydroxide is used in white washing
yellow in colour.
of building.
(iii) Magnesium hydroxide is used as a medicine
for stomach disorder.
(iv) Ammonium hydroxide is used to remove
grease stains from cloths.
14.3 Tests for Acids and
Bases Figure 14.4 Test for acid and base using indicator
Activity 3
Collect the following samples from the science laboratory – Hydrochloric acid, Sulphuric acid and
Nitric acid, Sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide. Take 2 ml of each solution in a test tube and test
with a litmus paper and indicators phenolphthalein and Methyl orange. Tabulate your observations.
Sample Litmus Paper Indicators
Solutions Blue Red Phenolphthalein Methyl Orange
Hydrochloric acid
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Sodium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
14.4 Strenght of Acidic Double Salts: Double salts are formed by the
or Basic solutions combination of the saturated solution of two
simple salts in equimolar ratio followed by
pH Scale crystallization. For example, potash alum is a
A scale for measuring hydrogen ion mixture of potassium sulphate and aluminium
concentration in a solution is called pH scale. sulphate. KAl(SO4)2·12H2O
The ‘p’ in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German
meaning power. pH scale is a set of numbers 14.5.2 Properties of Salts
from 0 to 14 which is used to indicate whether a
99 Salts are mostly solids which melt as well as
solution is acidic, basic or neutral.
boil at high temperature.
99 Acids have pH less than 7
99 Most of the salts are soluble in water. For
99 Bases have pH greater than 7 example, chloride salts of potassium and
99 A neutral solution has pH equal to 7 sodium are soluble in water. But, silver
chloride is insoluble in water
14.5 Salts 99 They are odourless, mostly white, cubic
When you say salt, you crystals or crystalline powder with salty taste.
may think of the common 99 Salt is hygroscopic in nature.
salt. Sea water contains
many salts dissolved in 14.5.3 Water of Crystallisation
it. Sodium chloride is Many salts are found as crystals with water
separated from these salts. molecules. These water molecules are known as
There are many other salts used in other fields. water of crystallisation. Salts that contain water
Salts are the products of the reaction between of crystallisation are called hydrated salts. The
acids and bases. Salts produce positive ions number of molecules of water hydrated to a salt
and negative ions when dissolved in water. is indicated after a dot in its chemical formula.
For example, copper sulphate crystal have five
Acid + Base → Salt + Water molecules of water for each molecule of copper
sulphate. It is written as CuSO4.5H2O and named
14.5.1 Types of Salts
as copper sulphate pentahydrate. This water of
Normal Salts: A normal salt is obtained by crystallisation makes the copper sulphate blue.
complete neutralization of an acid by a base. When it is heated, it loses its water molecules
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O and becomes white.
Basic Salts: Basic salts are formed by the Salts that do not contain water of
partial replacement of hydroxide ions of a crystallisation are called anhydrous salt. They
diacidic or triacidic base with an acid radical. are generally found as powders. Fill in the blanks
in the following table based on the concept of
Pb(OH)2 + HCl → Pb(OH)Cl + H2O water of crystallisation.
Acids, Bases and Salts 168
Activity 4
Fill in the blanks in the following table based on the concept of water of crystallisation.
Salt Formula of Formula of Name of hydrated salt
anhydrous salt hydrated salt
Zinc sulphate ZnSO4 ZnSO4. 7H2O
Magnesium chloride MgCl2 Magnesium chloride hexahydrate
Iron (II) sulphate FeSO4.7H2O Iron (II) sulphate heptahydrate
Calcium chloride CaCl2 CaCl2.2H2O
Sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 Sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate
Certain salts on reacting with iv. It neutralizes excess acid in the stomach
concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) form and provides relief.
their chlorides. The paste of the mixture with Bleaching powder
con. HCl is introduced into the flame with (Calcium Oxychloride - CaOCl2)
the help of platinum wire. i. It is used as disinfectant.
ii. It is used in textile industry for bleaching
Colour of the flame Inference
cotton and linen.
Brick red Ca2+
Plaster of Paris (Calcium Sulphate
Golden Yellow Na+ Hemihydrate - CaSO4 .½ H2O)
Pink Violet K+ i. It is used for plastering bones.
Green Fleshes Zn2+ ii. It is used for making casts for statues.
GLOSSARY
Acids Substance which furnishes H+ ions H3O+ ions when dissolved in water.
Bases Substance which furnishes OH- ions when dissolved in water.
Salts Product of reaction between acids and bases.
Indicators Chemical substances used to find out whether the given solution is acid or base.
pH Scale Scale used to find out Hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
pH Paper Paper used to find out whether the given solution is acidie or basic or neutral in nature.
Aquaregia Mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid prepared optimally in a molar ratio of 3 : 1.
Hygroscopic
Substance which absorbs water from the surroundings.
substance
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
(i) Find out acid A and acid B. (ii) Which 3. Write any four uses of bases.
acid is called the King of Chemicals? 4. Write any five uses of salts.
7. Define aquaregia. 5. Sulphuric acid is called King of Chemicals.
8. Correct the mistakes: Why is it called so?
a) Washing soda is used for making cakes
and bread soft, spongy. REFERENCE BOOKS
b) Calcium sulphate hemihydrate is used 1. Chemistry-Lakhmir Singh & Manjit Kaur
in textile industry for bleaching cloths.
2. Practical Chemistry-Dr. N.K. Verma
9. What is neutralization reaction? Give an
example.
III. Answer in detail. INTERNET RESOURCES
1. Differentiate hydrate and anhydrous salts 1. https:/www.thoughtco.com
with examples. 2. Aquaregia Wikipedia
2. Give the tests to identify Acids and Bases. 3. https:/scienceing.com>Chemistry
Concept Map
UNIT
CARBON AND
15 ITS COMPOUNDS
Learning Objectives
172
They focused the Sun’s rays on the diamond with obtain carbon compounds both from living
a remarkable giant magnifying glass and saw the things as well as non-living matter. Thus, in the
diamond burn and disappear. Lavoisier noted early 19th century, Berzelius classified carbon
that the overall weight of the jar was unchanged compounds based on their source as follows:
and that when it burned, the diamond had Organic Carbon Compounds: These are the
combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. compounds of carbon obtained from living
He concluded that diamond and charcoal were organisms such as plants and animals. e.g.
made of the same element – carbon. Ethanol, cellulose, Starch.
In 1779, Swedish scientist Carl Scheele Inorganic Carbon Compounds: These are the
showed that graphite also burned to form compounds containing carbon but obtained
carbon dioxide. In 1796, English chemist from non-living matter. e.g. Calcium Carbonate,
Smithson Tennant established that diamond Carbon Monoxide, Carbon dioxide.
is pure carbon and not a compound of carbon
15.2.1 Organic Compounds of
and it burned to form only carbon dioxide.
Tennant also proved that when equal weights Carbon
of charcoal and diamonds were burned, they There are millions of organic carbon
produced the same amount of carbon dioxide. compounds available in nature and also
In 1855, English chemist Benjamin Brodie synthesized manually. Organic carbon compounds
produced pure graphite from carbon, proving contain carbon connected with other elements
graphite is a form of carbon. Although it had like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur etc.
been previously attempted without success, in Thus, depending on the nature of other elements
1955 American scientist Francis Bundy and his and the way in which they are connected with
co-workers at 'General Electric' company finally carbon, there are various classes of organic carbon
demonstrated that graphite could be transformed compounds such as hydrocarbons, alcohols,
into diamond at high temperature and pressure. aldehydes and ketones, carboxylic acids, amino
In 1985, Robert Curl, Harry Kroto and acids, etc. You will study about organic carbon
Richard Smalley discovered fullerenes, a new compounds in your higher classes.
form of carbon in which the atoms are arranged 15.2.2 Inorganic Compounds of
in soccer-ball shapes. Graphene, consists of
Carbon
a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in
As compared to organic compounds, the
hexagons. Graphene’s discovery was announced
number of inorganic carbon compounds are
in 2004 by Kostya Novoselov and Andre Geim,
limited. Among them oxides, carbides, sulphides,
who used adhesive tape to detach a single layer
cyanides, carbonates and bicarbonates are the
of atoms from graphite to produce the new
major classes of inorganic carbon compounds.
allotrope. If these layers were stacked upon one
Formation, properties and uses of some of these
other, graphite would be the result. Graphene
compounds are given in Table 15.1.
has a thickness of just one atom.
of carbon is less, the number of carbon to form linear chain, branched chain or ring
compounds alone is more than the number of structure.
compounds of all the elements taken together.
Why is it that this property is seen in carbon c
Catenation is binding c c c c c c c
This property of carbon itself is the reason for know, the nature of bonding in a compound
the presence of large number of organic carbon is the primary factor which determines the
compounds. So organic chemistry essentially physical and chemical characteristics of
deals with catenated carbon compounds. a compound. So, the ability of carbon to
form multiple bonds is the main reason for
Activity 1 the existance of various classes of carbon
With the help of your teacher, try compounds. Table 15.2 shows one of such
to classify the following as organic and classes of compounds called ‘hydrocarbons’
inorganic compounds. and the type of bonding in them.
Table 15.2 Hydrocarbon
HCN, CO2, Propane, PVC, CO, Kerosene,
LPG, Coconut oil, Wood, Perfume, Alcohol, Type of Class of the
Example
Na2CO3, CaCO3. MgO, Cotton, Petrol. bond compound
Vander Waals
Bonds 3.354 A
(c) Find in the resin code on plastic items If you do not find it
The secret resin codes are shown as three on the bottom, search
chasing arrows in a triangle. There is a number for the code on the
in the middle or letters under the triangle label.
(an acronym of that plastic type). This is usually
difficult to find. It can be found on the label or
bottom of a plastic item.
The resin codes are numbered from 1 to 7.
Resin codes #1 to #6 each identify a certain type
of plastic that is often used in products. Resin Some plastics do
code #7 is a category which is used for every not have a code. The
other plastic (since 1988) that does not fit into company did not
the categories #1 to #6. The resin codes look follow the rules and
very similar to the recycling symbol, but this you do not know if it
does not mean that all plastics with a code can is safe to use.
be recycled.
PS – Polystyrene plastics
• Styrene is a building Figure 15.5 One-time use plastic items
block of this plastic and
These items take a few seconds to be made
may cause cancer.
in a factory. You will use them for a very short
• It takes very long
time. Once you throw them away, they can
time to break-down
stay in our environment for over a 1,000 years
(100- 1 million years).
causing plastic pollution for future generations.
• Higher amounts of toxic styrene leak into our
We need rules and laws to protect people and
food and drinks when they are hot or oily.
the environment from plastic pollution.
PC – Polycarbonate plastics
• PC plastic contains Bisphenol A (BPA). 15.8 New rules to make
• BPA leaks out of PC products used for Tamil Nadu plastic free
food and drinks. As we know, the Government of India is
• BPA increases or decreases certain hormones progressively taking various legal initiatives
and changes the way our bodies work. to stop plastic pollution by making some
Carbon and its Compounds 180
provisions and amendments in the Environment • The blue print (ink) on the clear plastic
(Protection) Act, 1988. With reference to this pouch decreases the recycling value.
act, Government of Tamil Nadu has taken a step • Once a water pouch is used, it is difficult
forward to ban the usage of some kind of plastic to recycle as it contains leftover water and
items (Environment and Forests Department, gets covered in dirt.
T.N. G.O. No: 84, dated 25/06/2018). Plastic straws
As per the government order cited above, • Plastic straws are too light and small to
the Tamil Nadu Government has banned the be recycled.
usage of one-time use and throwaway plastics • Straws are one of the top 10 items which are
from 1st January 2019. This excellent legislation found in the plastic pollution in oceans.
is designed to protect Tamil Nadu from plastic • 90% of seabirds have ingested plastics such
pollution. as straws.
Rules which ban the production, storage,
Plastic sheets
supply, transport, sale and distribution of one-
• Plastic sheets used on top of plates get
time use plastics are extremely effective. They
dirty and cannot be recycled.
are successful because they target all sections
• More chemicals leak from plastic into food
of society–manufacturer, supplier, shopkeeper
when it is hot, spicy or oily.
and customer. This progressive initiative taken
• Animals such as cows, goats, and dogs eat
by the State of Tamil Nadu leads by example for
plastic by accident because it smells like food.
the rest of the nation.
You can find below some key aspects of the
new rules along with science-based facts why 15.9 Role of students in
these items have been banned in Tamil Nadu. the prevention of
plastic pollution
15.8.1 Banned items
You play a very important role and have
Plastic carry bags
the power to minimise plastic pollution. Ask
• Globally we use 2 million plastic bags yourself, is this plastic safe or harmful plastic?
each minute. If it is not a harmful plastic type, is it a one-
• 97% of plastic bags do not get recycled. time use plastic item? These questions and
• Animals eat plastic bags by accident as the science-based knowledge will help you to
they contain food. A cow was found with reduce unnecessary plastic pollution.
over 70 kilos of plastic in its stomach.
15.9.1 W
hat can you do to
Plastic plates
prevent plastic pollution?
• D irty plastics (like a used plate) are difficult
• As a student, you can share your scientific
to recycle.
knowledge on plastics and their effects
• Most of the one-time use plates are made
with your parents, relatives and friends to
from Polystyrene (resin code # 6) which
make them aware of plastic pollution.
is harmful to our health.
• You can help by teaching them how to
• Plates will be used for just 20 minutes but stay
avoid harmful plastics by searching for
in the environment for over a 1,000 years.
the resin codes.
Water pouches
• You can educate them about the new rules
• Water pouches are often littered,
and how important it is to stop one-time
increasing plastic pollution.
use plastics.
181 Carbon and its Compounds
GLOSSARY
Allotropes Different forms of an element.
Allotropy Property by which an element can exist in more than one form.
Catenation Binding of an element to itself or with other elements through covalent bonds.
Harmful plastics Plastic in which toxic and harmful chemicals are used.
Isomerism Phenomenon in which same molecular formula may exhibit different
structural arrangement.
Isomers Compounds that have same molecular formula but different structural formula.
One-time use plastic Use and throwaway plastics.
Organic carbon Compounds of carbon obtained from living organisms.
compounds
Plastics Major class of catenated organic carbon compounds made from liquid
polymers called ‘resins’ added with some additives.
Tetravalency Tendency of carbon to share its four electrons with that of other atoms to
complete its octet.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
IN T E R N E T R E S OU R C ES https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/
chapter/allotropes-of-carbon/
http://www.chemicool.com/elements/carbon. https://plastics.americanchemistr y.com/
html Plastic-Resin-Codes-PDF/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Obb982Sg84
Concept Map
Avogadro
URL: https://avogadro.cc/ or Scan the QR Code.
UNIT
16 APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Learning Objectives
185
iii. The detection of alcohol in drunken drivers elements and applications of radioisotopes to
is possible through the electrochemical various fields.
redox reaction of ethanol.
16.4.1 A pplications of
iv. Production of metals like aluminum
and titanium from their ores involve Radiochemistry
electrochemical reactions. Radioisotopes can easily be detected
v. Lead acid batteries, lithium-ion batteries and estimated quantitatively. So they are used
and fuel cells are based on electrochemical in radiochemistry for various applications.
cells. Fuel cell is used to bring about Radiochemistry mainly deals with study of
direct conversion of chemical energy into chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes
electrical energy. using radioisotopes. In addition to that it
could find applications in medical field and
16.4 Radiochemistry environmental management also. Let us list
important applications of radioisotopes.
You have studied in previous chapters that Radiocarbon dating: It is a method by which
elements can exist in nature as their isotopes. the age of fossil wood or animal is determined
Isotopes are atoms with same number of protons using C-14 isotope.
and electrons and a different number of neutrons.
Diagnosis: Radioisotopes are found very useful
Some isotopes are stable and stay forever. These
to diagnose and understanded many diseases.
are the elements that we see around us and find
in nature. However, some isotopes are unstable Table 16.2 Radioisotope in Diagnosis
and they undergo disintegration by losing their Radioisotope Diagnosis used for
energy in the form of radiation. As we studied
Iodine-131 Location and detection of
earlier, every element tries to attain stability by
brain tumor, thyroid gland
sharing, losing or gaining electrons (octet rule).
disorder.
Thus, the unstable isotopes of elements lose their
Sodium-24 Location of blood clot
energy in the form of radiation to become stable.
and circulation disorders,
This phenomenon is called radioactive
pumping action of heart.
decay. The isotope which undergoes radioactive
Iron-59 Diagnosis of anaemia,
decay is called radioactive isotope or
pregnancy disorder.
radioisotope. This property of isotopes is known
Cobalt-60 Diagnosis of cancer.
as radioactivity.
Hydrogen-3 Water content of the human
Uranium in the ground can body.
decay into radon gas which can Radiotherapy: Radioactive isotopes are
be very dangerous to humans. used in the treatment of many diseases. This
It is thought to be the second kind of treatment is called radiotherapy.
leading isotope to cause lung cancer. Table 16.3 Radioisotope in Treatment
Radiochemistry is the study of chemistry Radioisotope Treatment used for
of radioactive and non-radioactive isotopes. Gold-198 Cancer
It includes both natural and artificial isotopes. Iodine-131 Hyperthyroidism and cancer
Radiochemistry mainly deals with application Phosphorous-32 Blood disorder and skin
of radioisotopes to study the nature of chemical disease
reactions of non-radioactive isotopes of Cobalt-60 Cancer
(b) Based on Structure Soil Testing: Crop lands may have different kinds
Based on the structure, dyes are classified as: of soil with varying pH. Soil pH is one of the
• Azo dyes main criteria to be considered for the selection of
• Diphenyl methane dye crop or remediation of soil. Soil testing involves
• Triphenyl methane dye determination of pH, porosity and texture.
• Phthalein dye Chemical Fertilizers: Fertilizers are chemical
• Anthraquinone dye compounds added to crop field for supplying
• Indigo dyes essential micro and macro nutrients required
• Phthalo cyanine dye for crop growth. Ammonium nitrate, calcium
• Nitro and nitroso dyes phosphate, urea, NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorous
and Potassium), etc. are some of the fertilizers.
16.6 Agricultural and Food Depending on the nature of soil, these fertilizers
Chemistry are used singly or as mixtures.
Pesticides and Insecticides: Crops are prone to
16.6.1 Agricultural Chemistry diseases caused by pests and insects. Chemically
synthesized pesticides and insecticides are used
Agricultural chemistry involves the appli-
to solve these issues. Chlorinated hydrocarbons,
cation of chemical and biochemical knowledge
organophosphates and carbamates are used as
to agricultural production, processing of raw
pesticides and insecticides.
materials into foods and beverages, and envi-
ronmental monitoring and remediation. It deals 16.6.2 Food Chemistry
with scientific relation between plants, animals,
bacteria and environment. Food is one of the basic needs of human
and animal. The food we eat also are made
(a) Goals of agricultural chemistry
of chemicals. Any human might require the
Indian chemists and biochemists applied
following three kinds of food:
their knowledge and developed modernized
agricultural practices which involve use of Body building foods: These are required for
synthetic fertilizers, genetically modified crops, physical growth of body. E.g. Proteins
and equipments. It aims at producing sufficient Energy giving foods: These are the foods that
nutritious food and feed the population in supply energy for the functioning of parts
a sustainable way while being responsible human body. E.g. Carbohydrates and Fats.
stewards of our environment and ecosystem. Protective foods: These protect us from
Based on the issues and challenges in deficiency diseases. E.g. Vitamins and
agricultural production, agricultural chemistry Minerals
mainly focusses to achieve the following: Every human requires all these three kind
• Increase in crop yield and livestock of foods in right proportion for the smooth
• Improvement of food quality functioning of the body. The diet that contain
• Reducing cost of food production all these three foods in right proportion is
(b) Applications of Agricultural Chemistry called Balanced diet.
Chemical principles and reactions are Food chemistry is the chemistry of foods
most widely used in agriculture in order to which involves the analysis, processing,
increase yield, to protect crops from diseases packaging, and utilization of materials
and to simplify the practice of agriculture. including bioenergy for food safety and
Various applications are give below. quality.
Collaboration: To solve the crime, they discuss Alcohol test: Drinkers can be easily identified by
with other fellow investigators like police the use of applied chemistry. The person being
officers, detective and other forensic scientists. tested blows through a tube, which bubbles
Report of findings: Finally, they prepare a the breath through a solution of chemicals
report of the conclusion of the analysis. containing sulfuric acid, potassium dichromate,
water, and silver nitrate. Oxidation of the alcohol
16.7.2 M
ethod of Forensic results in the reduction of dichromate to chromic
Chemistry ion, with a corresponding change in colour from
orange to green. An electrical device employing a
The world of forensic chemistry, focusing photocell compares the colour of the test solution
on the theory and processes of chemistry in with a standard solution, giving a quantitative
forensic analysis shows the role that chemistry determination of the alcohol content. The test
plays in criminal investigations. The following provides a quick and reproducible determination
are some methods used in crime investigation of the amount of alcohol in a person's breath and
by a forensic chemitry lab. is a numerical measure of the amount of alcohol
Finger print: Finger print is one of the most in the bloodstream.
important evidences in crime investigation.
Fingerprints on smooth surfaces can often
be made visible by the application of light or
dark powder, but fingerprints on cheque or
other documents are often occult (hidden).
Occult fingerprints are sometimes made visible
by the use of ninhydrin, which turns purple
Figure 16.6 Alcohol test
due to reaction with amino acids present in
perspiration. Fingerprints or other marks are 16.8 Applications of
also sometimes made visible by exposure to
Applied Chemistry
high-powered laser light. Cyanoacrylate ester
fumes from glue are used with fluorescent dyes • Many of the advantages of applied
to make the fingerprints visible. chemistry are around us. It is inevitable.
• Applied chemistry has given us
innumerous synthetic materials to lead
our day to day life.
• The applied chemistry makes a most
important contribution to our society.
• It makes a major contribution to the
country’s economic development, and
plays vital role worldwide.
• The products of applied chemistry are so
widespread that they are used in our daily.
Figure 16.5 Finger print
GLOSSARY
Anaesthetics Drugs which cause loss of sensation.
Antipyretics Compounds which are used for the purpose of reducing fever.
Antiseptic Substance that prevents infections caused by disease causing
microorganisms or pathogens.
Antibiotics Chemical compounds which was produced by many microorganisms
(bacteria, fungi and moulds) which inhibit the growth or
metabolism of some other disease causing microorganism.
Antacids These are certain drug formulations which provide relief from
burning sensation.
Drug The chemicals used for treating diseases
Electrochemical Cell The device that make use of a chemical change to produce electricity
or electricity to produce chemical change.
Electrolyte Solutions of ions or molten salts which can conduct electricity
Pharmaceutical Chemistry It is the study of drugs and it involves drug development.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
Concept Map
* Applicaons
* Electroplang
* Types of drugs * Anaesthecs
* Sources of drugs * Analgesics * Decoraon
* Characteriscs * Anpyrecs * Repair
of drugs * Anmalarial * Electro-refining
* Properes * Anbiocs * Electro-manufacturing
Pharmaceucal
* Applicaons Chemistry
* Drawbacks * Electrolyc cell
* Finger Prints
y
* Biometric
* Alcohol test
Forensic
* Forensic Chemistry * Applicaons
Technology Radio
Chemistry * Diagnosis
* Treatment
Agricultural and Food
Dye * Colour
Chemistry
Chemistry * Structure
* Role * Classificaon
* Goal * Characteriscs
Steps
• Use the given URL to open the simulation page and allow the “javascript” to play, if asks. Read the
given description on how to perform the half-life simulation.
• Click the “Years Passed” button to increase the years by 1000 and press “Count the Remaining Atom”
to know how much of the atoms have become “Daughter atoms”.
• Use the “Table/Graph” button situated below the description to record your observations.
• Press the “video” button to view the process of degradation of radioactive atoms and its calculation
Radioactive Atoms Half-Life
URL: http://www.glencoe.com/sites/common_assets/science/virtual_labs/E18/E18.html
UNIT
17 ANIMAL KINGDOM
Learning Objectives
199
Levels of Coelom or
Kingdom Symmetry Phylum
Organisation Body Cavity
Animalia
Coelenterata
(Multicellular) Radial (Cnidaria)
Acoelomates Platyhelminthes
Tissue/Organ/
(Without Coelom)
Organ System
Pseudocoelomates
Aschelminthes
Bilateral
(False Coelom)
Annelida
Coelomates Arthropoda
(True Coelom) Mollusca
Echinodermata
Hemichordata
Chordata
diploblastic animals. e.g Hydra. Organisms Animal Kingdom is further divided into
with three germ layers, ectoderm, mesoderm two groups based on the presence or absence of
and endoderm are called triploblastic animals. notochord as below.
e.g Rabbit 1. Invertebrata
Coelom: It is a fluid-filled body cavity. It 2. Chordata-Prochordata and Vertebrata
separates the digestive tract from the body Animals which do not possess notochord
wall. A true body cavity or coelom is one that are called as Invertebrates or Non- chordates.
is located within the mesoderm. Based on the Animals which possess notochord or backbone
nature of the coelom, animals are divided into are called as Chordates. You have already studied
3 groups. the characters of single celled protozoans.
1. Acoelomates do not have a body cavity
e.g Tapeworm. More to Know
2. Pseudocoelomates have a false body Notochord is a rod like structure formed on the
cavity e.g Roundworm. mid-dorsal side of the body during embryonic
3. Coelomates or Eucoelomates have a true development. Except primitive forms in which
coelom e.g Earthworm, Frog. the notochord persists throughout life in all
other animals it is replaced by a backbone.
Euplectella Sycon Liver fluke Tape worm
Figure 17.3 Pore bearers Figure 17.5 Flat worms
Animal Kingdom 202
both male and female reproductive organs in symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate
a single individual. e.g- Liverfluke, Tapeworm. animals. The body is divisible into head, thorax
and abdomen. Each thorasic segment bears
17.2.4 Phylum Aschelminthes paired jointed legs. Exoskeleton is made of
(Round worms) chitin and is shed periodically as the animal
Aschelminthes are bilaterally symmetrical, grows. The casting off and regrowing of
triploblastic animals. The body cavity is a exoskeleton is called moulting.
pseudocoelom. They exist as free-living soil Body cavity is filled with haemolymph
forms or as parasites. The body is round and (blood). The blood does not flow in blood
pointed at both the ends. It is unsegmented and vessels and circulates throughout the body
covered by thin cuticle. Sexes are separate. The (open circulatory system). Respiration is
most common diseases caused by nematodes in through body surface, gills or tracheae (air
human beings are elephantiasis and ascariasis. tubes). Excretion occurs by malphigian
e.g-Ascaris, Wuchereria. tubules or green glands. Sexes are separate.
E.g., Prawn, Crab, Cockroach, Millipede,
Centipedes, Spider, Scorpion.
Male Female
17.2.5 Phylum Annelida
Centipede Millipede
(Segmented worms)
Figure 17.8 Animals with jointed legs
These are bilaterally symmetrical,
triploblastic, first true coelomate animals
with organ-system grade of organization. Centipede means ‘hundred
Body is externally divided into segments called legs’. But most species have only
metameres joined by ring like structures called 30 pairs. Millipedes have two
annuli. It is covered by moist thin cuticle. Setae pairs of legs on each segment. This name
and parapodia are locomotor organs. Sexes means ‘thousand legs’. But, most millipedes
may be separate or united (hermaphrodites). have only about a hundred.
e.g- Nereis, Earthworm, Leech.
Activity 1
17.2.6 Phylum Arthropoda
(Animals with jointed legs)
Arthropoda is the largest phylum of
the animal kingdom. They are bilaterally
17.2.7 Phylum Mollusca
(Soft Bodied Animals)
They are diversified group of animals
living in marine, fresh water and terrestrial
habitats. Body is bilaterally symmetrical, soft Star Fish Sea Urchin
and without segmentation. It is divided into Figure 17.10 Spiny Skinned Animals
head, muscular foot and visceral mass. The
foot helps in locomotion. The entire body is 17.2.9 Phylum Hemichordata
covered with fold of thin skin called mantle, Hemichordates are marine organisms
which secretes outer hard calcareous shell. with soft, vermiform and unsegmented body. They
Respiration is through gills (ctenidia) or lungs are bilaterally symmetrical, coelomate animals
or both. Sexes are separate with larval stages with non-chordate and chordate features. They
during development. e.g-Garden snail, Octopus. have gill slits but do not have notochord. They are
ciliary feeders and mostly remain as tubiculous
forms. E.g- Balanoglossus (Acorn worms).
The Chinese
g i a n t
Figure 17.14 Lamprey salamander
Andrias davidians is the largest amphibian
Class: Pisces in the world. Its length is about five feet and
eleven inches. It weighs about 65 kg, found
Fishes are poikilothermic (cold-blooded),
in Central and South China.
aquatic vertebrates with jaws. The streamlined
More to Know
State bird of Tamil Nadu
Common Emerald dove.
(Chalcophaps indica)
Figure 17.16 Calotes
Class: Aves (avis – bird) Class: Mammalia (mamma-breast)
Birds are homeothermic (warm- Mammals are warm-blooded animals.
blooded) animals with several adaptations The skin is covered with hairs. It also bears
to fly. The spindle or boat shaped body is sweat and sebaceous (oil) glands. The body is
divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail. The divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail. Females
body is covered with feathers. Forelimbs are have mammary glands, which secrete milk for
modified into wings for flight. Hindlimbs are feeding the young ones. The external ears or
adapted for walking, perching or swimming. pinnae is present. Heart is four chambered and
The respiration is through lungs, which have they breathe through lungs. Except egg laying
air sacs. Bones are filled with air (pneumatic mammals (Platypus, and Spiny anteater), all
bones), which reduces the body weight. They other mammals give birth to their young ones
lay large yolk laden eggs. They are covered by (viviparous). Placenta is the unique characteristic
hard calcareous shell. e.g. Parrot, Crow, Eagle, feature of mammals.e.g Rat, Rabbit, Man.
Pigeon, Ostrich .
Classification of Phylum Chordata
Phylum Chordata
Class : Cyclostomata
e.g. Lamprey, Ha
Class: Pisces Class: Amphibia Class: Reptilia Class: Aves Class: Mammalia
e.g. Shark, Mullet e.g. Frog, Toad e.g. Lizard, Snake e.g. Pigeon,Ostrich e.g. Rabbit, Man
GLOSSARY
Acoelomates Animals which do not have a body cavity.
Amphibian Cold-blooded vertebrate animal of a class that comprises the frogs, toads,
newts, salamanders.
Annelida Phylum that comprises the segmented worms which include earthworms and
leeches.
Aves Vertebrates which comprises the birds.
Classification Arrangement of groups of animals, the members of which have one or more
characteristics in common.
Mammals Warm-blooded vertebrate animals that possess hairs, mammary glands and
feed their young ones.
Pseudocoleomates False body cavity which is not bounded by true epithelial lining. e.g Roundworm
Toads Anurans with smooth skin than that of frogs, terrestrial and leap rather than jump.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
UNIT
18 Organization of Tissues
Learning Objectives
Lateral meristem
Cells have rectangular oblique or tapering Lumen is filled with wall materials. Sclereids are
ends and persistent protoplast. They possess also common in fruits and seeds.
thick primary non-lignified walls.They provide
mechanical support for growing organs.
Narrow Lumen
Figure 18.3 Collenchyma Figure 18.4 Sclerenchyma (a) Fibres, (b) Sclereids
Pitted
Vessel
Scalariform
Reticulate
Element
Scalariform
Element
Spiral
Elements
Parenchyma
Cell
Spiral Element
Annular
Elements
A
Parenchyma Cell
B
functions.
a. Epithelial tissue. b. Connective tissue Connective
tissue
c. Muscular tissue d. Nervous tissue Figure 18.7 Squamous Epithelium
Organization of Tissues 214
Squamous Epithelium: It is made up of thin, Ciliated Epithelium: Certain columnar cells bear
flat cells with prominent nuclei. These cells numerous delicate hair like out growths called cilia
have irregular boundaries and bind with and are called ciliated epithelium. Their function
neighbouring cells. The squamous epithelium is to move particles or mucus in a specific direction
is also known as pavement membrane, which over the epithelium. It is seen in the trachea of
form delicate lining of the buccal cavity, alveoli wind-pipe, bronchioles of respiratory tract, kidney
of lungs, proximal tubule of kidneys and
tubules and fallopian tubes of oviducts.
covering of the skin and tongue. It protects
the body from mechanical injury, drying and Cilia
Connective Basement
tissue Membrane
Basal Cell
Figure 18.8 Cuboidal Epithelium
Connective Tissue
Columnar Epithelium: It is composed of a
single layer of slender, elongated and pillar Figure 18.11 Glandular epithelium
like cells. Their nuclei are located at the base.
B. Compound Epithelium
It is found lining the stomach, gall bladder,
It consists of more than one layer of cells
bile duct, small intestine, colon, oviducts
and gives a stratified appearance. Hence,
and also forms the mucous membrane.
they are also known as stratified epithelium.
They are mainly involved in secretion and
The main function of this epithelium is to give
absorption.
protection to the underlying tissues against
mechanical and chemical stress. They also
cover the dry surface of the skin, the moist
Pillar like cells
surface of the buccal cavity and pharynx.
Chondrocyte
Fibroblast
nuclei
Lacuna
Figure 18.16 T.S of Bone The blood and the lymph are the fluid
connective tissues which link different parts
iii. Dense Connective Tissue: of the body. The cells of the connective tissue
It is a fibrous connective tissue densely are loosely spaced and are embedded in an
packed with fibres and fibroblasts. It is the intercellular matrix.
principal component of tendons and ligaments.
a. Blood
Tendons: They are cord like, strong, structures Blood contains
that join skeletal muscles to bones. Tendons corpuscles which are red
have great strength and limited flexibility. blood cells (erythrocytes),
They consist of parallel bundles of collagen white blood cells (leucocytes)
fibres, between which are present rows of and platelets. In this fluid
fibroblasts. connective tissue, blood cells
are present in a fluid matrix called plasma. The 18.2.3 Muscular Tissues
plasma contains inorganic salts and organic
Muscular tissues are made of muscle cells
substances. It is a main circulating fluid that
and form the major part of contractile tissue.
helps in the transport of nutrient substances.
They are composed of numerous myofibrils.
Red blood corpuscles (Erythrocytes): The
Each muscle is made up of many long cylindrical
red blood corpuscles are circular, biconcave
fibres arranged parallel to one another.
disc-like cells and lack nucleus when
mature (mammalian RBC). They contain a According to their structure, location and
respiratory pigment called haemoglobin functions there are three main types of muscles:
which is involved in the transport of oxygen Skeletal muscle (or) striated muscle, Smooth
to tissues. muscle (or) non-striated muscle and Cardiac
White blood corpuscles (Leucocytes): They muscle.
are larger in size, contain distinct nucleus and
Skeletal muscle: These muscles are attached
are colourless. They are capable of amoeboid
to the bones and are responsible for the body
movement and play an important role in
movements and are called skeletal muscles.
body’s defense mechanism. They engulf or
They work under our control and are also
destroy foreign bodies. WBC’s are of two types:
Granulocytes and Agranulocytes. Granulocytes known as voluntary muscles. The muscle
have irregular shaped nuclei and cytoplasmic fibres are elongated, cylindrical, unbranched
granules. They include the neutrophils, with alternating dark and light bands, giving
basophils and eosinophils. Agranulocytes them the striped or striated appearance. They
lack cytoplasmic granules and include the possess many nuclei (multinucleate). For
lymphocytes and monocytes. example they occur in the biceps and triceps of
arms and undergo rapid contraction.
Blood platelets: They are minute, anucleated,
fragile fragments of giant bone marrow called Smooth muscle: These muscles are spindle
mega karyocytes. They play an important shaped with broad middle part and tapering
role in blood clotting mechanism. ends. There is a single centrally located nucleus
(uninucleate). These fibrils do not bear any
stripes or striations and hence are called non-
striated. They are not under the control of our
Erythrocytes
Lymphocyte
will and so are called involuntary muscles.
Monocyte The walls of the internal organs such as the
blood vessels, gastric glands, intestinal villi and
urinary bladder contain this type of smooth
Eosinophil
muscle.
Basophil
Neutrophil Cardiac muscle: It is a special contractile
Platelets
tissue present in the heart. The muscle fibres
Figure 18.19 Blood cells
are cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.
b. Lymph The branches join to form a network called
Lymph is a colourless fluid filtered out of the as intercalated disc which are unique
blood capillaries. It consists of plasma and white distinguishing features of the cardiac
blood cells. It mainly helps in the exchange of muscles. The contraction of cardiac muscle is
materials between blood and tissue fluids. involuntary and rhythmic.
Skeletal
muscle
Smooth
muscle
Cardiac
muscle They have the ability to receive stimuli
from within or outside the body and send
signals to different parts of the body.
Nucleus
Nucleus Nucleus
Striation
Intercalated disc Nerve cells do not undergo cell
Striation
division due to the absence
of centrioles, but they are
developed from glial cells by neurogenesis
Figure 18.19 Muscle tissue
18.2.4 Nervous Tissue 18.3 Cell Division
Nervous tissue comprises of the nerve cells Are you aware that all living organisms
or neurons. They are the longest cells of the body. start their life from a single cell? You may
Neurons are the structural and functional units wonder how a single cell then goes to form
of the nervous tissue. The elongated and slender such a large organism. All cells reproduce by
processes of the neurons are the nerve fibres. division and division of cells into daughter
Each neuron consists of a cell body or cyton cells is called cell division.
with nucleus and cytoplasm. The dendrons
are short and highly branched protoplasmic 18.3.1 Types of Cell Division
processes of cyton. The axon is a single, long The three types of cell division that occur in
fibre like process that develops from the cyton animal cells are:
and ends up with fine terminal branches. I. Amitosis - Direct Division
Axon
Terminal II. Mitosis - Indirect Division
Endings
Dendrites Cell Body III. Meiosis - Reduction Division
I. Amitosis
It is the simplest mode of cell division and
Nucleus it occurs in unicellular animals, ageing cells and
Myelin
Nodes of Sheath in foetal membranes. During amitosis, nucleus
Ranvier elongates first, and a constriction appears in it
Figure 18.20 Neuron which deepens and divides the nucleus into two.
Followed by this cytoplasm divides resulting in
INFO BIT the formation of two daughter cells.
Age of our body cells Nucleolus
Nucleus
Constriction
• Cells of the eye lens, nerve cells of Nucleus
same number of chromosomes and genes as thinner and turns into a network of chromatin
the parent cells. It is also called as equational threads. Spindle fibres breakdown and
division. Mitosis consists of two events, they disappear. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
are: 1. Karyokinesis 2. Cytokinesis reappear in each daughter nucleus.
Interphase: It is the resting phase of 2. Cytokinesis
the nucleus. It is the interval between two The division of the cytoplasm into two
successive cell divisions. The cell prepares daughter cells by constriction of the cell
itself for the next cell division. membrane is called cytokinesis.
1. Karyokinesis
The division of the nucleus into two
daughter nuclei is called Karyokinesis. It consists
of four phases. They are: Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase and Telophase.
Prophase (pro-first): During this stage
chromosomes become short and thick and are Figure 18.23 Cytokinesis
clearly visible inside the nucleus. Centrosome
splits into centrioles and occupy opposite poles Significance of Mitosis
of the cell. Each centriole is surrounded by aster 1.
This equational division results in the
rays. Spindle fibres appear between the two production of diploid daughter cells (2n) with
centrioles. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus equal distribution of genetic material (DNA).
disappear gradually. 2. In multicellular organisms growth, organ
Metaphase (meta – after): The duplicated development and increase in body size
chromosomes arrange on the equatorial are accomplished through the process of
plane and form the metaphase plate. Each mitosis
chromosome gets attached to a spindle fibre 3. Mitosis helps in repair of damaged and
by its centromere. The centromere of each wounded tissues by renewal of the lost cells.
chromosome divides into two each being
III. Meiosis
associated with a chromatid.
The term meiosis was coined by Farmer
Anaphase (ana – up, back): The centromeres in 1905. It is the kind of cell division that
attaching the two chromatids divide and the two produces the sex cells or the gametes. It is
daughter chromatids of each chromosome separate also called reduction division because the
and migrate towards the two opposite poles. chromosome number is reduced to haploid
Telophase (tele – end): Each chromatid (or) (n) from diploid (2n). Meiosis produces four
daughter chromosome lengthens, becomes daughter cells from a parent cell.
Organization of Tissues 220
Meiosis consists of two divisions. They are: Homologous chromosomes of each pair begin
Heterotypic Division or First Meiotic to separate. They do not completely separate, but
Division remain attached together at one or more points by
Homotypic Division or Second Meiotic X- shaped arrangements known as chiasmata. The
chromatids break at these points and the broken
Division
segments may be interchanged (crossing over). As
A. Heterotypic division a result, the genetic recombination takes place.
It divides the diploid cell into two haploid Diplotene: Each individual chromosome of
cells. The daughter cells resulting from this each bivalent begins to split longitudinally
division are different from the parent cell in into two similar chromatids. The homologous
the chromosome number (Heterotypic). This chromosomes repel each other and separate.
consists of 5 stages: Chiasmata begin to move along the length
a. Prophase I b. Metaphase I of the chromosome from the centromere
c. Anaphase I d. Telophase I towards the end resulting in terminalization.
e. Cytokinesis I Diakinesis: The paired chromosomes are
a. Prophase I shortened and thickened. The nuclear
membrane and nucleolus begin to disappear.
Prophase I takes a longer duration and is
Spindle fibres make their appearance.
sub divided into five stages. They are: Leptotene,
Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis. b. Metaphase I
Leptotene: The chromosomes become The chromosomes move towards the equator
and finally they orient themselves on the equator.
uncoiled and assume long thread like
The two chromatids of each chromosome do not
structures and take up a specific orientation
separate. The centromere does not divide.
inside the nucleus. They form a bouquet stage.
Zygotene (Zygon-adjoining): Two c. Anaphase I
homologous chromosomes approach each Each homologous chromosome with its
two chromatids and undivided centromere
other and begin to pair. Pairing of homologous
move towards the opposite poles of the cell.
chromosomes is called as synapsis.
This stage of the chromosome is called Diad.
Pachytene (Pachus-thick): The chromosomes
are visible as long paired twisted threads. The d. Telophase I
pairs so formed are called bivalents. Each bivalent The haploid number of chromosomes after
now contains four chromatids (tetrad stage). reaching their respective poles become uncoiled
and elongated. The nuclear membrane and the b. Metaphase II: The chromosomes get
nucleolus reappear and thus two daughter nuclei arranged on the equator. Two chromatids
are formed. are separated.
e. Cytokinesis I: The cytoplasmic division c. Anaphase II: The separated chromatids
occurs and two haploid cells are formed. become daughter chromosomes and move to
opposite poles
B. Homotypic Division d. Telophase II: The daughter chromosomes
In this division, the two haploid cells are centered. The nuclear membrane and
formed during first meiotic division divide the nucleolus appear.
into four haploid cells. The daughter cells e. Cytokinesis II: Two cells are formed from
are similar to parent cell in the chromosome each haploid daughter cell, resulting in the
number (Homotypic). It consists of five stages. formation of four cells with haploid number
a. Prophase – II b. Metaphase – II of chromosomes.
c. Anaphase – II d. Telophase – II Significance of Meiosis
e. Cytokinesis – II • The constant number of chromosomes in a
a. Prophase II: The centriole divides into given species is maintained by meiotic division.
two, each one moves to opposite poles. • Genetic valiation is produced due to crossing
Asters and spindle fibres appear. Nuclear over within the species which is transmitted
membrane and nucleolus disappear. from one generation to next generation.
GLOSSARY
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
IV. S
tate whether true or false. If false, VI. Answer in detail.
correct the statement. 1. What are permanent tissues? Describe the
1. Epithelial tissue is protective tissue in different types of simple permanent tissues.
animal body. 2. Write about the elements of Xylem.
2. Bone and cartilage are two types of areolar 3. List out the differences between mitosis and
connective tissues. meiosis.
3. Parenchyma is a simple tissue.
VII. Higher Order Thinking Skills.
4. Phloem is made up of tracheids.
5. Vessels are found in collenchyma. 1. What is the consequence that occur if all
blood platelets are removed from the blood?
V. Answer briefly.
2. Which are not true cells in the blood? Why?
1. What are intercalary meristems? How do
they differ from other meristems?
REFERENCE BOOKS
2. What is complex tissue? Name the various
kinds of complex tissues. 1. Pandey B.P. -Plant Anatomy. S.Chand and
3. Mention the most abundant muscular Company Ltd, New Delhi.
tissue found in our body.State its function. 2. Verma P.S. and Agarwal V.K. -Cytology.
4. What is skeletal connective tissue? How is S.Chand and Company Ltd, New Delhi.
it helpful in the functioning of our body?
5. Why should gametes be produced by INTERNET RESOURCES
meiosis during sexual reproduction?
6. In which stage of mitosis the chromosomes https://www.britannica.com/science
align in an equatorial plate? How? https://biologydictionary.net
Concept Maps
Fibres Sclereids
Xylem Phloem
Tracheids Sieve tubes
Vessels (Tracheae) Companion cells
Xylem parenchyma Pholem parenchyma
Xylem fibres Pholem fibres
Muscular Tissue
(Movement and
Epithelial Tissue Locomotion) Nervous Tissue
(Protective, Secretion, (Control and
Absorption) Co-ordination)
Striated (or)
Voluntary muscle
Squamous
(Flattened Cells) Cyton (or)
Non-striated (or) Cell body
Involuntary
Columnar muscle
(Tall and Pillar like Connective Tissue
Cells) (Support, Binding and
Packing) Cardiac muscle Axon
Cuboidal
(Cube like Cells)
Dendron
Connective Supportive Dense Fluid
Ciliated Tissue connective Tissue connective connective
(Cells with Cilia) Proper Tissue Tissue
opy and paste the link given below or type the URL in the browser. Allow
Step 1: C
‘Adobe Flash Player’ to run in the system.
hen choose an organ from the list to know about the tissues that are in
Step 2: T
a particular organ.
Step 3: Keep selecting the tissues by clicking the ‘Use this’ option, if you need that
particular tissue for that organ.
Step 4: Once you finish selecting the tissues you will find a pop-up called ‘Happy
with this choice.’ Click on it to know whether your choice is correct or you
should try again. In this way you can build different organs.
UNIT
19 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
Learning Objectives
After completing this lesson, students will be able to:
know that plants too have certain autonomic movements.
understand different types of movement in plants.
differentiate tropic movement from nastic movement.
gain knowledge on transpiration.
understand that plants produce their food through the process of photosynthesis.
understand the process of transpiration.
226
Activity 1
19.3.1 Requirements for
Photosynthesis'
Activity 3
Figure 19.5 Thermonasty in Tulip
Pluck a variegated
19.3 Photosynthesis leaf from Coleus
plant kept in
‘Photo’ means ‘light’ and ‘synthesis’ means sunlight. De-
‘to build’. Thus photosynthesis literally means starch it by keeping in dark room for 24 hours.
‘building up with the help of light’. During Draw the picture of this leaf and mark the
this process, the light energy is converted into patches of cholorphyll on the leaf. Immerse the
chemical energy. Green plants are autotrophic leaf in boiling water followed by alcohol and
test it for starch using iodine solution.Record
in their mode of nutrition because they
your observation.
prepare their food materials through a process
called photosynthesis. The overall equation of
photosynthesis can be given as below: Activity 4
These activities show that certain things But transpiration is necessary for the
are necessary for photosynthesis. They are: following reasons.
1. Chlorophyll - Green pigment in leaves 1. It creates a pull in leaf and stem.
2. Water 2. It creates an absorption force in roots.
3. Carbon dioxide (from air) 3. It is necessary for continuous supply of
minerals.
4. Sun light
4. It regulates the temperature of the plant.
19.4 Transpiration
Activity 5
The loss of water in the form of water
vapour from the aerial parts of the plant Take a plastic bag and tie
body is called as transpiration. The leaves it over a leaf and place the
have tiny, microscopic pores called stomata. plant in light. You can see
Water evaporates through these stomata. water condensing inside the
Each stomata is surrounded by guard cells. plastic bag. The water is let
These guard cells help in regulating the rate out by the leaves. Why does
of transpiration by opening and closing of this occur?
stomata.
Lenticular transpiration: Loss of water from The loss of water in the form of water
plants as vapour through the lenticels. The vapour from the aerial parts of the plant
lenticels are tiny openings that protrude from body is called transpiration.
the barks in woody stems and twigs as well as Stomata are minute opening on the
in other plant organs. leaves.
229 Plant Physiology
GLOSSARY
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
I. Choose the correct answer. 5. The root of the plant is __________.
1. The tropic movement that helps the i) positively phototropic but negatively
climbing vines to find a suitable support is geotropic
__________. ii) positively geotropic but negatively
a. Phototropism b. Geotropism phototropic
c. Thigmotropism d. Chemotropism iii) negatively phototropic but positively
hydrotropic
2. The chemical reaction occurs during iv) negatively hydrotropic but positively
photosynthesis is _____________. phototropic
a. CO2 is reduced and water is oxidized a) (i) and (ii) b) (ii) and (iii)
b. water is reduced and CO2is oxidized c) (iii) and (iv)
d) (i) and (iv)
c. both CO2 and water are oxidized
6. The non-directional movement of a plant
d. b
oth CO2 and water are produced
part in response to temperature is called
3. The bending of root of a plant in response to ________.
water is called __________. a) Thermotropism b) Thermonasty
a. Thigmonasty b. Phototropism c) Chemotropism d) Thigmonasty
c. Hydrotropism d. Photonasty
7. Chlorophyll in a leaf is required for
4. A growing seedling is kept in the dark __________.
room. A burning candle is placed near it a) photosynthesis b) tropic movement
for a few days. The tip part of the seedling
c) transpiration d) nastic movement
bends towards the burning candle. This is
an example of ____________. 9. Transpiration takes place through
a) Chemotropism b) Geotropism _____________.
c) Phototropism d) Thigmotropism a) fruit b) seed c) flower d) stomata
Plant Physiology 230
7. Suppose you have a rose plant growing 2. Imagine that student A studied the
in a pot, how will you demonstrate importance of certain factors in
transpiration in it? photosynthesis. He took a potted plant and
8. Mention the differences between stomatal kept it in dark for 24 hours. In the early
and lenticular transpiration hours of the next morning, he covered one
of the leaves with dark paper in the centre
9. To which directional stimuli do (a) roots
only. Then he placed the plant in sunlight
respond (b) shoots respond?
for a few hours and tested the leaf which
VII. Answer in detail.
was covered with black paper for starch.
a)
What aspect of photosynthesis was
1. Differentiate between tropic and nastic
being investigated?
movements
2. How will you differentiate the different b) Why was the plant kept in the dark
types of transpiration? before the experiment?
c)
How will you prove that starch is
VIII. Higher Order Thinking Skills. present in the leaves?
1. There are 3 plants A, B and C. The flowers d)
Name the raw materials needed for
of A open their petals in bright light during photosynthesis.
the day but closes when it gets dark at night.
On the other hand, the flowers of plant B REFERENCE BOOKS
open their petals at night but closes during
the day when there is bright light. The leaves 1. Devlin and Witham, 1986. Plant Physiology,
of plant C fold up and droop when touched 1st edition
with fingers or any other solid object. 2. B.P. Pandey 2003 Modern Practical Botany
a) Name the phenomenon shown by the Vol. II.
flowers of plant A and B. 3. V.K. Jain 2003 Plant physiology.
b) Name one plant each which behaves like
the flowers of plant A and B. INTERNET RESOURCES
c) Name the phenomenon exhibited by the
leaves of plant C. http://web.mit.edu/esgbio
Concept Map
Photosynthesis Transpiration
UNIT
Learning Objectives
233
The digestive system consists of two sets Dental formula represents the number
of organs. They are as follows: of different type of teeth present in each half
Alimentary canal (digestive tract/gastro- of a jaw (upper and lower jaw). The types of
intestinal tract): It is a passage starting from teeth are denoted as incisors (i), canine (c),
premolars (pm) and molars (m). The dental
the mouth and ending with the anus.
formula is presented as:
Digestive glands: Glands associated with the
For Milk teeth in each half of upper and lower
alimentary canal are the salivary glands, gastric
jaw:
glands, pancreas, liver and intestinal glands. 2, 1, 2
= 10 x 2= 20
2, 1, 2
20.1.1 Structure of the Alimentary
For Permanent teeth in each half of upper and
Canal
lower jaw:
Alimentary canal is a muscular coiled, 2, 1, 2, 3
tubular structure. It consists of mouth, buccal = 16 x 2= 32
2, 1, 2, 3
cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine (consisting of duodenum, jejunum
and ileum), large intestine (consisting of
caecum, colon and rectum) and anus.
Mouth: The mouth leads into the buccal cavity.
Molars
It is bound by two soft, movable upper and
lower lips. The buccal cavity is a large space
Premolars
bound above by the palate (which separates the
wind pipe and food tube), below by the throat Incisors Canine
and on the sides by the jaws. The jaws bear teeth. Figure 20.2 Different kinds of teeth
Teeth: Teeth are hard structures meant for
Activity 1
holding, cutting, grinding and crushing the food.
In human beings two sets of teeth (Diphyodont) Look at the pictures given below and
are developed in their life time. The first answer the questions that follow:
appearing set of 20 teeth called temporary or
milk teeth are replaced by the second set of thirty
two permanent teeth, sixteen in each jaw. Each
tooth has a root fitted in the gum (Theocodont).
Permanent teeth are of four types (Heterodont),
according to their structure and function namely
incisors, canines, premolars and molars. 1. Are the teeth of animals similar to ours?
Table 20.2 Types of teeth and their functions 2. How is the shape of their teeth related
to their food habit?
Types of Number
Functions
teeth of teeth Salivary glands: Three pairs of salivary
Incisors 8 Cutting and biting glands are present in the mouth cavity. They
Canines 4 Tearing and piercing are: parotid glands, sublingual glands and
Premolars 8 Crushing and submaxillary or submandibular glands
grinding a. Parotid glands are the largest salivary
Molars 12 Crushing, grinding glands, which lie in the cheeks in front of
and mastication
the ears (in Greek Par - near ; otid - ear).
235 Organ Systems in Animals
b. Sublingual glands are the smallest glands Stomach: The stomach is a wide J-shaped
and lie beneath the tongue. muscular organ located between oesophagus
and the small intestine. The gastric glands
c. Submaxillary or Submandibular glands present in the inner walls of the stomach
lie at the angles of the lower jaw. secrete gastric juice. The gastric juice is
colourless, highly acidic, containing mucus,
hydrochloric acid and enzymes rennin (in
infants) and pepsin.
Parotid Inactive pepsinogen is converted to
gland active pepsin which acts on the proteins in
Submandibular
the ingested food. Hydrochloric acid kills
gland the bacteria swallowed along with food and
Sublingual gland makes the medium acidic while the mucus
protects the wall of the stomach. The action
Figure 20.3 Salivary glands
of the gastric juice and churning of food in
The salivary glands secrete a viscous the stomach convert the bolus into a semi-
fluid called saliva, approximately 1.5 liters digested food called chyme. The chyme moves
per day. It digests starch by the action of to the intestine slowly through the pylorus.
the enzyme ptyalin (amylase) in the saliva
which converts starch (polysaccharide) into More to Know
maltose (disaccharide). Saliva also contain an
antibacterial enzyme called lysozyme. � Rennin: Causes curdling of milk
protein caesin and increases
Tongue: The tongue is a muscular, sensory digestion of proteins.
organ which helps in mixing the food with
the saliva. The taste buds on the tongue help Renin: Converts angiotensinogen to
�
to recognize the taste of food. The masticated angiotensin and regulate the absorption
food in the buccal cavity becomes a bolus of water and Na+ from glomerular filtrate.
which is rolled by the tongue and passed
through pharynx into the oesophagus by Small intestine: The small intestine is the
swallowing. During swallowing, the epiglottis longest part of the alimentary canal, which is
(a muscular flap-like structure at the tip of a long coiled tube measuring about 5 – 7 m.
the glottis, beginning of trachea) closes and It comprises three parts- duodenum, jejunum
prevents the food from entering into trachea and ileum.
(wind pipe).
a. Duodenum is C-shaped and receives the
Pharynx: The pharynx is a membrane bile duct (from liver) and pancreatic duct
lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, (from pancreas).
connecting them to the oesophagus. It serves
b. Jejunum is the middle part of the small
as a pathway for the movement of food from
intestine. It is a short region of the small
mouth to oesophagus.
intestine. The secretion of the small
Oesophagus: Oesophagus or the food pipe is intestine is intestinal juice which contains
a muscular-membranous canal about 22 cm in
the enzymes like sucrase, maltase, lactase
length. It conducts food from pharynx to the
and lipase.
stomach by peristalsis (wave-like movement)
produced by the rhythmic contraction and c. Ileum forms the lower part of the small
relaxation of the muscular walls of alimentary intestine and opens into the large intestine.
canal. Ileum is the longest part of the small
Organ Systems in Animals 236
excess fats are stored in adipose tissue. The The colon is much broader than ileum.
excess sugars are converted into a complex It passes up the abdomen on the right
polysaccharide, glycogen in the liver. The (ascending colon), crosses to the left just
amino acids are utilized to synthesize different below the stomach (transverse colon) and
proteins required for the body. down on the left side (descending colon).
The rectum is the last part which opens into
The small intestine is about 5 m
the anus. It is kept closed by a ring of muscles
long and is the longest part of
called anal sphincter which opens when
the digestive system. The large
passing stools.
intestine is a thicker tube, but is
about 1.5 m long. The undigested or unassimilated portion of
the ingested food material is thrown out from the
Large intestine: The unabsorbed and body through the anal aperture as faecal matter.
undigested food is passed into the large This is known as egestion or defaecation.
intestine. It extends from the ileum to the
anus. It is about 1.5 meters in length. It has Activity 2
three parts- caecum, colon and rectum. Construct a model of the human
The caecum is a small blind pouch like digestive system using simple materials like
structure situated at the junction of the small and funnel, pipe, cellotape and clean bag. Label
large intestine. From its blind end a finger – like its parts and write which parts help in the
structure called vermiform appendix arises. It is a various steps of digestion.
vestigeal (functionless) organ in human beings.
20.2.1 Skin
Skin is the outer most covering of the
body. It stretches all over the body in the form
of a layer. It accounts for 15% of an adult’s
human body weight. There are many structures
and glands derived from the skin. It eliminates
metabolic wastes through perspiration.
20.2 Human Excretory System The human body functions normally at
Metabolic activities continuously take place a temperature of about 37 0C. When it gets hot
in living cells. All metabolic products produced sweat glands start secreting sweat, which contains
by the biochemical reactions are not utilized by water with small amounts of other chemicals
the body because certain nitrogenous toxic waste like ammonia, urea, lactic acid and salts (mainly
substances are also produced. They are called sodium chloride). The sweat passes through the
excretory products. In human beings urea is the pores in the skin and gets evaporated.
major excretory product. The tissues and organs
associated with the removal of waste products 20.2.2 Kidneys
constitute the excretory system. Kidneys are bean-shaped organs reddish
The human excretory system consists of a pair brown in colour. The kidneys lie on either side
of kidney, which produce the urine, a pair of ureters of the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity
which conduct the urine from kidneys to the attached to the dorsal body wall. The right
urinary bladder, where urine is stored temporarily kidney is placed lower than the left kidney as
and urethra through which the urine is voided by the liver takes up much space on the right side.
bladder contractions. Each kidney is about 11 cm long, 5 cm wide and
If the waste products are accumulated 3 cm thick. The kidney is covered by a layer of
and not eliminated, they become harmful fibrous connective tissue, the renal capsules,
and poisonous to the body. Hence, excretion adipose capsule and a fibrous membrane.
plays an important role in maintaining the Internally the kidney consists of an outer
homeostatic condition of the body. dark region, the cortex and an inner lighter
Some of the excretory organs other than region, the medulla. Both of these regions
kidneys are skin (removes small amounts of contain uriniferous tubules or nephrons. The
20.2.4 Mechanism of Urine
Formation
The process of urine formation includes
the following three stages.
Glomerular filtration
Tubular reabsorption
Tubular secretion
Glomerular filtration: Urine formation begins
with the filtration of blood through epithelial
Figure 20.6 Longitudinal section walls of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule.
of human kidney The filtrate is called as the glomerular filtrate.
Both essential and non-essential substances
Functions of kidney present in the blood are filtered.
Tubular reabsorption: The filtrate in
1. M aintains the fluid and
the proximal tubule consists of essential
electrolytes balance in
substances such as glucose, amino acids,
our body.
vitamins, sodium, potassium, bicarbonates
2. Regulates acid-base and water that are reabsorbed into the blood
balance of blood. by a process of selective reabsorption.
3. Maintains the osmotic pressure in blood
Tubular secretion: Substances such as H+
and tissues. or K+ ions are secreted into the tubule. This
4. Helps to retain the important plasma constituents tubular filtrate is finally known as urine, which
like glucose and amino acids. is hypertonic in man. Finally the urine passes
Organ Systems in Animals 240
into collecting ducts to the pelvis and through Route of urine flow
the ureter into the urinary bladder. When the Glomerulus
(Ulltrafiltration)
urinary bladder is full the urine is expelled
out through the urethra. This process is called
Bowman’s capsule
micturition. A healthy person excretes one to (Receives glomerular filtrate)
two litres of urine per day.
Glomerulus Promixal convoluted tubule
(Reabsorbs water, glucose, sodium and chloride ions)
Afferent
arteriole Bowman’s capsule
maturity is attained at the age of 13-14 years. In semen. This fluid provides nutrition and helps
females, it is attained at the age of 11-13 years. in the transport of sperms.
This age is known as the age of puberty. During
sexual maturity, hormonal changes take place
in males and females and secondary sexual
characters are developed under the influence of
these hormones.
20.3.1 Male Reproductive System
Human male reproductive system consists
of testes (primary sex organs), scrotum, vas
deferens, urethra, penis and accessory glands. Figure 20.8 Male reproductive system
Testes: A pair of testes lies outside the abdominal
cavity of the male. These testes are the male gonads, The sperm is the smallest cell
which produce male gametes (sperms) and male in the male body. A normal
sex hormone (Testosterone). Along the inner side
male produces more than 500
of each testis lies a mass of coiled tubules called
epididymis. The Sertoli cells of the testes provide billion sperm cells in his life time. The
nourishment to the developing sperms. process of formation of sperms is known
Scrotum: The scrotum is a loose pouch-like sac of as spermatogenesis.
skin which is divided internally into right and left
scrotal sacs by muscular partition. The two testes 20.3.2 Female Reproductive
lie in the respective scrotal sacs. It also contains System
many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum
acts as a thermoregulator organ and provides The female reproductive system consists
an optimum temperature for the formation of of ovaries (primary sex organs), oviducts,
sperms. The sperms develop at a temperature of uterus and vagina.
1-3⁰C lower than the normal body temperature. Ovaries: A pair of almond-shaped ovaries is
Vas deferens: It is a straight tube which located in the lower part of abdominal cavity
carries the sperms to the seminal vesicles. near the kidneys in female. The ovaries are the
The sperms are stored in the seminal plasma female gonads, which produce female gametes
of seminal vesicle, which is rich in fructose, (eggs or ova) and secrete female sex hormones
calcium and enzymes. Fructose is a source of (Oestrogen and Progesterone).A mature ovary
energy for the sperm. The vas deferens along contains a large number of ova in different
with seminal vesicles opens into ejaculatory stages of development.
duct which expels the sperm and its secretions Fallopian tubes (Oviducts): These are paired
from seminal vesicles into the urethra. tubes originating from uterus, one on either
Urethra: It is contained inside the penis and side. The terminal part of fallopian tube is
conveys the sperms from the vas deferens funnel-shaped with finger-like projections
which pass through the urethral opening. called fimbriae lying near the ovary. The
The accessory glands associated with the fimbriae pick up the ovum released from
male reproductive system consist of seminal ovary and push it into the fallopian tube.
vesicles, prostate gland and Cowper’s glands. Uterus: Uterus is a pear-shaped muscular,
The secretions of these glands form seminal hollow structure present in the pelvic cavity.
fluid and mixes with the sperm to form It lies between urinary bladder and rectum.
GLOSSARY
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
1 2 3 4 5
a. Fallopian tube Oviduct Uterus Cervix Vagina
b. Oviduct Cervix Vagina Ovary Vas deferens
c. Ovary Oviduct Uterus Vagina Cervix
d. Fallopian tube Ovary Cervix Uterus Vagina
Concept Map
Organ Systems Involved in Digestion, Excretion and Reproduction
Small intestine
Large intestine
Anus
Steps
• Type the URL link given below in the browser or scan the QR code. You can view “the digestive system”.
• Click the go to interactive mode to explore the functions of each part you want to learn.
• Every part and its function can be learnt by clicking that particular part that we want to learn.
• Also you can see the process of digestion by clicking go to animation mode.
UNIT
Learning Objectives
247
21.1.2 Proteins
Human skin can synthesize
Proteins are the essential nutrients and Vitamin D when exposed
also the building blocks of the body. They are to sunlight (especially early
essential for growth and repair of body cells morning). When the sun rays falls on the
and tissues. Proteins are made of amino acids. skin dehydrocholesterol is converted into
Essential amino acids are those that cannot Vitamin D. Hence, Vitamin D is called as
be biosynthesized by the body and must be Sunshine vitamin. Vitamin D improves bone
obtained from the diet. The nine essential strength by helping body to absorb calcium.
amino acids are phenylalanine, valine,
threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine,
21.1.5 Minerals
isoleucine, lysine and histidine.
Minerals are inorganic substances required
21.1.3 Fats as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform
Fat in the diet provides energy. They various biological functions necessary for
maintain cell structures and are involved in life. They are the constituents of teeth, bones,
metabolic functions. tissues, blood, muscle and nerve cells.
Essential fatty acids cannot be synthesized The macrominerals required by the human
in the body and are provided through diet. body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
Essential fatty acids required in human nutrition sodium and magnesium. The microminerals
are omega fatty acids. required by the human body also called trace
elements are sulfur, iron, chlorine, cobalt,
21.1.4 Vitamins copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine
Vitamins are the vital and selenium.
nutrients, required in
minute quantities to perform Protein Energy
specific physiological and 21.2 Malnutrition (PEM)
biochemical functions.
Absence of certain nutrients in our
More to Know daily diet over a long period of time leads to
deficiency diseases. This condition is referred
Dr.
Funk introduced the term vitamin.
as Malnutrition. Deficiency of proteins
Vitamin A was given the first letter of the
and energy leads to severe conditions like:
alphabet, as it was the first vitamin discovered.
Kwashiorkar and Marasmus.
Deficiency
Vitamins Sources Symptoms
disorders
Vitamin D Egg, liver, dairy products, Rickets Bow legs, defective ribs,
(Calciferol) Fish, synthesized by the (in children) development of pigeon
skin in sunlight chest
Vitamin B12 Milk, meat, liver, pulses, Pernicious Decrease in red blood cell
(Cyanocobalamine) cereals, fish anaemia production, degeneration of
spinal cord
Macronutrients
Calcium Dairy products, beans, Constituent of bones and Bone deformities,
cabbage, eggs, fish enamel of teeth, clotting of blood poor skeletal growth,
and controls muscle contraction. osteoporosis in adults.
Sodium Common salt Maintains fluid balance and Muscular cramps,
involved in neurotransmission. nerve impulses do not
get transmitted.
Potassium Banana, sweet potato, nuts, Regulates nerve and muscle Muscular fatigue,
whole grains, citrus fruits activity. nerve impulses do not
get transmitted.
Micronutrients
Iron Spinach, dates, greens, Important component of Anaemia
broccoli, whole cereals, haemoglobin.
nuts, fish, liver
Iodine Milk, Seafood, Iodised salt Formation of thyroid hormones. Goitre
Kwashiorkar: It is a condition of severe and taste. Factors responsible for Food Spoilage
protein deficiency. It affects children between are given below.
1-5 years of age, whose diet mainly consists of Internal factors: It includes enzymatic
carbohydrates but lack in proteins. activities and moisture content of the food.
Marasmus: It usually affects infants below External factors: It includes adulterants in
the age of one year when the diet is poor in food, contaminated utensils and equipment,
carbohydrates, fats and proteins. unhygienic cooking area and lack of storage
facilities.
Drying: Drying is the process of preservation Canning: In this method of food preservation,
of food by removal of water/moisture content most vegetables, fruits, meat and dairy
in the food. It can be done either by sun- products, fruit juices and some ready-to-eat
drying, (e.g. cereals, fish) or vacuum drying foods are processed and stored in a clean,
(e.g. milk powder, cheese powder) or hot air steamed air tight containers under pressure
drying (e.g. grapes, dry fruits, potato flakes). and then sealed. It is then subjected to high
Drying inhibits the growth of microorganism temperature and cooled to destroy all microbes.
such as bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
21.4.2 Addition of Preservatives
Smoking: In this process, food products like
meat and fish are exposed to smoke. The drying Food can be preserved by adding natural
action of the smoke tends to preserve the food. and synthetic preservatives.
Minimum standards of quality for food Distributing food grains throughout the
and strict hygienic conditions for its sale are country.
clearly outlined in the Act.
Maintaining satisfactory levels of
operational and buffer stock of food grains
A slogan From farm to plate,
to ensure national security.
make food safe was raised on
World Health Day (7 th April Regulate the market price to provide food
2015) to promote and improve food safety. grains to consumers at reliable price.
Activity 1
21.6.1 Food Quality Control
Agencies Let each of the student bring any food
ISI, AGMARK, FPO, FCI and other health packet (jam, juice, pickle, bread, biscuit,
departments enforce minimum standards for etc). Note down the details like name of the
the consumer products. FCI (Food Corporation product, manufacturer’s details, contents/
of India) was set up in the year 1965 with the ingredients, net weight, Maximum Retail
following objectives: Price (MRP), date of manufacture, date of
expiry/usage from the date of manufacture
Effective price and standardized marks (ISI, AGMARK or
support operations for FPO) printed on the label for each of the
safeguarding the interest item. What is the aim of such practice?
of farmers.
Food Control Agencies- Their Standardized Mark and Role in Food Safety
ISI - (Indian Standards Certifies industrial products like electrical
Institution) known as Bureau appliances like switches, wiring cables, water
of Indian Standard (BIS) heater, electric motor, kitchen appliances etc.
FPO - (Fruit Process Order) Certifies the fruit products like juice, jams,
sauce, canned fruits and vegetables, pickles etc.
Activity 2
2. Honey: Dip a cotton wick in honey and light it with a match stick. Pure honey burns
while adulterated honey with sugar solution gives a cracking sound.
3. Sugar: Dissolve sugar in water. If chalk powder is added as an adulterant, it will settle down.
4. Coffee powder: Sprinkle a few pinches of coffee powder in a glass of water. Coffee powder
floats. If it is adulterated with tamarind powder it settles down.
5. Food grains: They have visible adulterants like marble, sand grit, stones, etc. These are
removed by sorting, hand picking, washing etc.
GLOSSARY
Fatigue Extreme tiredness due to mental or physical illness.
Hygroscopic The property of absorbing moisture from the air.
Muscular cramps Sudden and involuntary contractions of one or more muscles.
Nutrients Substance that provide nourishment for normal growth and development.
Nerve impulse Electric signals that travels along a nerve fibre.
Nourishment Food that you need to grow and stay healthy.
Osteoporosis A diseases which weakens the bones and makes it brittle.
Paralysis Loss of muscle function in any part of our body which can be either temporary
or permanent.
Shelf life Time for which a food can be kept fresh.
Toxins Any poisonous substance produced by bacteria, animals or plants.
a. I f both Assertion and Reason are true and a) Calcium b) Sodium
the Reason is the correct explanation of c) Iron d) Iodine
Assertion 7. Explain any two methods of food
b. If both Assertion and Reason are true but preservation.
Reason is not the correct explanation of 8. What are the effects of consuming
Assertion adulterated food?
c. If Assertion is true but Reason is false
d. If both Assertion and Reason is false X. Answer in detail.
1. Assertion: Haemoglobin contains 1. How are vitamins useful to us? Tabulate
iron. the sources, deficiency diseases and
Reason: Iron deficiency leads to symptoms of fat soluble vitamins
anaemia 2. Explain the role of food control agencies
2. Assertion: AGMARK is a quality in India.
control agency
Reason: ISI is a symbol of quality XI. Higher Order Thinking Skills.
a.
S alt is added as a preservative in
pickles___________
b. We should not eat food items beyond the
expiry date ______________
c. Deficiency of calcium in diet leads to poor
skeletal growth ___________
Concept Map
Disorder due to lack of protein,
Importance of Nutrients
vitamins and minerals
Food Hygiene
URL: http://218.248.6.39/nutritionatlas/home.php
UNIT
22 WORLD OF MICROBES
Learning Objectives
Cell Membrane
Microorganisms differ from each other
in size, morphology, habitat, metabolism Figure 22.1 Structure of a bacterial cell
258
a. Shapes of bacteria from 60% to 95% and the rest is nucleic acid.
Based on the shapes, bacteria are grouped as: Nucleic acid is either DNA (T4 bacteriophage) or
1. Spherical shaped bacteria called as cocci RNA (Tobacco mosaic virus, TMV).
(or coccus for a single cell). A simple virus particle is often called a
2. Rod shaped bacteria called as bacilli virion. They grow and multiply only in living
(or bacillus for a single cell). cells. They are the smallest among the infective
3. Spiral shaped bacteria called as spirilla agents varying over a wide range from 18-400
(or spirillum for single cell). nm (nanometre). They can live in plants, animals,
human being and even bacteria. They can be
easily transmitted from one host to another.
a. Characters of Viruses
Viruses exhibit both living and non-living
characters.
Living characters of viruses
1. They have the nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
Figure 22.2 Shapes of bacteria i.e., the genetic material that can replicate.
2. They can multiply in the living cells of the host.
Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, the 3. They can attack specific hosts.
first microbiologist designed his
Non-living characters of viruses
own microscope. In 1674, he
took plaque from his own teeth 1. Viruses remain as inert material outside their
and observed it under the microscope. He hosts.
was astonished to see many tiny organisms 2. They are devoid of cell membrane and cell
moving around, which was otherwise wall. Viruses are devoid of cellular organelles
invisible to naked eyes. like ribosomes, mitochondria, etc.
3. They can be crystallised.
b. Structure of a bacterial cell
Bacterial cell has cell membrane, covered by More to Know
strong rigid cell wall. In some bacteria, outside
The protein free pathogenic RNA of virus
the cell wall there is an additional slimy protective
is Viroids. They are found in plant cells and
layer called capsule made up of polysaccharides.
cause disease in plants.
The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm,
incipient nucleus (nucleoid), ribosomes and b. Types of Viruses
DNA which serve as genetic material. Ribosomes
Viruses are categorised as given below:
are the site of protein synthesis. They lack
Plant virus: Virus that infect plants. e.g. Tobacco
membrane bound organelles. In addition to this,
mosaic virus, Cauliflower mosaic virus, Potato
a small extra chromosomal circular DNA called
virus.
plasmid is found in the cytoplasm.
22.1.2 Viruses
The term ‘virus’ in Latin means ‘venom’ or
‘poisonous fluid’. Viruses are non-cellular, self-
replicating parasites. They are made up of a
protein that covers a central nucleic acid molecule,
either RNA or DNA. The amount of protein varies Figure 22.3 Tobacco mosaic virus
259 World of Microbes
Animal virus: Virus that infect animals. Each hypha is 5 to 10 μm wide. They are
e.g. Adenovirus, Retrovirus(HIV), Influenza tube like structures filled with protoplasm
virus, Polio virus. and cellular organelles. Cell wall is made up
of cellulose or chitin. Cytoplasm contains
small vacuoles filled with cell sap, nucleus,
mitochondria, golgi body, ribosomes, and
endoplasmic reticulum. Food material is stored
in the form of glycogen or oil globules.
They reproduce vegetatively (binary fission,
Adenovirus budding and fragmentation), asexually (spore
formation-conidia) and sexually (male and
female gametangium are called antheridium
and oogonium).
Influenza virus
Figure 22.4 Animal virus
22.1.4 Prions
The term 'prion' was coined by Stanley
B. Prusiner in 1982. Prions are viral particles
which contain only proteins. They do not
contain nucleic acid. They are infectious and
smaller than viruses. Prions are found in
Figure 22.5 T4 bacteriophage neurons and are rod shaped. Prions induce
changes in normal proteins. This results in the
22.1.3 Fungi degeneration of nervous tissue.
They lack chlorophyll, hence depend on
living or dead host for their nutritional needs.
Fungi living on living hosts are called parasites,
and those living on dead organic matter are
called saprophytes. The body of the fungus is
called thallus.
Single celled yeast ranges from 1 to 5 μm
in width. They are spherical in shape. Flagella
are absent and hence they are non-motile. In A
B
the case of multicellular forms, thallus is called
mycelium. Mycelium is a complex of several Figure 22.7 Normal (A) and Abnormal (B)
thin filaments called hyphae (singular: Hypha). prion protein
disease, but stimulate the body to produce of people (low incidence). e.g. Occurrence of
antibodies against the antigen in the microbes. goitre in Sub-Himalayan regions.
Table 22.2 Vaccines produced against Epidemic: Disease which breaks out and
diseases affects large number of people in a particular
Type of Name of
Disease
geographical region and spreads at the same
Vaccine the vaccine time. e.g. Influenza.
Measles, Mumps
MMR
and Rubella Pandemic: Disease which is widely distributed
Live on a global scale. e.g. Acquired Immuno
attenuated BCG (Bacillus
Calmette Tuberculosis deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
Guerin)
Sporadic: Disease which occur
Inactivated Inactivated
(Killed antigen) polio virus (IPV)
Polio occasionally. e.g. Malaria and Cholera.
Subunit vaccines
Hepatitis B 22.3.2 Manifestation of Disease
(Purified Hepatitis B
vaccine
antigens)
Communicability of diseases
Tetanus
Toxoid toxoid (TT)
Tetanus Infectious diseases are communicable
(Inactivated diseases. They are caused by external factors
antigen) Diphtheria
Diphtheria like pathogenic organisms (bacteria, virus,
toxoid
vectors, parasites) invading the body and
22.3 Microbes and Diseases causing diseases. e.g. Influenza, Tuberculosis,
Chickenpox, Cholera, Pneumonia, Malaria, etc
Disease (dis = against; ease = comfort) can
Non-infectious diseases are non-
be defined as an impairment or malfunctioning
communicable diseases. They are caused by
of the normal state of the living organism that
internal factors like malfunctioning of organs,
disturbs or modifies the performance of vital
genetic causes, hormonal imbalance and
functions of the body. Disease can be categorized
immune system defect. e.g. Diabetes, Coronary
based on:
heart diseases, Obesity, Cancer, Goitre, etc
i. The extent of occurrence (endemic,
epidemic, pandemic or sporadic). Point of entry and place of infection
ii. Whether infectious or non-infectious. The disease causing microbes enter the body
iii. Types of pathogen – whether caused through different means. An infection develops
by bacterial, viral, fungal or protozoan when these pathogens enter the human body
infections. through contaminated air, water, food, soil, physical
iv. Transmitting agent – whether air borne, contact, sexual contact and through infected
water borne or vector borne. animals. They may be organ specific or tissue
specific within our body where microbes reside.
World Health Day – 7th April
Reservoir of infection
World Malaria Day – 25th April
Reservoir of infection refers to the specific
World AIDS Day – 1st December environment in which the pathogens can thrive
World Anti -Tuberculosis Day – 24th March well and multiply without causing diseases.
eg. Water, soil and animal population.
22.3.1 C
lassification of Disease
Incubation period
based on Occurence
The interval between infection and first
Endemic: Disease which is found in a certain appearance of the diseases is called incubation
geographical area affecting a fewer number period. It may vary from few hours to several days.
World of Microbes 262
Infection
Robert Koch (Father of
Infection is the entry, development or
Bacteriology) is the first German
multiplication of an infectious agent in the
physician to study how pathogens
human body or animals.
cause diseases. In 1876, he
22.3.3 Harmful Effects of Microbes showed that the disease called anthrax of
Pathogens cause disease in two ways. They sheep was due to Bacillus anthracis which exist
in pastures in the form of protective spores.
are tissue damage and toxin secretion.
Tissue Damage: Many pathogens destroy
the tissues or organs of the body causing 22.4 Airborne Diseases
morphological and functional damage. For Human beings inhale atmospheric air. Due
example, bacterium of pulmonary tuberculosis to continuous inhalation of contaminated air
damages the cells of the lungs, and virus causing the chances for airborne microorganisms to
hepatitis destroys liver tissue. find a host and cause infection are higher.
Toxin Secretion: Many pathogens secrete Most of the respiratory tract infections
poisonous substances called toxins which cause are acquired by inhaling air containing the
tissue damage leading to diseases. pathogen that are transmitted through droplets
Let us now study about the causative caused by cough or sneeze, dust and spores.
organism, mode of infection, occurrence, Airborne diseases are caused by bacteria
symptoms and preventive measures of a few and viruses. A few air borne diseases and their
airborne, waterborne, vectorborne and sexually modes of transmission are given in the table
transmitted diseases. below.
22.6.2 Chikungunya
22.6 Vector Borne Diseases
Chikungunya is caused by virus. It is
Vector is an agent that acts as an transmitted in humans by the bite of infected
intermediate carrier of the pathogen. Many
Aedes aegypti mosquito during the day time.
insects and animals act as vectors. Diseases
It causes severe and persistent joint pain, body
transmitted by vectors are called vector borne
rashes, headache and fever. Joint pains can last
diseases. These vectors can transfer infecting
agents from an infected person to another for a very long time.
healthy person. Some of the insect vector borne Incubation period of the virus is usually 2-12
diseases are Malaria, Filaria, Chikungunya, days. Chillness, high fever, vomiting, nausea,
Dengue, and the diseases which are transmitted headache, persistent joint pain and difficulty in
through animals are Bird flu and Swine flu. walking are the common symptoms associated
with this disease. The joints get inflamed and the
22.6.1 Malaria person finds it difficult to walk. Paracetamol is
Malaria continues to be one of the major given to relieve pain and reduce fever.
health problems of developing countries. Malaria 22.6.3 Dengue
is caused by protozoan parasite Plasmodium.
Dengue is known as
Four species of Plasmodium namely, P.vivax,
break bone fever. The name
P.malariae, P.falciparum and P.ovale cause
break bone fever was given
malaria. Malaria caused by Plasmodium
due to the cause of intense
falciparum is malignant and fatal. Approximately
joint and muscle pain. Dengue fever is caused by
300 million people around the world get infected
virus. It is transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito.
with Malaria every year.
Incubation period of the virus is usually
It spreads through the bite of an insect vector, 5-6 days. Onset of high fever, severe headache,
the female Anopheles mosquito which feeds on muscle and joint pain, rashes, haemorrhage, fall in
human blood and usually lasts less than 10 days. blood platelet count are the symptoms associated
A person affected by malaria will show symptoms with this disease. Vomiting and abdominal pain,
of headache, nausea, muscular pain, chillness and difficulty in breathing, minute spots on the
shivering, followed by rapid rise in temperature. skin signifying bleeding within the skin are also
Fever subsides with profuse sweating. Use of associated with dengue fever. Paracetamol is given
Quinine drugs kills the stages of malaria parasite. to reduce fever and body ache. Complete rest and
increased intake of fluid is essential.
Know your Scientist
Sir Ronald Ross, an Indian
born British doctor, is
famous for his work
concerning malaria. He
worked in the Indian
Medical Service for 25
years. He identified the developing stages of
malarial parasite in the gastrointestinal tract
of mosquito and proved that malaria was
transmitted by mosquito. In 1902, he received
the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for
his work on the transmission of malaria.
Figure 22.8 Dengue
265 World of Microbes
Glycoprotein
Viral Envelope
Capsid
Figure 22.9 Transmission of Avian
Reverse
influenza virus Transcriptase
Enzyme
Most of the respiratory tract infections are Diseases transmitted by vectors are called
acquired by inhaling air containing the vector borne diseases. Some of them are
pathogen that are transmitted through droplets malaria, filaria, chikungunya and dengue.
caused by cough or sneeze, dust and spores. Diseases transmitted by animal to man are
Some of the air borne diseases are swine flu and bird flu.
tuberculosis, whooping cough, diphtheria, Sexually transmitted diseases such as
chicken pox, mumps, measles and influenza. gonorrhea, genital warts, genital herpes,
Infectious diseases that can spread through syphilis, AIDS are transmitted from one
water are diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, person to another by close physical contact.
typhoid, hepatitis and poliomyelitis.
GLOSSARY
Antibiotics Substances that kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms.
Biofertilizer Microorganisms which enrich the soil with nutrients.
Biopesticides Agents which control insect pests in natural way without causing harm to the
environment.
Flagella Lash-like appendage protruding from the cell body of bacterial cell.
Immunisation Process by which the body produces antibodies against the specific vaccine when
administered.
Pathogen A biological agent that causes disease to its host. e.g. bacteria,virus etc.
Prions Viral particles which contain only protein. They do not contain nucleic acid.
Vaccines Preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogens (weakened or killed) which on
inoculation into a healthy person provides temporary / permanent immunity
against a particular disease.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
I. Choose the correct answer. 4. The primary organ infected during
1. Which of the following is transmitted tuberculosis is
through air? a. bone marrow b. intestine
a. Tuberculosis b. Meningitis c. spleen d. lungs
c. Typhoid d. Cholera 5. Microbes that generally enter the body
through nose are likely to affect
2. One of the means of indirect transmission
a. gut b. lungs
of a disease is
c. liver d. lymph nodes
a. sneezing b. coughing
6. The organ affected by jaundice is
c. vectors d. droplet infection
a. liver b. lungs c. kidney d. brain
3. Diptheria affects the 7. Poliomyelitis virus enters the body through
a. lungs b. throat a. skin b. mouth and nose
c. blood d. liver c. ears d. eye
IV. Pick out the odd one. 1. Give an account of classification of bacteria
i) AIDS, Retrovirus, Lymphocytes, BCG, based on the shape.
ii) Bacterial disease, Rabies, Cholera, 2. Describe the role of microbes in agriculture
Common cold and Influenza. and industries.
3. Explain the various types of viruses with
V. S
tate whether true or false. If false, correct
examples.
the statement.
4. Suggest the immunization schedule for a new
1. Rhizobium, associated with root nodules of born baby till 12 months of age. Why it is
leguminous plants fixes atmospheric nitrogen. necessary to follow the schedule?
2. Non- infectious diseases remain confined to
the person who develops the disease and do X. Assertion and reason type questions.
not spread to others. Mark the correct statement as.
3. The process of vaccination was developed
a) If both A and R are true and R is correct
by Jenner.
explanation of A.
4. Hepatitis B is more dangerous than
Hepatitis A. b) If both A and R are true but R is not the
correct explanation of A.
VI. Match the following. c) If A is true but R is false.
Swine flu Human Papilloma virus d) If both A and R are false.
Human Immunodeficiency 1. Assertion: Chicken pox is a disease
Genital warts
Virus indicated by scars and marks in the body.
AIDS Mycobacterium Reason: Chicken pox causes rashes on face
Tuberculosis Influeuza virus H1N1 and further spreads throughout the body.
VII. Define the following. 2. Assertion: Dengue can be treated by intake
of antibiotics.
1. Pathogen 3. Vaccines
Reason: Antibiotics blocks the
2. Bacteriophages 4. Prions multiplication of viruses.
271 World of Microbes
Concept Map
UNIT
23 ECONOMIC BIOLOGY
Learning Objectives
273
into: i) Kitchen or Nutrition gardening is the most intensive type of vegetable growing.
ii) Commercial gardening iii) Vegetable forcing. e.g. Cabbage, Tomato, Brinjal etc.
Kitchen gardening: Kitchen gardening is
growing of vegetables in small scale at household.
e.g. Beans, Cabbage, Lady's finger, Tomato,
Brinjal, Carrot, Spinach etc.
23.3 Biofertilizers
Biofertilizers are substances that contain
Figure 23.6 Landscape gardening living microorganisms which, when applied
275 Economic Biology
to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, colonize the Mycorrhizae: These fungi have symbiotic
rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and association with the roots of vascular plants.
promote growth by increasing the supply or They increase the uptake of phosphorus.
availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. e.g. Citrus, Papaya.
Azolla:Azolla is a free floating, aquatic fern
23.3.1 Types of Biofertilizers
found on water surfaces having a cyanobacterial
Rhizobium: Rhizobium is a soil bacterium symbiotic association with Anabaena. It is a live
that colonize the roots of leguminous plants to floating nitrogen factory using energy from
form root nodules. The bacteria fix atmospheric photosynthesis to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
nitrogen and convert them to ammonia.
Activity 2
mushrooms. The following methods are used as roots will dry out rapidly if the misting cycles
to increase their life. are interrupted. A timer controls the nutrient
(i) Freezing (ii) Drying pump much like other types of hydroponic
(iii) Canning (iv) Vacuum Cooling systems, except that the aeroponic system needs
(v) Gamma radiation and storing at 15°C. a short cycle timer that runs the pump for a few
seconds every couple of minutes.
23.6 Hydroponics Mist Nozzle
Penaeus monodon
Figure 23.17 Marine water prawn
GLOSSARY
Aquaponics Combination of conventional aquaculture with hydroponics in a symbiotic
environment in which plants are fed with the aquatic animals’ excreta or wastes.
Compost Soil conditioner, fertilizer, natural pesticide, a decomposed organic matter
which is rich in nutrients.
Floriculture Production of ornamental plants.
Green manure Undecomposed green material derived mostly from leguminous plants.
Hydroponics Soil less growing system in which plants grow in water.
Mariculture Culture of fishes and other aquatic organism in marine water near the sea coast.
Nectar Sweet viscous secretion secreted by the flower of plants.
Olericulture Production of vegetables.
Pisciculture Culture and rearing of fishes under controlled conditions.
Polyculture Culture of more than one species of fish in a pond.
Pomology Production of fruits.
Vermicompost Vermicompost is the excreta of earthworm.
Vermicomposting Earthworms degrade organic waste materials into useful product which
can be used as a nutrient rich fertilizer.
Vermiculture Artificial rearing or cultivation of earthworms for the production of
vermicompost.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
IV. Differentiate the following. 3. What are the sources of organic resources
for vermicomposting?
a. Exotic breed and Indigenous breed
b. Pollen and Nectar 4. Give an account of different types of fish
c. Shrimp and Prawn ponds used for rearing fishes.
d. Farmyard manure and Sheep manure 5. Classify the different breeds of the cattle
with suitable examples.
V. Match the following.
VIII. Higher Order Thinking Skills.
Column A Column B
Lobsters Marine fish 1. Biomanuring plays an important role in
agriculture. Justify
Catla Pearl
Sea bass Shell fish 2. Each bee hive consists of hexagonal cells.
Name the material in which the cell is
Oysters Paddy
formed and mention the significance of
Pokkali Fin fish the hexagonal cells.
Pleurotus sps Psoriosis
Sarpagandha Oyster mushroom
Olericulture Reserpine REFERENCE BOOKS
Wrighta tinctoria Vegetable farming
1. Jawaid Ahsan and Subhas Prasad Sinha
A Hand Book on Economic Zoology,
VI. Answer briefly. S.Chand and Company , New Delhi
1. What are secondary metabolites? 2. Sharma O.P. Economic Botany Tata Mc
2. What are the types of vegetable garden? Graw Publishing Co Ltd
3. Mention any two mushroom preservation 3. Ismail, S.A. The Earthworm Book, Other
methods. India Press, Goa
Concept Map
Hydroponics
Aquaponics
Olericulture
Aeroponics
Economic Botany
Floriculture Bioferlizers
Floriculture Zones
Mushroom culvaon Manuring
Uses of Flowers
UNIT
24 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Learning Objectives
After completing this lesson, students will be able to
relate different aspects of environmental science.
describe biogeochemical cycles.
analyse the impacts of human activities on water cycle, nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle.
correlate the adaptations of plants with the habitat.
explain the adaptations of bat and earthworm.
explain recycling of water its methods and importance .
discuss the importance of water conservation and water recycling methods.
Transportation
Condensation Precipitation
Deposition
Condensation
Precipitation Sublimation Snowmelt Runoff
Transpiration
Evaporation
Plant uptake
Groundwater flow
GLOSSARY
Aestivation State of inactivity and a lowered metabolic rate in animals, during summer.
Conversion of nutrients into usable form that is incorporated into the tissues
Assimilation
and organs.
Buoyancy Capacity to remain afloat in liquid or gas.
Echo location Use of sound waves and their echoes to determine the location of objects.
Hibernation State of inactivity and a lowered metabolic rate in animals, during winter.
Infiltration Process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.
Precipitation Product of condensation of atmospheric water vapour that falls on earth.
Setae Hair-like locomotory structure, present in each segment of an earthworm.
Minute pores in the epidermis of leaves which facilitate gaseous exchange and
Stomata
transpiration.
Sublimation Conversion of solid state into vapour state without going through a liquid state.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
Hydrophytes
Adaptaons of plants Xerophytes
Mesophytes
C o n c e p t
UNIT
25 LibreOffice Impress
Learning Objectives
After the completion of this lesson, students will be able to:
define presentation.
create a new presentation.
insert text box, images, audio and video files.
insert and delete a slide.
view a slide show.
302
25.1.3
Inserting New Slide 25.1.4 Inserting pictures
To insert a new slide in a presentation, To Insert a Picture in a slide, choose insert
follow the given steps: ->Image or click the Insert image icon from
1. Click the Slide Menu. the Standard Toolbar.
2. Click New Slide from slides menu.
3. C
hoose the layout you want. For
example, Blank, the new slide is inserted.
Similarly, you can add many slides in a
presentation.
25.1.6 I
nsert audio and video
files
25.1.8 Animation
25.1.7 Slide Transition
Slide transitions are the effects that take Slide animations are similar to transitions,
place when one slide gives way to the next one but they are applied to individual elements in
in the presentation, like Roll down from top a single slide: title, chart, shape, or individual
or Fly in from left. They add dynamic flair to bullet point.
a slideshow, smoothing the transition between
Select the slide and the object (text box,
slides.
image) you want to apply the animation effect
• C
lick view menu and then press slide to. In the Sidebar, select Custom Animation
transition option. icon to open the Custom Animation section.
• N
ow you can select any one of the transitions Select the animation effect types from one of
(or) you can choose Slide transition option the tabbed pages on the Custom Animation
from the Sidebar setting dialog.
Computer – LibreOffice Impress 306
25.1.13 Opening an Existing You can also open your file directly by
Presentation clicking its name from the Recent Documents
To open an existing presentation, follow list.
the given steps:
25.1.14 Exit LibreOffice Impress
1. Click the File Menu.
2. Click the Open option. The open dialog To Close LibreOffice Impress, follow the
box appears. given steps:
3. Select the file to be opened. 1. Click the File Menu.
4. Click the Open button. 2. Click Exit LibreOffice Impress.
TEXTBOOK EXERCISES
PRACTICALS
Sl.
Name of the Experiment Time Month
No.
1. To find the diameter of a spherical body 40 minutes June
310
1. T O F I N D T H E D I A M E T E R O F A S P H E R I C A L B O D Y
Aim:
To determine the diameter of a spherical body using Vernier Caliper.
Apparatus required:
Vernier Caliper, given spherical body ( cricket ball).
Formula:
(i) Least count (LC) =1 Main scale division -1 Vernier scale division
LC = 1mm – 0.9 mm
LC = 0.1 mm (or) 0.01 cm
(ii) Diameter of the spherical object (d) = M.S.R. + (VC × LC) ± ZC cm
where, MSR - Main Scale Reading
VC - Vernier Coincide
LC - Least Count. (0.01 cm)
ZC - Zero Correction.
Procedure:
• Find the least count of the Vernier caliper.
• Find the zero correction of the Vernier caliper.
• Fix the object firmly in between the two lower jaws of the Vernier.
• Measure the main scale reading and the Vernier scale coincidence.
• Repeat the experiment by placing the jaws of the Vernier at different position of the object.
• Using the formula find the diameter of the object.
Average_________________________________cm
Result: The diameter of the given spherical object (Cricket ball) is _______ cm
311
2. T O F I N D T H E T H I C K N E S S O F G I V E N I R O N N A I L
Aim:
To find the thickness of the given iron nail.
Apparatus required:
Screw gauge and iron nail
Formula:
Pitch scale Reading
(i) Least Count (LC) =
No of divisions in the Head scale
(ii) Thickness (t) = Pitch scale Reading (PSR) +
Head scale coincidence (HSC) × Least Count (LC)] ± zero correction
t = PSR + (HSC × LC) ± ZC
Error:
(i) If positive error is 5 points, for zero correction, subtract 5 points.
t= PSR + (HSC × LC) – ZC
t= PSR + (HSC × LC) – 5
(ii) If negative error is 95 points, for zero correction add 5 points (100 -95 =5).
t= PSR + (HSC × LC) + ZC
t= PSR + (HSC × LC) + 5
Procedure:
• The Least count of screw gauge is 0.01 mm.
• The zero error is to be found when the two faces of the screw gauge touch each other.
• Then place the iron nail between the two faces of the screw gauge. The pitch scale reading
(PSR) and head scale coincidence (HSC) are to be noted.
• Repeat the process by placing other parts of the iron nail in the screw gauge.
• Tabulate the readings.
312
3. M E L T I N G P O I N T O F W A X
Aim:
To determine the melting point of wax using cooling curve.
Principle:
The determination of melting point is based on latent heat which is the
amount of heat required to change a unit mass (1gm) of a substance from
one state to another state without changing its temperature.
Materials Required:
Beaker, burner, thermometer, boiling tube, retort stand and clamp,wire gauze, tripod stand,
candle wax, stop watch, bowl of sand.
Procedure:
• Melt the wax in a warm water bath.
• When the wax is melted entirely, remove it from the bath, dry it and then bury it in sand.
• Record the temperature each 30 seconds while the liquid is being converted to solid.
• At the same time watch for constant temperature at which liquid and solid are present.
Melting point of wax= Constant Temperature over a period of time
<
Thermometer
Boiling tube
Retort stand
7HPSHUDWXUH&Û
with clamp
Beaker 0
Water
Candle wax
Wire gauze
Tripod stand
Bunsen burner ;
7LPH6
Suggestion: With the help of ICT corner, the teacher can show the live video of the experiment of
melting point of wax using the link www.kau.edu.sa
313
4. M E A S U R E M E N T O F V O L U M E O F L I Q U I D S
Aim:
To measure the volume of given colourless and coloured liquids.
Materials required:
Pipette (20ml), sample liquids and beakers
Procedure:
Take a 20 ml pipette. Wash it thoroughly with water and then rinse it with the given liquid.
Insert the lower end of the pipette into the given liquid and suck the solution slowly till the
solution rises well above the circular mark on the stem. Take the pipette out of the mouth
and quickly close it with the fore finger. Take the pipette out the liquid and keep it such a way
that the circular mark on the stem is at the level of the eyes. Now slowly release the fore finger
to let the liquid drop out until the lower meniscus touches the circular mark on the stem.
Now the liquid in the pipette is exactly 20 ml. This can be transferred to an empty beaker by
removing the fore finger.
Tabulation
Sl. Nature of the
Name of the liquid Colour of the liquid Volume of the liquid
No. meniscus
1
2
3
Note:
1. Keeping the circular mark on the stem of the pipette above or below the level of the eyes will lead
to error.
2. When colored liquids are measured, the upper meniscus should be taken into account.
3. Never suck strong acids or strong alkalis using a pipette.
Required specimens:
1. Pisces (Fish), 2. Amphibian (Frog), 3. Reptile (Calotes), 4. Aves (Dove),
5. Mammal (Rat)
314
Sl. No. Name of the animal Habitat Body structure Body covering Locomotory organs
1 Fish
2 Frog
3 Calotes
4. Dove
5. Rat
6. I D E N T I F I C A T I O N O F P L A N T A N D A N I M A L T I S S U E S
Aim:
To identify the structural features of plant and animal tissues from permanent
prepared slides.
Observation:
Identify the given plant and animal tissues.
a) Simple tissues- parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma
b) Complex tissues-xylem and phloem
c) Epithelial tissue- columnar epithelium, ciliated epithelium
d) Connective tissue- section of bone
e) Muscle tissue- skeletal muscle, smooth and cardiac muscle
f) Nerve tissue
Draw a labelled sketch and write the location and function of the tissues observed.
7. T O D E T E C T T H E A D U L T E R A N T S I N F O O D S A M P L E S
Aim:
To detect the adulterants in the given samples.
Materials required
Beakers, glass bowl, spoon and match box.
315
Procedure:
• Take 5 beakers with water and label it as A, B, C, D, E.
• Take samples A, B, C, D, E and add water to the respective beaker.
• Observe the changes in each beaker.
• Record your observations.
Observation:
8. I D E N T I F I C A T I O N O F M I C R O B E S
Aim:
To identify the different types of microbes (Bacteria and Virus).
Observation:
To observe and identify the following microbes with the help of photograph/picture/permanent
slide using a compound microscope/model/biovisual chart.
c. Lactobacillus
316
9. E C O N O M I C B I O L O G Y
Aim:
To identify the plants and animals of economic importance.
Observation:
To observe the following using specimen/photograph/picture/model.
a. Biofertilizer – Rhizobium
b. Medicinal plants – Nilavembu, Aloe vera
c. Mushroom - Agaricus bisporus
d. Indigenous cattle breed - Umblachery
e. Indian major carp - Catla catla
f. Type of Honey bees - Queen bee, Worker bee
10. I D E N T I F I C A T I O N O F A D A P T A T I O N S I N P L A N T S
Aim:
To identify the given plant specimen and list out its adaptations
1. Mesophytic plant – Tomato or Brinjal plant
2. Xerophytic plant – Opuntia
3. Aquatic plant – Eichhornia sp
4. Insectivorous plant – Nepenthes
Observation:
The given plants are identified and the following adaptations are noted.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
317
GLOSSARY
Heterotrophic - பிறசார்பு
Hibernation - குளிர்கால உறக்கம்
Homoeothermic Animal - வெப்ப இரத்த விலங்கு
Homogenous - ஒரு படித்தான தன்மை
Hydrophytes - நீர்வாழ்த் தாவரங்கள்
Hydrotropism - நீர் நாட்டம்
Immunization - ந�ோய்த்தடுப்பு
Inert gases / Noble gases - அரிய வாயு / மந்த வாயு
Inner Transition Elements - உள் இடை நிலைத் தனிமம்
Input - உள்ளீட்டகம்
Internal energy - அகஆற்றல
Iron filings - இரும்புத் துகள்கள்
IUPAC - தூய மற்றும் பயன்பாட்டு வேதியலுக்கான சர்வதேசக் கழகம்
Kingdom - உலகம்
Lamp Black - விளக்கு கரி
Latent heat - உள்ளுறை வெப்பம்
Least count - மீச்சிற்றளவு
Levitate - மிதத்தல்
Ligament - தசை நாண், தசை நார்
Longitudinal waves - நெட்டலைகள்
Malleable - தகடாகும் தன்மையுடைய
Mantle - மேன்டல் உறை
Mass number - நிறை எண்
Meiosis - குன்றல் பிரிவு, ஒடுக்கற் பிரிவு
Melting - உருகுதல்
Mesoglea - நடு அடுக்கு
Metalloids - உல�ோகப் ப�ோலிகள்
Meteorological - வானிலை ஆய்வு
Mixture - கலவை
Momentum - உந்தம்
Motion - இயக்கம்
nano - நூறு க�ோடியில் ஒன்று என்பதன் முன்னொட்டு (10-9)
Nocturnal - இரவில் இயங்கும்
Non polar solvant - முனைவற்ற கரைப்பான்
Notochord - முதுகு நாண்
Nucleus - அணு உட்கரு
Octaves - எண்மம்
Octet rule - எண்ம விதி
Olericulture - காய் கறி மற்றும் உணவுத்தாவரங்களை வளர்த்தல்
Operculum - செவுள் மூடி
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Science – Class IX
List of Authors and Reviewers
Advisory Committee V. Jagathratchagan, Headmaster,
Dr. T.V. Venkateswaran, Scientist, GHSS, Naduveerapattu, Cuddalore.
Department of Science and Technology, Snehalatha Dawson, HM (Retd),
Vigyanaprasar, Delhi. Dovetton Corrie (G) HSS, Chennai.
Dr. Dinakar, Associate Professor, R. Vendhan, P.G.T., GBHSS, Krishnagiri.
Madura College of Arts and Science, Madurai. S. Ravisankar, PGT., SRM HSS, Ambattur, Chennai.
Dr. Udhra D, Asst. Professor,
T. John Prince, P.G.T.,
Dept. of physics, D.G.Vyshnava College, Chennai.
NLC GHSS, Block-2, Neyveli, Cuddalore.
Margarette David Raj, Principal,
S. Geetha, P.G.T., Jawahar HSS, Ashok Nagar, Chennai.
Bakthavatchalam Vidyasharam, Chennai
J. Nagarajan, P.G.T., GHSS, Kadampuliyur, Cuddalore.
Tmt. Vijayalakshmi Srivatsan,
Principal (Retd), Ps. Senior Sec.School, Chennai-4 A. Sreekumari, PGT, GK Shetty Hindu Vidhayalaya MHSS,
Adhambakkam, Kanchipuram.
Domain Experts S. Selvabharath, PGT,
Dr. Sultan Ahmed Ismail, Scientist, Municipality GHSS, Mettupalayam.
Eco Science Research Foundation, Chennai. K. Mohana Chandran, PGT, Ellen Sharma
Dr. Rita John, Professor and Head, Memorial MHSS, Sozhinganallur, Kanchipuram.
Department of Theoretical Physics,
M. Sujatha, PGT, MGHSS, Thiruvannamalai.
University of Madras, Chennai.
R. Thilaikarasi, PGT, GK Shetty Hindu Vidhayalaya MHSS,
Dr. C.V Chitti Babu, Associate Professor,
Adhambakkam, Kanchipuram.
Dept. of Botany, Presidency College, Chennai.
P. Jeyaraj, PGT, GHSS, Munsirai, Kanyakumari.
Dr. T.S. Subha, Associate Professor and Head,
Dept. of Botany, Bharathi Women’s College, Chennai. Dr. K. Chinthanaiyalan, B.T. Asst.,
GHS, Periyar Nagar Nandambakkam, Kancheepuram.
Dr. N. Sarojini, Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Zoology, Bharathi Women’s College, Chennai. T. Yuvaraj, Lecturer, DIET Chennai.
Dr. R. Sugaraj Samuel, Asst. Professor, P. Nirmala Devi, B.T. Asst.,
Dept. of Physics, The New College, Chennai. GHS, Kalaiyur, Ramnad.
Dr. G. Ramesh, Asst. Professor, A. Satheeshkumar, B.T. Asst.,
PG & Research Department of Chemistry, GHSS, Rajendranagar, Theni.
Dr. Ambedkar Govt Arts College, Chennai. C. Rajasekar, B.T. Asst.,
Boopathi Rajendran, Deputy Director, GGHSS, Kundrathur, Kancheepuram.
Directorate of Elementary Education, Chennai. P. Kalaiselvan, B.T. Asst.,
Dr. N. Radha Krishnan, Associate Professor, Thiruvalluvar HSS, Gudiyaththam, Vellore.
Dept. of Botany, University of Madras, Chennai. M.S. Shanthi, B.T. Asst., GGHSS, Ashok Nagar, Chennai.
Dr. K. Chinthanaiyalan, B.T. Asst., S. Sujatha, Academic Coordinator,
GHS, Periyar Nagar Nandambakkam, Kancheepuram. Alpha International School, Sembakkam, Chennai.
Content Writers K.A. Sharmila, B.T. Asst,
Lady Sivaswamy Ayyar GHSS, Mylapore, Chennai.
Dr. R. Saravanan, Asst. Professor,
PG & Research Department of Zoology, R. Ramyadevi, B.T. Asst.,
Dr. Ambedkar Govt Arts College, Chennai. GHSS, Medavakkam, Kancheepuram.
Dr. S.K. Geetha, Asst. Professor, B. Leo, B.T., GHS, R.N. Pudur, Erode
PG & Research Department of Physics, Santhosh J.C. Vinobah, B.T.,GHS, Thachur,
Govt. Arts College for Men, Chennai. Kanniyakumari
Dr. P. Priya, Asst. Professor, N. Caroline Joseph, Dovetton Corrie (G) HSS, Chennai.
PG & Research Department of Zoology,
S. Sujatha, B.T. Asst., Miyasi MHSS, Chennai.
Pachaiyappa’s College, Chennai.
Dr. Kanakachalam, Asst.Prof., S.C. Selvathangam, B.T. Asst.,
GHS, Mannivakkam, Kanchipuram
Govt. Arts College, Erode.
Dr. R. Asir Julius, Asst. Professor, F. Davin Lalitha Mary,
SCERT, Chennai. Christ the King MHSS, East Tambaram, Chennai.
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