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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR
POLITICAL SCIENCE
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-1 Introduction.indd 1 2/6/2020 3:03:40 PM
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Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2018
Revised Edition - 2019, 2020
(Published under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational Research

and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
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HOW TO USE THE BOOK?
Introduction QR Code
To motivate the students to
A brief abstract of the unit. further explore and enrich the
concept
Learning objective Diagrams
Describes about what students Schematic representation that

illustrates the political happenings
are expected to learn by the end which will link the theory with
of every unit. practice.
Do you know? Glossary

A piece of information which Helps the students to become
provides a surprise element for familiar with newly introduced,
the students. uncommon and specialised terms.
Knowledge Boxes Evaluation

Additional inputs to the To check the understanding of
content are provided. the students and helps in arriving
at most suitable conclusions.
Activity Reference
To explore further about the List of books that can be referred
subject in order to get better when there needs a better
understanding of the subject. understanding.
Debate Further readings

A formal discussion need to be
conducted by the students on a Books that will enlarge the
particular issue in order to arrive at knowledge of subject in study.
a synthesis about that issue.
Case study Web links

A research strategy and an
empirical inquiry that investigates List of digital resources
a phenomenon within to a real life
context.
Conversation ICT
Exchange of ideas which will Lead to improved students
give better clarity to the subject. learning and better teaching
methods.
Quotable quote
Q uotable
uote Quotes of eminent political
thinkers that helps to bring
Key Terms
Helps the students to know
enlightenment among students. the Tamil translation of
key terms.
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VI
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VII
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CONTENTS
Unit Title Page No. Month

1 Introduction to Political Science 1
2 State 18 June
3 Basic concepts of Political Science - Part I 30
4 Basic concepts of Political Science - Part II 47
5 Democracy 65 July
6 Forms of Government 86
7 Political Thought 106
8 Political Ideologies - Part I 135 August
9 Political Ideologies - Part II 167
10 Public Opinion and Party System 187
11 Election and Representation 201 October
12 Local Governments 222
13 Social Justice 244
November
14 Political Developments in Tamilnadu 264
15 Tamil Nadu Political Thought 280 December
E - Book Assessment Digi Link
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VIII
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the
constitution of india
preamble
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to
constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizen :
JUSTICE, social, economic and political ;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship ;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity ;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the diginity of the individual and the unity
and integrity of the Nation ;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day
of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE
TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
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POLITICAL SCIENCE
HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR
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UNIT
1 Introduction of Political Science
1.1 Meaning, Definition and Origin of Political Science
Politics
What is Politics??!! I hear about it in tea-stalls, restaurants,
buses and in all other places that I go to... I have been hearing
this word since childhood... and everybody is so serious when
they talk about it... so should I get to know what is politics?
The term ‘Politics’ is closely related to the Greek word ‘Polis’ meaning
‘city-state’ (for affairs of the cities-for affairs of the state). The study
of politics dates back to 5th century BC(BCE) Greece with immense
contributions by political philosophers Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC)
and Aristotle (384 BC- 322 BC). Before the 20th century, the study of politics
was integrated with other disciplines such as history and philosophy.
and the relations between states. But the

Learning Objectives
last two centuries witnessed the study
 Provides insights into the meaning of politics concentrating on the conflict
of Politics and the manner in which between liberty and equality. In the
it affects the lives of people. 21st century, a central theme has been
the constant conflict between liberty
 Examines the definitions of Political and security. Some other major themes
Science and the changing nature of that are not central to the study of
the discipline. politics are development, environmental
 Explains the scope of Political sustainability, gender equality and
Science. international peace and co-operation.
 Throws light on the various
approaches to the study of Political POLITICS IS
Science. EVERYONE’S
 Discusses the relationship between BUSINESS
Political Science and other Social
Sciences.
All through history, political
Politics was primarily concerned philosophers have different perspectives
with the study of ethics. It further focused on the central theme of politics. The Greek
on the study of political ideas, political philosopher Aristotle, the father of
institutions and processes within states Political Science, considered the study of
11th Std Political Science Eng Medium Vol-1 Page 001-022 Chapter 1.indd 1 2/6/2020 11:50:08 AM
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politics as a systematic inquiry to assumption that all societies exhibit sharp

understand the truth about politics so as diversities with people pursuing different
to explain the relationship between the interests and values and hence there
State and the individual. He described and requires a mechanism through which the
classified different political systems. conflicting interests are reconciled. Also,
Aristotle and Plato made immense scarcity of resources is a feature of all
contributions to the origin and modern societies and so politics would
development of the discipline. Plato mean the mechanism through which
analyzed different political systems and goods and resources are distributed. For
Aristotle, closely following the trails of his Karl Marx, politics was all about class
teacher Plato, gave the analysis a historical conflict and political power and to David
perspective. They tried to understand the Easton politics meant ‘the authoritative
working of different forms of governments. allocation of values’.
Political scientists have explained
ACTIVITY
politics through its basic concepts such
Collect information about Arthashastra as power, order and justice. Power is the
and have a discussion in class on it. ability to make and enforce rules and to
influence the behaviour of the individuals.
Politics was a matter of discussion Power may or may not be legitimate.
in the churches during the medieval One needs to understand the difference
period as political power remained between power and authority. Authority
with the church under the Holy Roman is the moral or legal right and is the ability
Empire. The works of philosophers such to control. It implies legitimacy, where
as St. Augustine (‘The City of God’) power is exercised through established
amalgamated the principles of political institutions and people willingly accept
philosophy with those of religion. It it as proper and just. Power, on the other
must be noted here that for the Greek hand, may or may not be legitimate.
and medieval philosophers, politics was
Politics is also concerned about
a knowledge centering on the city-state,
order which denotes the structures,
which by and large had spiritual bond. It
rules, rituals, procedures and practices
was more of a community than a state.
that make up the political system. As the
It was during the Italian majority is ruled by the minority, there is
Renaissance that Niccolo Machiavelli always an apprehension of the fairness of
laid the foundations of modern political the government mechanism. Therefore,
science through his emphasis on empirical the exercise of power should be based
observation and investigation of political on the foundations of justice. Thus,
structures and political behaviour from a power, order and justice are regarded the
secular perspective. Politics, in the words basic concepts in politics. Since the late
of Harold Lasswell, an American Political 19th century, the study of politics as an
Scientist, is ‘Who gets What, When and academic discipline is commonly referred
How?’ This definition is based on the to as ‘Political Science’.
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ARISTOTLE ON HAPPINESS
Aristotle believed that happiness was the most important thing in life. He
taught that one should not waste one’s time in the pursuits of pleasure, but should
seek happiness instead. According to him, true happiness lay not in material things,
but in understanding one’s true nature, and regaling one’s full potential. In short,
happiness depends upon ourselves, and not on the outside world. One of Aristotle’s
most famous quotes is
“...happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human
existence...”
CONVERSATION
Student: Sir, we make a mention of Greek Thinkers can be correlated with the contemporary concepts
like Plato and Aristotle in our discussion about of political science like state, government etc.
the study of politics. In the Indian context, who is
considered the first political thinker?
Qualities of King: (Kural no: 382 & 383).
Teacher: In the Indian context, Thiruvalluvar,
the author of Thirukkural, the ancient legal text, is i) Courage ii)Liberal hand iii) Wisdom & energy
considered as one of the first political thinker. iv) Knowledge v) Taking strong decisions.
Student: Sir! It is very interesting to know that What a kingdom should and should not have?
an ancient Tamil literature seems to be the first (Kural no: 734).
political manual in India.
i) Complete cultivation i) Excessive starvation
Teacher: Though Kautilya, who was the author of
Arthasastra, wrote his book in 300BCE that book ii) Virtuous person ii)Irremediable epidemics.
concentrated more on the Political Economy, while
the Thirukkural of Thiruvalluvar concentrated iii) Merchants with inexhaustible wealth
more on Political governance. iii).Destructive foes.
Student: Oh is it! Sir! Will you please say something Components of Kingdom: (Kural no: 381)
about Kautilya!
i)People ii)Army iii)Resources iv)Ministry
Teacher: With Pleasure! Kautilya, was the chief v)Friendship vi)Fort
Minister of Chandra Gupta Mauryia, who ruled a
North Indian State about 300 BCE wrote the book Duties of King:
Arthasastra, which literally means Artha=wealth i) Identifying resources
and Sastra=knowledge. In short a first literary ii) Collecting revenue
source on political economy. iii) Protecting revenue.
iv) Distribution of revenue.
Student: Sir! Then what is the contribution of
Thiruvalluvar to political science? Student: Oh! It is very much Interesting to know
more from you, about our ancient literary sources
Teacher: Thiruvalluvar has given many concepts on Political Science!
in Thirukkural regarding king and kingdom which
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There is a limited amount

the same in other places. But ‘political
of power in society, which
science’ will mean one and the same thing
can only be held by one
everywhere. Hence it would be better to
person or group at a time.
name the discipline as Political Science
than as Politics. The Political Scientists
- Karl Marx who met at Paris in 1948 also found the
term ‘Political Science’ more acceptable.
Power is a relationship
It is not appropriate to use the two terms
in which one group
as synonyms, though a few still prefer to
of persons are able to
style the discipline also as politics.
determine the actions of
the others in the direction of the former’s The important developments in
own end. Political Science since the time it became
- David Easton a distinct academic discipline occurred in
the United States. Until then, Politics was
Power breeds power and a part of disciplines such as philosophy,
this form the central tenet law and economics. Political Science as
of elitism. an autonomous discipline dates back to
1880 when John W. Burgess established
- Robert Michel a School of Political Science at the
Columbia University. By 1920’s most of
Political Science the leading Universities established an
The switch from ‘Politics’ to exclusive department for the study of
‘Political Science’ occurred as the Political Science. The American Political
discipline began to emerge as an Scientists showed tremendous interest in
autonomous discipline in the modern this direction and took efforts to separate
period. The term politics referred to the it from history, law and philosophy. The
affairs of the city state, which was a small discipline then had very formalistic and
community, in the ancient Greece. But the institutional approach and this trend
term nowadays refers to as Gilchrist says, continued up to the Second World War.
‘current problems of the government’. But later, scholars such as Woodrow
It means that when someone says he is Wilson and Frank Goodnow stressed
interested in politics it implies that he more on the study of social facts over
is involved in several political activities the study of static institutions. There was
relating to political issues, legislations, a conscious effort by scientists such as
labour issues, party activities and the rest Arthur Bentley to develop an objective,
which has far wider canvass. On the other value-free analysis of politics and the
hand, the political studies are distinct principle impetus in this regard came
and hence they need to be differentiated during the 1920’s from the Chicago
from current problems. Further, politics University. Charles E. Merriam was
in one country differ from the others. the leading figure in this movement for
What is ‘politics’ in India may not mean empirical observation and measurement
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in political analysis. Charles E. Merriam’s to examine the political behaviour of

‘Political Power’ and Harold Lasswell’s humans. Thus, modern political analysis
‘Politics: Who Gets What, When, How?’ began to rest upon the following four
made the aspect of power the central principles:
theme of politics. The totalitarian regimes  the search for comprehensive scope
in Europe and Asia in the 1920’s and
 the search for realism
30’s and the onset of the Second World
War turned the discipline away from its  the search for precision
focus on institutions and procedures.  the search for intellectual order
Works during this phase focused more on
ACTIVITY
political parties, pressure groups, elites
and the basis of electoral choices. This
new focus on political behaviour came Why is Aristotle regarded as a great
to be known as ‘behaviouralism’. The political philosopher? Discuss
term was borrowed from ‘behaviourism’
in psychology. Later, the 1960’s saw the Why do we say that both Plato and
emergence of a new trend known as Aristotle had a profound influence on
‘Post-Behaviouralism’. It was a reaction Greek social, political and economic life?
against the orthodoxy and dominance of
the behavioural methods in the study of Read more about Charles E. Merriam,
politics. The call for the development of Woodrow Wilson and Arthur Bentley
this trend was given by David Easton, and find out their important works.
who ironically, was one of the leading
Definition of Political Science
advocates of the behavioural revolution.
He claimed that the behavioural method Scholars have defined Political
lost touch with reality and hence post- Science in different ways. For Garner it
behaviouralism argued that research did begins and ends with State. Leacock and
not have to be necessarily value free and Seeley see its dealing with government.
the emphasis had to be on relevance over Robson and Lasswell regard it as the study
precision. Thus, the intellectual revolution of power and influence. Some scholars
resulted in many political scientists define it as the study of political aspects
attempting to comprehend the sociological, of organized human society. But the latter
anthropological and psychological aspects one instantly enlarges the scope of political
of the study of Political Science. They science as it tends to include everything.
vehemently criticized the traditional Thus Political Science has been variously
methods and its formal and parochial defined though for most part of the history
tools of analysis. They pointed out that the the emphasis was placed on state, its
political theorists in the past concentrated institutions, laws and processes. Political
on state, government, institutions and behaviour of individuals and groups also
their formal structures and did not became a part of it after the behavioural
take into consideration the interactions revolution. The latest addition to this has
between them and the subjects and failed been the concept of governance.
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Political Science deals with the origin, development, purpose and all political
problems of the State.- Garris
The study of Politics concerns itself with the life of men in relation to organized
states.- Harold Laski
Political Science investigates the phenomena of government as Political Economy
deals with Wealth, Biology with Life, Algebra with Numbers and Geometry with
Space and Magnitude.- Seeley
Political Science is an empirical enquiry in the study of shaping and sharing of power.
- Harold Laswell
It is the historical study of the past, analytical study of the present and ethical study
of the future. -Gettel
Political Science is the process by which scarce resources- human, economic, spiritual
are allocated within a social limit, be it a city, a state, a nation or an organization for
the purpose of providing for human needs and desires. - David Easton
On the basis of your reading / their observance had to be ensured. The

understanding of the above report society thus organized is called the State,
answer the following questions briefly: the rules that govern social conduct are
the laws of the State and the individuals
1. What do you understand by the term who enforce the same and ensure their
“Tryst with destiny” ? observance is the government. Thus,
2. List any three challenges highlighted Political Science deals with human being
by the Prime Minister Nehru. in relation to the State and government.
3. Discuss why freedom, power, peace It is the study of humans in the process of
and security are considered as core governing themselves.
components in our day to day life.
Political Science is concerned with
1.2 Nature of Political Science the theory and practice of politics. It
describes and analyzes political systems
Human being is a social animal.
and political behaviour. It traces the
They prefer company to solitude. Humans
origin and development of State. It studies
are never self-sufficient and depend on
the associations and institutions related
fellow beings for the satisfaction of their
to the State. Political Science attempts
diverse needs. So, they have always lived
to explain what men and women do in
in social groups. They have been a part
political situations. At the initial stages the
of the society with set rules of common
discipline was closely aligned with subjects
behaviour. Such a society had to be
such as history and philosophy. The
properly organized with individuals to
American Political Science Association
enforce rules and regulations and also
founded in 1903 made efforts to separate
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“Tryst with Destiny”

Case Study
The following is the report by The Hindu on 14.8.1947delivered by the first

Prime Minister of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.
“Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny and now the time comes when
we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially",
declared India’s first premier, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, moving the resolution
prescribing an Oath for the members in the Constituent Assembly to-night.
“At the stroke of midnight hour,” Pandit Nehru said, “when the world sleeps,
India will awake to life and freedom. (cheers) The moment come, it comes but rarely
in history, when we step our from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when
the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn
moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and
to the still larger cause of humanity”.
“Freedom and power bring responsibility. That responsibility rests upon the
Assembly, a sovereign body representing the sovereign people of India. Before the
birth of freedom, we have endured all the pains of labour and our tears are heavy with
the memory of this sorrow. Some of those pains continue even now. Nevertheless,
the past is over and it is the future that backons to us now.
The service of India means the service of the millions who suffer, it means
the ending of poverty and ignorance and disease and inequality of opportunity. The
ambition of the greatest man of our generation has been to wipe every tear from
every eye. That may be beyond us, but so long as there are tears and suffering, so
long our work will not be over. And so we have to labour and to work and work
hard to give reality our dreams. Those dreams are for India, but they are also for the
world, for all the nations and peoples are too closely knit together to day for any one
of them to imagine that it can live apart. Peace has been said to be indivisible, so is
freedom, so is prosperity now, and so is prosperity now, and so also is disaster in this
one world that can no longer be split into isolated fragments”.
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the study of politics from other social  Political Dynamics

sciences such as history and economics. At  International Relations
the later stages, when scientific approach
As the scope of Political Science
became the order of the day it was aligned
cannot be limited to the above mentioned
with disciplines such as psychology and
sub-disciplines, the following diagram
anthropology. The behavioural revolution
illustrates the broad scope of Political
stressed on the need for a scientific and
Science.
systematic analysis of individual and
group behaviour. With the advent of State and Political Political
Government Theory Institutions
Post-Behaviouralism, relevance to social
problems along with political facts became Relations International
the focus of Political Science. Political
Dynamics
between the
individual
Relations and
International
and the state Law
ACTIVITY
Public Policy
Make a list of the important works of Political Science primarily studies

Plato and Aristotle. the problems of the State and Government.
State possesses the authority to frame rules
1.3. Scope of Political Science for governing its people. The State executes
Scope of the discipline implies its its will through the government. The
jurisdiction or subject-matter. Political government is an agency of the State. Some
Science covers a vast field. Basically it is political theorists such as Bluntschli have
seen as a study of State. The state is located restricted the scope of Political Science to
on a territory with its own people and a the study of State alone as they believe the
government to maintain and promote State includes also the government. The
orderly and happier life. Hence the government is considered the part and
scope of the discipline takes a quantum parcel of the State. On the other hand,
jump. Further the human nature will not other writers such as Karl Deutsch opines
remain static. Men Change and the scope that Political Science deals only with the
of the discipline keep expanding. As the government. Scholar such as Harold Laski
subject matter of political science includes argue that Political Science is the study of
enacting legislations that binds every one both state and government. Despite the
and every other activity its areas of inquiry fundamental differences between the state
also includes fields like economics, and government, the scope of one cannot
commerce, sociology, law, etc., be separated from that of the other. The
In the year 1948, the International scope of Political Science includes the
Political Science Association mentioned study of the past, present and future
the following as the Scope of Political developments of the State.
Science; Political Theory is an important
 Political Theory component of Political Science. It includes
 Political Institutions political thought and philosophy and
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further explains the basic concepts of the discipline. Political Science examines the nature,
structure and working of political institutions. It undertakes a comparative analysis of
different constitutions and governments. The scope of the discipline also includes the
study of contemporary forces in government and politics. This includes the study of
political parties, interest groups and pressure groups. An empirical study of political
dynamics explains the political behaviour of individuals, groups and organizations. Most
importantly, Political Science throws light on the relationship between individuals and
the state. Consequently, modem political scientists under the behavioural and systems
approach have widened the scope of political science to cover many more aspects like
political socialization, political culture, political development and informal structures
like pressure groups, etc.
Moreover, the study of International Relations which includes diplomacy, international
laws and international organizations also come within the purview of Political Science.
It is also a study of Public policy explaining the governmental and non-governmental
responses to public issues.
1.4. Is Political Science, a Science or an Art?
What is Political Science?

I’m hungry Stop Talking
What is political science?
Politics
The scientific study of politics
and government
What political science is not?
A perfect science that has all
the answers
Is political science is a
science? If so, how is politics
scientific?
The subject of Politics is popularly called as Political Science only after the empirical approaches
entering into the subject after the Contributions of American Political Scientists’ contributions.
Though it is called as “Political Science” it cannot be claimed a status of a pure science like Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, etc. It can be called only as social science, as it is mainly dealing about human
behaviour.
There is a great debate on the scientific nature of Political Science. Some scholars
consider it a science of the State and the Government. While others are of the opinion that
it is one of the most backward of all the arts. Writers like Auguste Comte and Maitland
are of the opinion that social sciences lack scientific character as there is no consensus
of opinion among experts on its nature, methods and approaches. It lacks continuity and
development and the elements that constitute a basis of precision. There are no universal
principles and the scientific methods of observation and experimentation may not be
applicable to Political Science. The elements of reliability, verifiability, precision and
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accuracy found in natural sciences are views and opinions. Nevertheless, all
absent in Political Science. There is no Political Scientists unanimously agree
uniformity in the principles of Political that imperialism, colonialism, inequality,
Science and it does not strictly observe illiteracy and poverty affect the society at
the relation of cause and effect as the large.
other sciences do. Similarly we do not Though Political Science does not
find that exactness and absoluteness in strictly adhere to the theory of cause and
Political Science as it is found in Physics effect, certain political phenomena have
and Chemistry. Hence several scholars their own cause and effect. For instance,
identify it with Arts. poverty and unemployment are causes
On the other hand, some writers that can result in the consequence of
argue that Political Science is the science revolution. Hence, some writers conclude
of state and government. Aristotle that Political Science is undoubtedly a
was the first one to call it as a supreme ‘Science’.
science. Writers such as Bodin, Hobbes, Though Political Science cannot
Montesquieu and Bluntschli subscribe to be equated with the natural sciences but
this view. Dr. Garner defines science as nevertheless, it is a social science dealing
knowledge relating to a particular subject with individuals and their relations with
acquired by a systematic study, observation the State and government. One can say
or experience. If science is thus defined, that, whether Political Science could be
conclusions in Political Science are also seen as an Art or Science would largely
drawn after systematic study, observation depend on the chosen subject matter for
or experience. Though Political Science the study and the approaches used to carry
cannot claim of universal laws as in the case out the study.
of natural sciences, there are conclusions
that can be proven. For instance, it cannot
be denied that democracy is the most
Quotable
uote
Whoever you are or want to be, you may
suited form of government in pluralistic not be interested in politics, but politics
societies and that it is best possible one to is interested in you. - Marshall Bermen
promote social welfare. This conclusion
was derived after a systematic study 1.5 Approaches to the Study of Political
of the other forms of governments in Science
different parts of the world during the An approach is the way of looking
ancient, medieval and modern period. at a political phenomenon and then
There is no consensus among scholars explaining it. The approaches and methods
on the nature, methods and principles of to the study of Political Science are many.
the discipline as it engages in the study There are both traditional and modern
of human beings and the institutions or scientific approaches. The traditional
manned by them. These institutions adapt approaches are highly speculative and
themselves to changing needs of human normative and the modern approaches are
life and hence scholars are also of different more empirical and scientific in nature.
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I. Traditional Approaches
i. Philosophical Approach
It is the oldest approach to the study of politics. It is also known as speculative,
metaphysical or ethical approach. The study of state, government and the political
behaviour of man is intricately linked with the quest for achieving certain goals, morals or
truths. Here, the discipline moves closer to the world of ethics. The approach is criticized
for being highly speculative and abstract.
TRADITIONAL APPROACHES MODERN APPROACHES
PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH

EXPONENTS: EXPONENTS:
Plato, Aristotle, Leo Strauss Mac lver, Almond Gabriel
PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH
HISTORICAL APPROACH
EXPONENTS:
EXPONENTS:
Graham Wallas, David Truman
Machiavelli, Sabine
ECONOMIC APPROACH
EXPONENTS:
LEGAL APPROACH
KARL MARX, FRIEDRICH ENGELS
EXPONENTS:
Cicero, Jean Bodin, John Austin
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
EXPONENTS:
INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH David Easton, Robert A Dahl
EXPONENTS: Harold Laski,
Arthur Bentley, James Bryce
MARXIST APPROACH
EXPONENTS:
V I Lenin Antonio Gramsic
ii. Historical Approach are sought. However, critics argue that

This approach throws light on the historical parallels can be illuminating,
past and traces the origin and development but at the same time they can also be
of the political institutions. It seeks to misleading as it is loaded with superficial
study the role of individuals and their resemblances.
motives, accomplishments and failures in iii. Legal Approach
the past and its implications for the future.
In understanding the political issues The study of politics is linked with
of today, the help of historical parallels the study of legal institutions created
by the State for the maintenance of the
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political organization. As the State is psychological laws. It assumes that the

engaged in the maintenance of law and psychological analysis of political leaders
order, the study of judicial institutions reveals significant knowledge about
become the concern of political theorists. politics. However, this approach ignores
This approach looks at the State as an the sociological, legal and economic
organization primarily concerned with factors in the study of politics.
the creation and enforcement of law. iii. Economic Approach
However, critics argue that this approach
As matters pertaining to production
has a narrow perspective. The State has and distribution of goods are regulated
various other functions to perform other by the State, the economic matters
than enforcement of law and order. Laws also become a concern for the political
deal with only one aspect of an individual’s theorists. This approach emphasizes
life and do not enable the complete on the role of the State in regulating
understanding of his political behaviour. the economic matters and argues that
iv. Institutional Approach economic affairs are intimately linked
This approach is also known as to the political process of the State. The
approach is inclined towards linking and
the structural approach. It lays stress
understanding the political and economic
on the formal structures of the political
life of individuals. However, the approach
organization such as legislature, executive
takes into account only the economic
and judiciary. The informal structures are factors and ignores other factors such as
also studied and a comparative study of social and psychological factors.
the governmental systems are encouraged.
However, this approach is criticized for iv. Behavioural Approach
laying too much emphasis on formal and This approach focuses on political
informal structures and ignoring the role behaviour and studies the attitudes and
of individual in those institutions. preferences of humans in the political
II. Modern Approaches context. Thus, the study of politics moved
its focus from formalism and normativism
i. Sociological Approach
to the study of political behaviour.
This approach emphasizes on the
However, critics argue that this approach
understanding of the social context to
is based on a false conception of scientific
explain the political behaviour of the
methods.
members of the community. The state is
considered primarily as a social organism v. Marxist Approach
and politics is understood through the This approach is basically different
sociological factors. But critics are of from the other modern approaches.
the opinion that too much of emphasis
It perceives State as an inevitable
on the social context can affect the very
consequence of class contradictions.
autonomy of the discipline.
It assumes that there is a continuous
ii. Psychological Approach
interaction between the political and
This approach studies and explains
economic forces and separating one from
political and social institutions through
the other is not possible. However, this
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approach gives undue importance to the iii. Political Science and Ethics
economic factors and ignores the other Philosophy is closely associated
important factors. with ethics. Ethics deals with morality
After careful analysis of the and formulates rules and regulations
approaches, it is understood that each governing the behaviour of individuals in
approach has its own relevance in the the society. Ethics is the science of moral
study of political phenomenon and also order and Political Science is the science
suffer from certain limitations. of political order. Both Political Science
and Ethics aim at the noble and righteous
III. Relationship with other Social Sciences
life of humans.
i. Political Science and History
The state and its institutions are iv. Political Science and Sociology
a product of slow historical growth and Political Science and Sociology are
Political Science uses historical facts to intimately related and it is Sociology that
discover general laws and principles. provides the basic information regarding
Political History is the narrative of the origin and evolution of state and other
political events and movements. The political institutions. Political Science is
relationship between History and Political also called as Policy Science and policies
Science is well explained by Freeman as he of the State cannot be formulated without
says ‘History is past Politics and Politics the careful analysis of the social needs
is present History’. John Seeley adds to of the people. Political Science provides
it through his quote, ‘History without information to Sociology about the
Political Science has no fruit, Political organization and functions of the state
Science without History has no root’. and how the policies and programmes of
ii. Political Science and Economics the State affect the society at large.
Economics was considered a branch v. Political Science and Psychology
of Political Science and in fact, the Greeks
Psychology deals with all the aspects of
called Political Science by the name of human behaviour while Political Science
Political Economy. Political Economy deals only with the political behaviour
attempts to understand how political of humans. Psychology throws light on
institutions, political environment and why individuals and groups behave in a
economy influence each other. Historians certain manner. It aids Political Science in
have explained as to how groups with understanding the behaviour of political
common economic interests have utilized parties and varied other groups in the state.
the political process and environment to Barker rightly says, ‘The application of
effect changes for their own benefit. The psychological clue to the riddles of human
study of Political Science and Economics activity has indeed become the fashion
are directed towards the same end providing of the day. If our forefathers thought
the best possible life for its people. biologically, we think psychologically’.
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vi. Political Science and Public

Administration ACTIVITY
Political Science is closely related
to Public Administration and in fact, Collect pictures on the life and works of
the term ‘public’ denotes ‘government’ your favorite political thinker and explain
though Public Administration also to the class about his contributions to
includes the study of non-governmental the discipline.
organizations. Public Administration
is the implementation of governmental
Glossary
policies and Political Science deals with
the process of policy formulation. There Political Systems Various Forms of
is a similarity in the objective of Political governments with different types of
Science and Public Administration as they Constitutions
both aim at optimum use of resources and Arthashastra It is a work on political
social welfare. economy and administrative governance
Thus, we understand that Political
written by Kautilya in 3rd century BC.
Science is the systematic study of
governance by the application of empirical City-State A community oriented small
and scientific methods of analysis. Though state with the governance of small
it involves empirical investigations, it does population centered around a city.
not generally produce precise predictions.
Political Behaviour It may be defined as
Political Science examines the state
any action regarding authority in general
and its organs and institutions. It also
and government in particular.
encompasses the study of societal, cultural,
economic and psychological factors that Authority Ability of a person or an
influence the government. It borrows institution to use its power and influence
heavily from the other social sciences with legal sanction. It can also be called as
but its focus on power differentiates it legitimate use of power.
from the other disciplines. Apart from
Tryst It is an appointment to meet at a
power, Political Science also focuses
on comparative politics, international certain time and place, especially one
relations, political theory, public law and made somewhat secretly.
public policy. Most importantly, the study Destiny The things that will happen in the
of Political Science gives us the basic future
understanding of the political process,
Political Dynamics The continuously
the system of government and the way in
which it affects the life of every citizen. changing and moving in political
institutions from one stage to another stage.
Politics It is the art or science of government
ACTIVITY or governing, especially the governing of a
political entity, such as a nation, and the
Write a short note on how politics affects administration and control of its internal
your daily life. and external affairs.
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Political Science It is the branch of Totalitarianism It refers to the

knowledge that deals with the state and subordination of all aspects of human life
systems of government and the scientific to the authority of the state.
analysis of political activity. Oligarchy It is a government by the few,
Behaviouralism It stressed on objective especially despotic power exercised by a
and quantified approach to explain and small and privileged group for corrupt or
predict political behaviour. selfish purposes.
Post-Behaviouralism It is a reaction Imperialism The policy of extending the
against the behavioural orthodoxy and the rule or authority of an empire or nation
emphasis was on relevance over precision. over foreign countries, or of acquiring and
holding colonies and dependencies.
Democracy Democracy refer to a popular
government based on the will of the Colonialism The control or governing
people. influence of a nation over a dependent
country, territory, or people.
Evaluation
I Choose the Correct answer

1) T
he term ‘Politics’ is closely related to the Greek word ‘Polis’ meaning,
a) City-state b) Police Forces
c) Politics d) Police state
2) Who told the central theme of politics is ‘Who gets What, When and How?’
a) Harold Laski b) Harold Laswell
c) Charles E Merriam d) Franck Goodnow
3) According to David Easton Politics is
a) ‘The authoritative allocation of values’
b) ‘The authoritative allocation of resources’
c) ‘The authoritative allocation of authority’
d) ‘The authoritative allocation of power’
4) In the Indian context, who are all considered as the ancient political thinker?
a) Kautilya and Thiruvalluvar b) Valmiki and Varahamihira
c) Charaka and Susrutha d) Viyasar and Aryabatta
5) The Concept ‘Legitimacy’ is closely related to
a) Study of Law b) State and Government
c) Legitimate ownership of Property d) Power and Authority
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6) Who told that ‘Power breeds power and this form the central tenet of elitism’?
a) Robert Michel b) Harold Laski
c) David Easton d) Charles E Merriam
7) Who can be called as the Father of Political Science?
a) Aristotle b) Socrates
c) Plato d) Machiavelli
8) Who told that ‘Man is by nature a Political Animal’?
a) Plato b) Jean Bodin
c) Aristotle d) Socrates
9) Who changed the subject matter of politics from the religious approach to the
empirical observation with secular Perspectives?
a) Thomas Hobbes b) Niccole Machiavelli
c) John Locke d) J.J. Rousseau
10) Who gave the famous quotation, ‘History is past Politics and Politics is present
History’?
a) Harold Laswell b) Freeman
c) Charles E Merriam d) John Marshall
II Answer the following questions very shortly

1) Define the origin of the word ‘Politics’.
2) What do you understand by the term “Tryst with destiny”?
3) Describe the view of Karl Marx about Power.
4) Write about the views of Aristotle on Happiness.
5) List any three challenges highlighted by the Prime Minister Nehru.
6) Write about the Concept of secularism.
7) Explain the basic concept of Post-Behaviouralism.
III Answer the following questions shortly

1) Explain the Nature of Political Science.
2) Define the concept ‘Power’.
3) Write the relationship between Aristotle and Plato.
4) Explain the philosophical approach of Political science.
5) “History without Political Science has no fruit, Political Science without History
has no root”- John Seeley: Explain.
6) Explain the legal approach to political science.
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IV Answer the following questions in detail

1) Is Political Science an Art or Science? Substantiate your answer.
2) Explain the relationship between Political Science and other social sciences.
3) Explain the Traditional Approaches to study political science .
4) Explain the basic principles of Post Behaviouralism.
5) E
xplain the Context by which the subject of politics was released from the clutches of
Religion.
Reference books Further readings

1.
Robert Garner, Peter Ferdinand, 1. Plato, The Republic.
Stephen Lawson, Introduction to
2. Aristotle, Politics.
Politics, Oxford University Press,
New York, 2009. 3. Laski, Harold J. A.Grammar of
Politics. London: George Allen &
2.
O.P. Gauba, An Introduction
Unwin, 1925.
to Political Theory, Macmillan
Publishers India Ltd, New Delhi, 4. International Encyclopedia of
2009. Political Science.
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UNIT
2 State
Dear Students, in the last chapter

the discipline Political Science was
introduced to you. Did you question
what is Political Science dealing with?
If Botany is concerned with the study
of plants and sociology the study of
society then what Political Science is
about? What is the main focus of study
of Political Science?
Introduction
Political Science is the systematic Learning Objectives
study of State. We all live in State. The  This explanatory chapter about
world is viewed as an embodiment of the State will enable you to
many States. State as an idea or a concept understand what are the major
is derived from a historical process of concerns of the study of political
political, cultural, religious and economic science especially what is State
contexts of a region. Today when the word and its functions.
‘State’ is mentioned and used it usually  Demonstrate the different views
indicate the modern State. The world today of various thinkers about the
comprises of modern States. Modern State State.
is a public order completely different from  Introduce you the elements of the
the pre-modern notion comprising of a State.
body politics consisting of the rulers and  Facilitate you to identify the
the ruled. Hence a proper understanding linkage between Society, State
of what State is and what not is quite and Government.
essential to students of political science.  Familiarize the concepts of
Modern State, Welfare State and
2.1 Meaning and Definition of State Soft State.
The State is the most universal and
most powerful of all social institutions. identical. The modern term ‘state’ is
The State is a natural institution. Aristotle derived from the word ‘status’. It was
said ‘Man (Human) is a social animal and Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 – 1527) who
by nature s/he is a political being. To him, first used the term ‘State’ in his writings.
to live in the State and to be a man were The state is necessary because it comes
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into existence out of the basic needs of disagreement makes the study of the State
life. It continues to more creative and interesting. For
remain for the sake of instance, we have social Contract theory
good life. The aims, in political science. The three main
desires, and thinkers associated with social contract
aspirations of human theory are Thomas Hobbes, John Locke
beings are translated and Jean Jack Rousseau. The three
into action through thinkers collectively agree that humans
the State. Though the need to be controlled by the State. At the
State is a necessary institution, no two same time, they disagree on to what extent
writers agree on its definition. This the control can be exercised by the State
on humans.
Political
Human Nature State of Nature Social contract
Thinkers
Man is a wolf unto his
Hobbes A state of war Leviathan
fellow man
Man has perfect Property is not
Locke Common wealth
freedom secure
Man is free but No security or State guided by
Rousseau
immoral morality the general will
ACTIVITY
Find Me….
The social Contract Theory of the State was put forth
by the three main proponents collectively called
contractualists. The three agreed that humans need
to be controlled by the State. But to what extent that
control should be has been debated in their unique way. Find out who the three are?
2.2 Essential Elements of State agent on the overwhelming authority of

the State.
The state is a set of institutions
which has an unquestionable authority The Montevideo Convention on
over people. Hence all modern States have Rights and Duties of States held in 1933
their own Constitution that moderates gave the fundamental understanding
the freedom and privileges of the citizens of State. A State must have a permanent
of the State with the coercive and population, a defined territory and a
unquestionable power of the State. Hence government that can control the territory
Constitution is considered as a limiting and its people and conducts international
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relations with other States. Consequently, becomes crucial for the legitimacy of the
the recognition of a State by other States State from an external point of view.
Definition of State
 Aristotle defined the State as a “union of  Burgess defines the State as “a particular
families and villages having for its end a portion of mankind viewed as an
perfect and self – sufficing life by which organised unit.”
it meant a happy and honorable life”.
According to Garner, “State is a

To Holland, the State is “a numerous
 community of people occupying a
assemblage of human beings generally definite form of territory free of external
occupying a certain territory amongst control and possessing an organised
whom the will of the majority or class government to which people show
is made to prevail against any of their habitual obedience.”
number who oppose it.”
State
People/Population Territory Government Sovereignty
CENSUS2011 The population of India

at 121.02 cr is almost
2001-2011 is the first
decade (with the exception
15th CENSUS of INDIA SINCE 1872
equal to the combined of 1911-1921) which has added
Cost ₹ 22,00Cr population of USA, Indonesia, lesser population compared to
Cost per person ₹ 18.19 Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh the previous decade
No. of census functionaries 0.27Cr and Japan
No. of languages in which The population has Overall sex ratio at the national
16 level has increased by 7
schedules were canvassed grown by more than
No. of languages in which training 18.1Cr during the points since Census 2001
manuals were prepared 18 decade 2001-2011 to reach 940
Paper utilised 8,000 MTs POPULATION OF INDIA: 1901-2011
Material moved 10,500 MTs In Cr
Census 2001
Sex ratio:933
102.87
68.33
84.64
Males Females
121.02
532.2mn 495.5mn
54.82
(51.74%) (48.28%)
43.92
Census 2011
38.17
Sex ratio:940
27.81
31.67
Males Females
623.7mn 588.5.5mn
25.13
23.84
25.21
(51.54%) (48.48%)
1901 ‘11 ‘21 ‘31 ‘41 ‘51 ‘61 ‘71 ‘81 ‘91 2001 ‘11
Census 2011: population pegged at 121.02 cr
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Population sovereignty or the superiority of State,

overall within its boundaries and complete
It is the people who make the State.
freedom from external control has been
The population is essential for the State.
a fundamental principle of the modern
What should be the size of the population
State life”.
has been a debate by thinkers from ancient
time. According to Plato, the ideal number India has an area of 32,87,263 sq.
would be 5040. According to Aristotle, km. approximately India occupies 2.4%
the number should be neither too large of the global area. The opening article of
nor too small. It should be large enough the Indian Constitution speaks about the
to be self – sufficient and small enough to Territory of India.
be well governed. Rousseau determined There is a restriction of movement of
10,000 to be an ideal number for a State. individuals from one State to another
Ancient thinkers view on the number State in the name of territorial sovereignty.
was based on the small city – States like But sitting in one country you can
Athens and Sparta. The modern States communicate to a person to another
vary in population. India has a population country using the internet. How do you
of 121.02 cr people according to 2011 see this to do with the sovereignty of the
census of India. States? Examine why social networking
websites like Facebook, twitter and
YouTube are banned in some countries.
According to Plato, the ideal
number of State is 5040. The reason
Government
is the number 5040 is divisible by
Government is the working agency
numbers from 1 to 12. In the case of
of the State. It is the political organization
11 the reminder is 2. During the time
of the State. Indian political scientist Prof.
of emergency the population can
A. Appadurai defined government as the
be divided in various columns and
agency through which, the will of the State
instructions could be given.
is formulated, expressed and realized.
Territory According to C.F. Strong, in order to make
and enforce laws, the State must have a
People need territory to live and
supreme authority. Government is a fixed
to organize themselves socially and
structure.
politically. It may be remembered that
the territory of the State includes land, Sovereignty
water, and air space. The modern States The fourth essential element of the
differ in their sizes. The territory is State is sovereignty. The word ‘sovereignty”
necessary for citizenship. As in the case means supreme and final legal authority
of population, no definite size with above. No legal power can exist beyond
regard to extent of the area of the State can sovereignty. The concept of “sovereignty”
be fixed. There are small and big States. was developed in conjunction with the rise
In the words of Prof. Elliott, “Territorial of the modern State. The term Sovereignty
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is derived from the Latin word “superanus” a French political thinker. According to
which means “supreme”. In a traditional Harold J. Laski, “It is by possession of
understanding, the characteristics of sovereignty that the State is distinguished
sovereignty are absoluteness, permanence, from all other forms of human association”.
universality, indivisibility, exclusiveness, Human Association would mean anything
and inalienability. from family, society and even voluntary
The father of the modern theory of organization similar kinds through which
sovereignty was Jean Bodin (1530 – 1597) humans identify themselves together.
 Can there be a Permanent Chief Minister or Permanent Prime

Minister in a democracy?
 Find out the maximum term of office, a person can be elected as
President of the United States of America? Why?
constituted what we call as a society.

ACTIVITY Individuals for their emotional need that
Look at the newspaper advertisement is often reciprocal lived in the family.
given by the Government of India.
Answer the following questions:
SOCIETY
 What do you understand by the
word ‘State’?
GOVERNMENT
 List five ways in which you think STATE
that the government affects your

daily life.
 Why do you think the State needs

Families came together under the
to make rules for everyone in the
umbrella of the community for a greater
form of laws?
objective of security. The communities so
formed made a higher level of organization
2.3 Society, state and Government called society.
Society, State and Government – How When society degenerates, it has a
are they interrelated? consequent effect on the communities and
Historically when humans evolved ultimately upon its constituent families
from hunters and gatherers to a settled and each and every individual would lead
community, they started to produce to suffering. Thus, it was, for this reason,
goods. Group of families constituted a humans came together, guided by reason
community and a group of communities felt the need of the State.
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State came into existence out of an The membership of the State and society are
imminent need that in the absence of a the same. But they differ as regards to their
centralized and a coercive authority human purpose. The State exists for one great but
cannot be saved from each other. This single, purpose; society exists for a number
control in modern States is done legally of purposes; some great and some small.
through a set of rules and regulations. In From the point of view of the organization,
the State is a single organization – legal,
a democracy, these rules and regulations
whereas society comprises within itself
are framed by the legislature, enforced by
many organizations. The State exercises its
the executive and the judiciary adjudicates
control over humans by coercion and exact
the made laws and the implemented
obedience. On the other hand, the society
laws on the basis of their legality and employs a method of voluntary action. The
judiciousness. The function of law purposes for which society exists makes
making, implementing and interpreting is the persuasive methods necessary. The
the function of government. multiplicity of the organization of society
The society consists of a large number gives ample opportunity to the members to
of individuals, families, groups, and relinquish one association and join another
institutions. The early political thinkers in the event they are subject to any coercion.
Thus you must understand a State without a
considered both State and society as one.
centralized authority of coercive force and
The state is a part of society but is not a
a society without the method of persuasion
form of society.
will fall apart.
STATE SOCIETY
State came into existence after the origin
Society is prior to the State.
of the society.
The scope of the State is limited. The scope of society is much wider
The state has fixed territory. Society has no fixed territory.
The state is a political organization. Society is a social organization.
The State has the power to enforce laws. Society has no power to enforce laws.
STATE GOVERNMENT
The state consists of population, territory,
Government is part of the State.
government and sovereignty.
Powers of the government are derived
The state possesses original powers.
from the State.
The state is permanent and continues Government is temporary. Governments
forever. can be replaced with peoples will
State is abstract and invisible Government is concrete and is visible.
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State and Government the umbrella of post-colonial States and can

be compared with the post-colonial States of
Government is often used with
the other parts of the world to assess their
the ‘State’ as a synonym. But both the
relative merits and drawbacks for improving
government and the State are two different
their governance systems.
entities. There are differences between
the State and the government. They are 2.4 Functions of Modern State
explained in the table given below.
The modern State is a developed State.
Modern State The State should strive to keep its people
Before examining the functions of secure and safe. The State should ensure
Modern State, you must understand what that its borders are sealed and protected.
is Modernity? What is called as a Modern The market needs to be integrated into
State? the society by a well-knit macroeconomic
structure. ‘Citizen first’ should be the
Modernity in historical term means motto of all the activities of the State. The
the period of questioning the tradition or sole principle of governance of modern
rejecting the age-old set of beliefs, practices State is whether the action of the State
and socio-cultural norms. Modernity laid leads to the promotion of the welfare of
the foundations of the prioritization of its people. Accordingly, the State engages
individualism, freedom, equality, fostering itself as a provider of essential services.
of scientific temper in every walk of life
and thus modernity led humans from It is largely accepted that the modern
agrarianism towards industrialization, State focuses on three main functions.
urbanization, and secularization. This
intellectual shift drastically influenced the Functions
understanding of the society, State and
government. For instance, the efforts of
Raja Ram Mohan Roy to reform the Indian
society are directly linked with the influence Security and Defence
of western modernity on Indian thinkers.
In Political science, modernity impacted
on the concepts of State, liberty, equality,
Economic
justice and so on. The rational foundation of
modern State is often argued to be the treaty
of Westphalia signed in the year 1648.
Provision of
The idea of modern State was exported Essential Services
throughout the world during the nineteenth
century by the process of European
Colonization. The South Asian States that Security and Defense
became independent from colonial control The States of today’s world consider
after second world war can be brought under the meaning of security from multiple
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standpoints. Terms like Human Security India and the various state governments
have emerged to put citizens first. Inspired to be in this direction. The noon meal
by the philosopher Immanuel Kant’s idea scheme and the nutrition’s meal schemes
of perpetual peace, the States of the world in all Government schools initiated by the
came together as ‘league of nations’ and Government of Tamil Nadu and adopted
later as the ‘United Nations Organisation in different parts of the country is one
and have been debating the terms security such example.
and defence in terms of promoting peace.
The modern State strived for the
Economic functions
welfare of its people and hence another
The modern state is supposed to concept came into existence called
intervene in the economic functions of ‘Welfare State’.
the political system. The State needs to
support the people, make them realize their 2.5 Concept of Welfare State
potential for their betterment. Protecting
consumers, weaker sections, investing in Have you ever noticed that the
areas where there is no profit are those Directive principles of the State policy
included in the economic functions of the of the Indian Constitution have been
modern state. placarding the western European idea of
Provision of Essential Services the Welfare State? Have you ever thought
why the propelling mechanisms of socio-
From ‘cradle to grave’ modern state economic development have been kept in
is supposed to care for its citizens. The Part IV of the Constitution as an advisory
fundamental needs such as food, clean to the State whereas the guarantee of
drinking water, providing education, political and civil rights has been made as a
healthcare, and social security for the non-negotiable guarantee as Fundamental
population are the responsibilities of the Right? What is the reason? Why could
modern state. You can find the number of economic rights figure as the part of
schemes and projects of Government of Fundamental right in the constitution?
ACTIVITY
 Examine the relevance of MGNREGA, Right to Education Act, The National Food
Security Act. Are these rights, legal rights or fundamental right?
 Discuss about the contributions of J.S. Mill and H.J.Laski towards the concept of
welfare state.
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It is a reality that the abundance of

resources with a minimal population has  In western countries, the gender of
been the main reason for the successful the unborn baby (fetus) is disclosed
functioning of welfare State model. The as part of the standard procedure and
Scandinavian countries are excellent it is usual that the expecting mother
examples of welfare State. Though the knows the gender of the unborn baby.
Constitution of India strives for a welfare  Why in India the Pre-Conception
State the non-abundance of resources and Pre-Natal Diagnostic
and a huge population has been the Techniques (PCPNDT) Act, 1994
impediment in realizing the goals of the prohibits the communication of
Welfare State. gender of the foetus to the pregnant
The concept of welfare State has its woman or to her relatives by words,
origin in Western Europe after the Second signs or any other method?
World War. The main idea of welfare State
is that the government of welfare State
plays a vital role in human development. The post-colonial developing States
The role of the welfare State extends to the are generally categorized as soft States
protection and promotion of the well being where their institutions of governance
of its citizens. The economic and social are not fully developed. Our inability to
well being of the citizens is based on (1) adhere to standards and to enforce law and
The principle of equality of opportunity maintain discipline makes our country as
(2) Equitable distribution of wealth (3) a soft State. A soft State cannot advance
Public responsibility for those who cannot further in refining its democratic values.
afford themselves the minimal provisions
for leading a good life. ACTIVITY
India before independence was a Find the difference between soft
Colonial State under British rule. Indians state and soft power, now relate these
were subjects of the English crown. Once concepts with independent India.
India attained Independence, we had our
Constitution that has been deeply inspired
by the western model of welfare State. As a student identify the list of social
2.6 Concept of Soft State indiscipline and the ways of correcting
them from your view.
Nobel Laureate Karl Gunnar Myrdal
identified what he called as societal 2.7 Concept of Over Developed State
indiscipline in the Asian States when
compared to the western countries. He Almost all the States of South Asia
identified this societal indiscipline as are modern democracies. Yet, what makes
the characteristics of soft State. Social them lag behind the western countries in
indiscipline, corruption, and weak law development? When the institutions of
enforcement are the main characteristics governance such as the Parliament, the
of a soft State. bureaucracy, and the planning machinery
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are imported and customized during for people are not decided by them in
colonial times, why is it that development a representative democracy but by an
is a slow process in these countries? Hamza influential few. In the case of Pakistan
Alawi, explains the case of the gover and Bangladesh, Hamza Alawai coins the
nability crisis of Pakistan and Bangladesh word ‘military bureaucracy oligarchy’ that
using the concept of Over Developed State is similar to the license raj of India and
over-centralization as a continuation of
Overdeveloped State is an colonial legacy that has been constantly
explanation offered to the ineffectiveness addressed by the government of India.
of the functioning of post-colonial States 2.8 Concept of post-colonial State
that operate with the similar structure of
bureaucratic governance before and after Post-colonial State is the name of
their independence. Despite political new nation States that have emerged out
liberation, the transformative approach of the process of decolonization after the
did not percolate down the administrative Second World War. Post-colonial State is
structure of the States after they emerged used synonymously with developmental
free from the colonial yoke. The colonial State. The post-colonial State has the
powers of western Europe maintained features of colonial State as far as the
double standards in designing the polity of political institutions are concerned but
the colonized States. When their respective there is only a shift in the objective of
States recognized political life, liberty and these institutions.
economic freedom of its citizens and in
In general, post-colonial States
total the State was like a pet for its people,
exhibit a high degree of poverty, political
on the contrast the States were over
instability and the crisis of governance.
centralized with unquestionable power in
The mismatch between the society with its
the colonized States. Such an arrangement
traditional power structure overlapping
was congenial to the colonizers to have
with modern States has largely resulted in
unfretted siphoning of wealth from their
such a situation.
colonies. This massive exploitation was
effectively engineered by the bureaucracy It is obvious that the Colonial powers
that continued the colonial legacy even that ventured into newer worlds destroyed
after independence with no or little the main parts of native traditions and
change in the attitude of the political class cultures and further constantly replaced
that replaced the colonial masters. them with their own ones. This cultural
import led to conflicts as and when they
When the State gets increasingly became independent as they suddenly
modernized when the society and its faced the challenge of developing a new
economy are lagging behind without national identity and self-confidence.
modernization the State and the society This is one of the aspects why the sharp
grossly mismatched each other. This divide of the ruler and ruled remained
creates a divide between the people in post-colonial States whereby the State
and the State’s apparatus. What is good actors tend to behave with an upper hand.
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Society: A large group of people who live

Glossary
together in an organized way, making
decisions about how to do things and
State: A nation or territory considered as
sharing the work that needs to be done.
an organized political community under
All the people in a country, or in several
one government.
similar countries, can be referred to as a
Government: The group of people who society
officially control a country
Individualism: A social theory favoring
Social Contract Theory: The theory that freedom of action for individuals over
advocates that persons' moral and/or collective or state control.
political obligations are dependent upon
Scandinavia: Scandinavia is a group of
a contract or agreement among them to
countries in northern Europe. It always
form the society in which they live.
includes Denmark, Norway and Sweden
Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer

1. Name the Political Thinker who first used the word State
a) Niccolo Machiavelli b) Plato c) Aristotle d) Locke
2. Who authored the book ‘Leviathan’?

a) Hobbes b) Locke c) Rousseau d) Morgenthau
3. Which is the main component of State that determine citizenship status

a) Territory b) Government c) Sovereignty d) Population
4. Which of the following is regarded as the Limiting authority of the State’s Authority
a) Constitution b) Religion c) Judgement d) People
5. “ Territorial sovereignty or the superiority of State, overall within its boundaries

and complete freedom from external control has been a fundamental principle of
the modern State life” is stated by
a) Elliot b) Bodin c) Austin d) Machiavelli
6. Who of the following is regarded as the father of Modern Theory of Sovereignty?
a) Jean Bodin b) Hugo Gotius c) Austin d) Machiavelli
7. Which of the following is not the states function of Modern State

a ) Security and Defence b) Economic Functions
c) Provision of Essential Services d) Religions duties
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8. Which flagship programme of Government of Tamil Nadu followed by all other

states in India
a ) The Noon Meal Scheme b) Rain Harvesting
c) Gold for marriage d) Bicycle for school children
9. The idea of Welfare State in the Indian Constituion is contained in

a) Part IV b) part III c) Part I d) Part II
II. Answer the following questions very shortly
1. What is the objective of Political Science as a discipline?
2. Mention a feature of modern state.
3. Name the thinkers associated with Contractual Theory.
4. What are the essential elements of State?
5. Mention the characteristics of sovereignty.
6. What are the functions of Legislature, Executive and Judiciary in a modern
democracy?
7. What are post-colonial states?
8. What are the factors responsible for the emergence of ‘Soft State’.
III. Answer the following questions shortly
1. Compare and contrast the ideas of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.
2. What are the factors that contribute to make a State?
3. Distinguish State from Society.
4. What are the differences between State and Government?
5. Write a short note on Modernity.
6. What are the functions of ‘Modern State’?
7. Differentiate colonial from postcolonial state.
IV. Answer the following questions in detail
1. Describe the functions of Modern State.
2. Discuss the idea of Welfare State.
3. Demonstrate the factors responsible Overdeveloped State.
Reference books
1. I ntroduction to Political Science, R. G Gettel, Ginn and Company, New York.
2. Political Theory: An Introduction, Rajesh Bhargava & Ashok Acharya, Pearson,
New Delhi .
3. P olitical Science: An Introduction, Michael G. Roskin et al, Pearson, New Delhi.
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UNIT
3 Basic Concepts of Political Science

Part I
3.1 SOVEREIGNTY
Introduction
3.1.1 Let us discuss about Sovereignty
Sovereignty, the term has been
derived from the Latin word ‘superanus’
which means ‘supreme’ or ‘paramount’.
Leanpub Learning Objectives
 The meaning and characteristics

Roman jurist and the civilians during the of Sovereignty
middle ages employed the term ‘summa
potestas’ and ‘Plenitude potestas’ to  The aspects and kinds of Sovereignty
designate the supreme power of the state.  Meaning and dawn of Pluralism
In political science the use of the term
‘sovereignty’ dates back to the publication 2. Exclusiveness
of Bodin’s ‘The Republic’ in 1576.
Exclusiveness here implies that
The stability of a nation depends there cannot be two sovereign in one
on the supremacy of the sovereignty the independent state and if it exists the unity
nation enjoys. Sovereignty as a concept of the state will be destroyed.
represents the legal supremacy of the state.
3. All comprehensiveness
Constitution lays down rules and laws of
the state and the constitution of the state is Every individual and every
just the representation of the sovereignty. association of the individual is subject to
The word sovereign in the preamble of the sovereignty of the state. However rich
the constitution of India means that the or powerful association or group may be,
state has the power to legislate on any it cannot resist or disobey the sovereign
subjects in conformity with constitutional authority.
limitations.
4. Inalienability
3.1.2. C
haracteristics of Sovereignty.
Sovereignty is the life and soul of the
1. Permanence state and it cannot be alienated without
The chief characteristic of sovereignty destroying the state itself.
is permanence. Sovereignty lasts as long as 5. Unity and Everlasting
the state lasts. The death of the king or the
The spirit of sovereignty lies in its
overthrow of the government does not affect
unity. Sovereignty is not bound by time
sovereignty. Hence, the people of England
and lasts until the state lasts.
say ‘King is dead, Long live the king’.
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6. Indivisibility 3.1.3 T
wo aspects of Sovereignty
Indivisibility is the life line of Internal sovereignty: This sovereignty
sovereignty. exercises its absolute authority over
7. Absoluteness all individuals or associations of the
individuals in the state.
Sovereignty is unconditional
and unlimited. Sovereignty is beyond External sovereignty: In simple terms
obedience and it is entitled to do whatever external sovereignty means National
it likes. Freedom. Every state enjoys absolute
liberty to determine its foreign policy and
8. Originality join any power block it likes. External
Sovereignty wields power by virtue of sovereignty implies that every state is
its own right and not by anybody’s mercy. independent of other states.
3.1.4 Types of Sovereignty
TYPES OF SOVEREIGNTY
Nominal and
Legal Sovereignty Political Sovereignty Popular Sovereignty
Real Sovereignty
Have you read about the different types of Sovereignty? Let us together learn about them.
Nominal and Real Legal Sovereignty Political Sovereignty Popular Sovereignty
Sovereignty
a. Ancient times many a. The authority of a. Political Sovereign a. Popular sovereignty
states had monarchs. the state has the legal in the representative designates public as
Kings exercised real power to issue final democracy is understood supreme
sovereignty and were commands as the whole mass of the
considered Real people, i.e. electorate or
Sovereigns the public opinion.
b. The French b. The power b. Political sovereignty b. During ancient
revolution which has the legal rests in that class of period popular
transformed the authority to issue and people under whose sovereignty was used as
situation. enforce these law is influence the mass of a weapon to challenge
legal sovereignty the people are with. the absolutism of the
monarchs.
c. The Council c. The legal
of Ministers were sovereign is
considered the Real always definite
Sovereign while the and determinate
King enjoyed only and the authority
nominal power. of sovereign is
absolute and
supreme.
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“De-facto and De-jure sovereignty”

De-facto sovereignty De-jure sovereignty
De-facto sovereign is one who has De-jure sovereign is one who has
no legal claim to sovereignty but possesses a legal claim to sovereignty but does not
it in fact and exercises necessary force to possess it in fact.
make and enfore its laws.
Sovereignty Sovereignty can no more be

“Sovereignty is the absolute and alienated than a tree can alienate
perpetual power of the state that is, its right to sprout or a man can transfer
the greatest power to command.” his life or personality to another
- Jean Bodin without self destruction - Lieber
3.1.5 What is Pluralism?

Here is an interesting piece of
information! Pluralism is a powerful protest
against the monistic theory of sovereignty,
Napoleon became the de facto which endows the state with supreme and
sovereign after he had over thrown the unlimited power.
directory. Franco became the de facto
sovereign after he had dislodged the Exponents of pluralist theory
legal sovereign in Spain after Mussolini’s
black shirt march on October 28,  Harold J. Laski
1922. Mussolini became the prime  J.N. Figgis
minister in the legal manner. He ruled  Ernest Barker
the parliament and ruled the country  G.H Cole
through parliament. Parliament  Maciver
remained the legal sovereign but he
was the actual or de facto sovereign.
Hitler also did the same in Germany. Pluralist Theory
He controlled the legal sovereign and The nature of the state is
became the de facto sovereign. such it attempts to resolve the
disputes or conflicts that arise
Quotable
uote
between these various groups in a way
the is in everyone’s best interests.
Sovereignty of the people
therefore can mean nothing more the
power of the majority of the electorate, The dawn of pluralist theory
in a system of approximate universal With the advent of the welfare state
suffrage prevails, acting through
there came a rapid increase in the functions
legally established channels to express
of the state and there remained no sphere of
their will and make it prevail.
life with which the state did not interfere,
-Dr. Garner
the sovereign and the supreme state also
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faced revolt and reaction. This reaction Is Pluralism important?

against the sovereign and supreme state Pluralism upholds the importance

resulted into the dawn of pluralism. of associations and claim more
autonomy for it.
John Austin (1780-1859)
For democracy to flourish the

the English Jurist, gave an
sovereign state must not be subject
elaborate exposition of the
to any legal authority.
Legal Theory of sovereignty
in is book 'Lectures on Division of sovereignty leads to the

Jurisprudence' published in 1832. destruction of sovereignty and in the
He is regarded as a greatest exponent of absence of sovereignty, anarchy will
Monistic Theory. prevail in society.
Indian Constitution and Sovereignty
In Indira Gandhi Vs Raj Narain (1975) case Supreme Court added, ‘India as
a Sovereign democratic republic’ as one of the fundamental elements of the basic
structure of the constitution. It is understood that Indian constitution enshrines
‘sovereignty’ as an important aspect of constitution and the preamble makes the
people sovereign . In simple term it is said that sovereignty lies in the constitution
and people are the ultimate source of the constitution.
What are the criticisms for Pluralism? and opposed where pluralistic pattern of
It is the Sovereign state that brings
 society has become the order of the day
whether it’s a developed or under developed
about unity and regulates all the
nation. Liberty and rights lead to a third
associations existing in society.
principle in political theory, which is of
L aws are framed by the state unlike
 equality. Equality determines how rights are
the belief of pluralist. to be distributed amongst the individuals as
State is needed for protecting people
 citizens and groups, both whether equally
from the excess of associations. or unequally.
3.2 EQUALITY 3.2.1 Meaning of Equality

Introduction Equality, which means state of being
Understanding Equality equal, is derived from aequs/aequalis,
The idea that meaning fair. It signifies ‘having the same
human beings are rights, privileges, treatments, status,
equal is enigmatic. and opportunities’. Equality is treated
A nation that seeks as something that relates to distributive
equality creates laws principle because of which rights, treatments,
to bring change in and opportunities are distributed amongst
its society. A law for equality is inadequate the beneficiaries in a fair manner. Fairness
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Discuss the visuals 3.2.2 Importance of Equality

Why equality is important?
The concept of equality as a political
ideal invokes the idea that all human
beings have an equal worth regardless of
their color, gender, race, or nationality.
It urges among human beings equal
consideration and respect because of
the common humanity. The belief in
this notion of humanity led us to the
declaration of universal human rights.
Equality became the slogan in
the struggle against states and social
institutions which uphold inequalities of
rank, wealth, status or privilege, among
people during the modern period. In
the eighteenth century, the French
revolutionaries used the slogan ‘Liberty,
Equality and Fraternity’ to revolt against
the landed feudal aristocracy and the
monarchy. The demand for equality was
also raised during anti-colonial struggle
in Asia and Africa during the twentieth
century. It continues to be raised by
struggling group such as women or dalits
who feel marginalized in our society.
Equality now has become a widely
accepted ideal which is embodied in
the constitutions and laws in the world.
However the most visible and disturbing
factor around us in the world and as well
in our society is inequality. We can see in
country slums existing side by side with
luxury housing, schools which may lack
even drinking water facilities or toilets,
waste of food as well as starvation. There
does not mean all to be treated equally in
are visible difference between what law
all circumstances. In fact it very well means
promises and what we see around us.
unequal treatment for those who are unequal.
Essentially it relates to the principle of justice India through its constitution
because it requires fair distributive principle . attempts to fill the gap between equal and
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unequal with the principle of equality as Like liberty, equality can also be understood
enshrined in the constitution. in its negative and positive aspects. Negative
equality was associated with the end of
What is distributive justice?
such privileges and positively it meant the
Distributive justice requires a availability of opportunity.
principle of equality in which unequal
distribution is effected to ensure the A state divided into a
principle of equality. The state for small number of rich
example should not tax a poor and a and large number
rich equally. of poor will always
develop a government
manipulated by the rich
3.2.3 Dimensions of Equality to protect the amenities
What is Equality? represented by their property.
We live amidst distinctions between - Harold laski
human beings on the ground of race and
color, knowing well it is unacceptable. In According to Laski equality means:
fact such distinctions violate our intuitive Absence of privileges. It means that will

understanding of equality which tells us of one is equal to the will of any other.
that all human beings are entitled to similar It means equality of rights
respect and consideration because of their Adequate opportunities are laid open

common humanity. No society treats all to all. Opportunities should be given
its members in exactly the same way under to all to realize the implications of his
all circumstances. There can be no identity personality.
of treatment so long as men are different All must have access to social benefits

in wants, capacities, and needs. Injustice and no one should be restricted on any
arises much from treating unequal’s equally ground. The inequalities by birth or
as from treating equals unequally. And because of parentage and hereditary
most importantly apart from the natural causes are unreasonable
inequalities, there are inequalities created
Absence of economic and social

by the society- inequality based upon birth,
exploitation
wealth, knowledge and religion.
The movement of history is not According to Barker, the concept of
towards greater equality because as fast equality means
as we eliminate one inequality, we create Fundamental equalities of all

another one: the difference being that the
Equality of opportunity

one we discard is unjustifiable while the
one we create seems reasonable. Hence Equality of conditions where there is

the social political, educational equalities an attempt to make the conditions of
are always in need of reinforcement and life equal
reinterpretation by every new generation. Equality of outcome of results

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Equality of opportunities modern

technological
The concept of equality implies that
innovations
all people as human being are entitled
are able to
to the same rights and opportunities to
contribute
develop the skills and talents, to pursue
like any
their goals and ambitions.
other normal
Natural inequality and social inequality person.
Natural inequalities are those that Stephen Hawkings, contribution despite
emerge between people as a result of their his disability is remarkable. Political
different capabilities and talents. These philosophers have contributed various
kinds of inequalities are different from theories, philosophies and ideologies for
socially produced inequalities which further understanding and innovation to
emerge as a consequence of inequalities place society on equal platform.
of opportunity or the exploitation of some
groups in a society by others. Natural
inequalities are considered to be the result
of the different characteristics and abilities
with which people are born with. Social
inequalities on the other hand are those
created by society. Unequal treatment in
society based on race, color, gender and
caste are of social inequalities. Women
were denied equal rights for centuries
similarly, Blacks were treated as slaves until Read the cartoon and identify the context
the institution of slavery was questioned of what type of inequalities are represented
. Even people born with disability with in this cartoon?
TYPES OF EQUALITY
Civil Political Social Natural Economic

Equality Equality Equality Equality Equality
No discrimination Access to Opportunity,

Natural rights Wealth
(religion, belief, etc) authority, Voting Privileges
(i) Social Equality

Social equality means no one should his personality. Social equality implies
be discriminated in the distribution of few important aspects. They are: removal
rights, privileges and opportunities based of discrimination based on social status,
on birth, caste, religion, race, colour, absence of special privileges to few and
gender or social status. Each one should finally ensuring equal opportunity in
be given equal opportunity to develop terms of acquiring education.
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Martin Luther king Jr. was an Case Study

unquestioned leader of nonviolent civil
Rights movement in USA. Civil right Economic Inequality and Arab
movement was a struggle for social Uprising
justice happened during the 1950s and Poverty is an issue that can
1960s for blacks to gain equal rights threaten the stability of the country. For
under the law in the United states. example, the Jasmine Revolution takes
Similarly Dr.B.R.Ambedkars liberation the authoritarian rulers in Tunisia by
movement for millions of dalits was a surprise and triggers anti-government
historic movement in India. A seed for protests across the Arab world. The
the movement for social equality 29-day-long struggle ended Ben Ali’s
23- year rule. The self-immolation by
French declaration of Rights of Man Mohammad Bouazizi, an unemployed
and citizens declared that ‘men are born man who was harassed by the police
and always continue free and equal in their in the Tunisian town of Sidi Bouzid on
rights. The United Nations organization December 17, 2010 was the spark the
on 10th December, 1948, declared the ignited the Arab street. It first started
charter of human rights which laid stress the “Jasmine “Revolution (Jasmine is
on social equality. Tunisia’s national flower). The residents
(ii) Civil Equality of the sleepy town, who were already
angry about routine police brutality
The word ‘civil’ is derived from the
and the lack of economic opportunities,
Latin word civilis or civis, which means
took to the streets spontaneously with
citizen. Civil equality means equality in
“a rock in one hand and a cellphone” in
which each citizen is provided with equal
the other…
civil rights and liberties. Civil equality
A great wave of anger, frustration,
consists of similar civil liberties and civil
defiance and democratic demand is
rights by all the citizens. Civil laws should
sweeping across the Arab world. The
treat all the individuals equally.
upsurge in Arab world is not simply
There should not be any
about democracy versus dictatorship.
discrimination of superior and inferior,
It is also a revolt against a manifestly
the rich and the poor, caste and creed,
unjust economic order.
colour and race, clans and tribes, groups
Courtesy : Frontline, Feb.26, 2011.
and classes.
How is the ‘Rule of law’ related to civil
(iii) Political Equality
equality?
Political Equality means equal right
Q uotable
uote
“What good is freedom to a
of all citizens, without any distinction,
allowed to participate in the affairs of
starving man? He cannot eat freedom or
the state. Political right of all citizen is
drink it”. – Thomas Hobbes
ensured through universal adult franchise.
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The other factors that ensure the political (v)

E quality of opportunity and
rights of citizens are: education
� Right to vote Equality of opportunity and
education means, all the citizens should
� Right to contest in election
be given equal and similar opportunities
� Right to hold public office by the state. All the citizens should have
Right to petition the government
� similar chances to receive education and
and criticize public policy equal opportunities be given to develop
their personality. Social inequalities such
Political equality is actually the test
as race, caste, religion, language, rich, poor
on the experiments of democracy. It is also
and gender based discrimination should be
believed that political equality in itself is
eradicated. In India, constitution provides
not adequate to disperse political power,
provisions for equal opportunities and
it also needs socio-economic equality to
equal education.
achieve political equality.
3.2.4
Relation between Liberty and
Q uotable
uote
“Economic Equality is the Equality
attempt to expunge all differences in There is no value of liberty in the
wealth, allotting to every man and absence of equality. They are understood
woman an equal share in worldly from different perspectives by political
goods”. –Lord Bryce thinkers such as Lord Acton, De
Tocqueville and Harold. J.Laski. Lord
(iv) Economic Equality
Acton and Alexis De Tocqueville were
Economic equality is justifiable the ardent advocates of liberty.
only when all people have reasonable
Professor H.J. Laski in his remark
opportunities to develop themselves
said that ‘Where there are rich and poor,
fully. Economic equality is meaningful
educated and uneducated, we always find
only when there is an adequate scope for
a relation of master and servant’.
employment, reasonable wages, adequate
leisure and equal share in the management Laissez faire is an economic system
of economic concern. Professor Laski in which transaction between private
explains economic equality, “Political parties are free from government
equality is, therefore, never real unless intervention such as regulation,
it is accompanied with virtual economic privileges, tariffs and subsidies.
liberty; political power otherwise is bound
to be the hand-maid of economic power”.
Adam Smith was the ardent
Economic equality here means supporter of the view that the
the provision of equal opportunities Individualists maintained that there
to all so that they may be able to make should be a free competition between
their economy progress. Ideologically the capitalists and labor leaders. They
this is possible in Socialism and not in did not want the government to involve
Capitalism. in the economic matters. Formula of
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Demand and Supply was adopted. It was notably Legal and political equality of
expected that the economic difficulties opportunity, but social equality is likely
will be removed by this formula, but to be purchased at the expense of freedom
resulted in dangerous consequences in and through the penalizing of tablet.
Europe.
Conservatives have traditionally viewed
The capitalists exploited the society as natural hierarchical and have
opportunity to the core and as a result of thus dismissed equality as an abstract and
it, the gap between rich poor got wider. unachievable goal.
The labor class was worst affected and the
reaction against individualism resulted Socialist regards equality as a fundamental
in the dawn of Socialism. Socialism rose value and in particular, endorse social
to condemn and refute the principles equality. Despite shifts within social
of Individualism. The transition made democracy towards a liberal belief of
clear that Liberty is meaningless in the opportunity, social equality, whether in
absence of economic equality. its relative (social democratic) or absolute
(communist) sense, has been seen as
Economic equality is essential
essential to ensuring social cohesion and
for the existence of political freedom.
Otherwise it will be a capitalist fraternity, establishing justice or equity
democracy in which the laborers will and enlarging freedom in a positive sense.
have right to vote but they will not get Anarchists place a particular stress
their purpose served. Hence liberty is
upon political equality, understood as an
possible only in socialistic democracy
equality and absolute right to personal
where liberty and equality go together.
autonomy, implying that all forms of
There is only one solution to liberty. It
political inequality amount to oppression.
lies in equality. Thus liberty and equality
Anarcho-communists believe in absolute
are complimentary to each other said
social equality achieved through the
Pollard.
collective ownership of productive wealth.
How Equality can be promoted
A few methods for promoting Fascists believe that humankind is marked
equality. They are, by racial inequality, both between leaders
and followers and between the various
� Establishing formal equality
nations or race of the world. Nevertheless,
Equality
� through Differential the emphasis on the nation or race implies
Treatment
that all members are equal, at least in
� Affirmative action terms of their core identity.
Perspectives of various Ideologies on
Equality by Andrew Heywood Feminists take equality to mean sexual
equality, in the sense of equal rights and
Liberals believe that people are ‘born’ equal opportunities (liberal feminism)
equal in the sense that they are of equal or equal social, economic power (social
moral worth. This implies formal equality, feminism?) irrespective of gender.
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Ecologist advance the notion of bio language, race, religion, etc. in fact article
centric equality, which emphasizes that all 15 of the constitution substantiates
life forms have an equal right to ‘live and article 14 further by prohibiting any such
blossom’. discrimination.
3.2.5 Equality in Indian Constitution Equality before law and equal
The concept of Equality in Indian protection of law have been further
constitution strengthened in the Indian constitution
The Indian constitution under article under article 21. It ensures that ‘No Person
14 provides for equality before law or the shall be deprived of his life or personal
equal protection of laws to all persons. liberty except according to procedure
This is a statement of formal equality and established by law. This means that a
gives meaning to what preamble seeks reasonable fair and just procedure should
to ensure in terms of ‘equality of status be followed for depriving a person of his
and of opportunity’. This also means that personal liberty and life. It admits no
laws of the land will apply to all equally arbitrariness, discriminatory procedure
and there should not be discrimination or unequal treatment for different
on grounds of birth, caste, color, gender, individuals’.
Right to Equality (Article 14-18)

 Equality before law (Article 14)
 Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion (Article 15)
 Equality of opportunity in matters of public employments(Article 16)
 Abolition of Untouchability (Article 17)
 Abolition of titles (Article 18)
differences may have to be taken into

account for this need. Similarly some of
the policies are needed to overcome the
hindrances of equality by the government.
For example, India follows the principle
of reservation and other countries follow
affirmative action.
3.3 LIBERTY
How Equality can be achieved through

 The importance of liberty is
differential treatment? introduced by briefing the meaning
It is necessary sometime to treat and various views of exponents of
people differently in order to ensure liberty.
that they can enjoy equal rights. Certain
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While learning the classification behaved like monarchs. The fall of

of liberty students, are actually Napoleon III, resulted in establishing the
introduced to different forms of Third Republic. After the fall of Third
Republic in 1940 and Fourth Republic
freedom and they way state views
in 1958, Fifth republic was established.
liberty.
Struggle against countries that colonized
The concept of liberty is so got liberated after a long struggle for
important that it helps every citizen independence. Italy in nineteenth century
realize the value of freedom in a and India in twentieth century made
society where state is empowered untold sacrifices for attaining national
with constitutional authority. liberty.
Students are given a direction here
Meaning Of Liberty
that some form of restrictions such
as law are also a form of liberty. The term ‘liberty’ has been derived
The safe guards of liberty especially from the Latin word ‘Liber’ which means
democracy and independents of free from all shackles. The Latin word
judiciary are few key factors that ‘Liber’ denotes the absence of all restraints.
inculcates the value of liberty. It means one can do whatever one likes,
regardless of all conditions.
Introduction to Liberty
Liberty remained an essential element Quotable
uote
for both man and state for progress. Liberty is the eager maintenance of
History records very well the cruelty of that atmosphere in which men have the
absolute monarchy that ignored the claims opportunity to be their best selves.
of liberty in ancient and medieval ages of -Harold.J.Laski
England. People could no longer tolerate
and rose in revolt against the absolute Exponents views on Liberty
monarchy. The struggle continued until  “Liberty is the positive power of doing
Emperor John had to bow down and and enjoying those things which are
ensure freedom for his subjects. Attempt worthy of enjoyment and work”-Gettel
of emperors after Tudor and Stuart, and
the continued absolute monarchy resulted  “Liberty is the freedom of the individual
in civil war. King Charles was beheaded to express without external hindrances
and even during the period of Cromwell to personality”-Professor G.D.H. Cole.
people could not attain freedom.
This resulted in the famous “Glorious  “ Liberty does not means the absence
revolution” in England in the year 1688, of restraint but it lies in development
containing the absolute monarchy for of liberty”- Mahatma Gandhi
some period and later led to the outbreak
 “Without right then cannot be liberty,
of French revolution in 1789.
because without rights, men are the
However it had not given a desired subjects of law unrelated to the needs
liberty. The successors of Napoleon of personality”.-Harold. J. Laski
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� Liberty is usually defined as the

Freedom from arbitrary or undue
external restraint.
� By applying the legal maxim,
Ejusdem Generis, the general word
‘freedom’ under article 19 derives
its color and texture from the
paricular words used with it whereas
under article 21, there are no such ii. Civil Liberty
particular words used.
The concept of civil liberty reflects
Two Phases Of Liberty “Rule of law”. It denotes the enjoyment
of our rights within the limits of law. The
Positive liberty: Positive liberty mean
protection of civil liberty is guaranteed by
freedom to do something that the
the laws of the state.
individual should have rights and
opportunities to develop his personality. iii. Political Liberty
Negative Liberty: For J.S. Mill liberty The concept of political liberty
means Negative liberty He submitted that means liberty of citizen to participate
there should not be any restraint imposed in the political life and the affairs of the
upon man and his actions. He also asserted state. These rights are the right to vote, the
that there should not be any hindrance in right to contest elections, the right to hold
the path of man. public views and criticize the government
and right to petitions.
Types
of liberty iv. Personal Liberty
The individual can act as he pleases
without being under any type of arbitrary
Natural Social/ Moral
liberty civil liberty liberty and illegitimate restraint. It also means
that every individual has the right not to
permit any other individual to interfere
Personal Political in the affairs of his personal life . Every
liberty liberty
individual should have the the liberty to
dress, food, standard of living, marriage
Economic Domestic
and education of children etc. The state
liberty liberty
should not interfere in the personal
National International
matters.
liberty liberty Liberty may be endangered
by the abuse of liberty, but
i.Natural Liberty
also by the abuse of Power
Natural liberty means absence of - James Madison
all restraint –an unrestrained freedom to
do whatever one likes.
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v. Economic Liberty It means the liberty of the country.

The concept of economic liberty National liberties exist where the nation is
means the liberty to earn one’s daily bread. independence and sovereign.
Beyond the distingtion of caste, colour,
‘Liberty does not descend upon a
creed and gender every individual should
person. People must raise themselves
have liberty to earn his daily bread by fair to liberty. Liberty is a blessing that
means. must be earned in order to be enjoyed’
engraved on the building of central
The shepherd drives
secretariat New Delhi .
the wolf from the
sheep’s throat, for ix. International Liberty
which the sheep
thanks the shepherd This concept implies peace and
as a liberator, while international cooperation and the
the wolf denounces formation of world federation of states.
him for the same Symbolic Meaning
act as the destroyer
of liberty, especially as the sheep was The statue of liberty
a black one. Plainly the sheep and the has a universal
wolf are not agreed upon a definition reminder of freedom’,
of the word liberty; and precisely the it embodies ‘hope’ for
same difference prevails today among American citizens.
us human creatures.
- Abraham Lincoln How are liberty, sovereignty and law are
related to each other?
vi. Fiscal Liberty
Liberty exist only in a state in order.
According to this principle;
The state makes law and the sovereign state
there should be no taxation without
operates through these laws. There exist a
representation. It was the slogan given
close relationship between liberty, sovereignty
by middle classes who claimed that they
and law.
should be allowed to decide as to how and
on whom their money was to be spent. Quotable
uote
vii. Domestic Liberty “Where there is no law there is no
It covers equal right for women and freedom” – John Locke
children. They need to be protected against
maltreatment, cruelty and exploitation. How does law protect liberty?
They were also have the right to education. i. Law punish criminal and defends the
viii. National Liberty: rights of the individuals.
“Those who would give
up essential liberty to ii.
L aw guarantee the enjoyment of
purchase a little temporary individual rights and duties and
safety, deserve neither protect them. The state punishes the
liberty nor safety.” individual who causes harm to others
-Benjamin Franklin and hinders path of others .
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iii. Constitution is custodian of liberty

and it confines the authority of the
state and protects the fundamental
right of the people.
How liberty is safeguarded?
i. Democracy
Liberty is safer in democracy than in iv. Decentralization of powers
any other form of government. Democratic
Decentralization of power is required
government is the government of the
for the safeguard of liberty. Power should
people. Opposite parties are given due
be divided into central, provincial and local
respects in democracy.
government and such decentralization
ii. Constitution leads to efficient administration.
Authority of the state dwells in the
constitution of the respective nation. v. Independent Judiciary
The Preamble of Constitution reads Safeguard of Liberty depends
like a poem on democracy. It contains upon the independence of judiciary. It
the philosophy on which the entire should be free from the control of the
Constitution has been built. It provides executive. In the communist countries or
a standard to examine and evaluate any in the countries which have dictatorship,
law and action of government, to find out fundamental rights are given to the people
whether it is good or bad. It is the soul of but judiciary is not free from the influence
the Indian Constitution. of the executive. In such countries, the
iii. Fundamental Rights safeguard and security of fundamental
Fundamental rights confines the rights, liberty and constitution is not
authority of the state. Fundamental rights possible.
assure us that the state cannot interfere in
INDEPENDENT JUDICIARY
the matters of personal life .
The constitution of India makes
The Fundamental Rights provisions for the independence of
judiciary because only independent
i) Right to Equality (Article 14-18) judiciary can safeguard the rights and
ii) Right to Freedom (Article 19-22) liberties of the people, can protect the
supremacy of the constitution
iii) R
ight against exploitation
(Article 23-24) i.
An impartial method has been
adopted for the appointment of the
iv) R
ight to freedom of Religion
judges.
(Article 25-28)
ii. High qualifications have been fixed
v) C
ultural and Educationl Rights for the judges.
(Article 29-30)
iii. The judges of the Supreme Court
vi) R
ights to Constitutional stay in office till 65 years of age and
Remedies (Article 32-35) of High courts till 62 years of age.
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vi. Economic Security viii.

Political education and eternal
Economic security is a condition vigilance
to liberty.“Where there are rich and poor, Permanent safeguard of liberty is
educated and uneducated, we always find a possible. Educated are acutely aware of
relation of master and servant”. - Laski their rights and duties. Eternal vigilance
vii. Rule of Law is the prices of liberty and in it absence
Rule of law is established in England, one can act according to his will whenever
USA and India Rule of law mean that the government crosses the barrier of its
there should not be any distinction of authority and interference in the personal
caste and creed colour and race . In the life of the people, may rise in revolt against
eyes of law all are equal and all are liable the government.
to be punished if they commit crime.
Justice: Justice is the main phenomenon

Glossary
which has to be maintained regardless of
Sovereignty: The supreme power which all kinds of discriminations.
cannot be distorted and divided. State of Nature: The stage of antiquity
Universal Suffrage: Voting rights to all in which there was no organized form of
the people invariable of gender, caste, government and society.
color, religion, property and other divisive De-jure: On accordance with law.
factors. De-facto: Factually,one who rules really
Statutes: A written law passed by the and concretely.
legislative body of a country. It is also
added in the parliamentary laws after
having had appropriate discussion.
Evaluation
I Choose the correct answer

1. Who is known to be the father of sovereignty?
a) Bodin b) Austin c) Plato d) Aristotle
2. Monistic theory of sovereignty propounded by
a) Austin b) Hegel c) Merriam d) Willoughby
3. In democracy sovereignty resides with
a) State b) Government c) People d) Media
4. Who said “I am the state”?
a) James II b) Napolean I c) Louis XIV d) Bismarck
5. Double citizenship exists in
a) USA b) China c) Japan d) Australia
6. “Sovereignty resides with General Will” said by
a) Rousseau b) T.H.Green c) Austin d) Bodin
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7. “On Liberty” book written by

a) J.S.Mill b) Locke c) Rousseau d) Bodin
8. The main objective of rule of law is to ensure:
a) Freedom of Press b) Liberty of citizens
c) Independence of Judiciary d) All the above
9. Fundamental rights of India drawn from?
a) USA b) France c) Britain d) Russia
10. “Religion is opium” stated by
a) Marx b) Galileo c) Russell d) Bagat Singh
11. “Das Capital” book written by?
a) Marx b) Kropotkin c) Owen d) Netaji
1. Define sovereignty.
2. What are the types of Sovereignty?
3. Write a note on discrimination.
1. Write a note on Negative liberty.
2. What is anarchism?
3. Discuss about caste discrimination.
4. What are Human Rights?
1. 19. Examine the features of the concept of sovereignty.
2. 20. Explain the factors of violation of liberty.
3. 21. Explain about equality in the Indian constitution.
Reference books :-
1. A
garwal .R.C, Political theory (Principles of Political science), Chand & company,
New Delhi, 2005.
2. R
ajeev Bhargava & Ashok Acharya (Ed), Political theory: An Introduction , Thomson
press, New Delhi, 2016.
Further readings
1. H
eywood, Andrew: Political I dealogies: An Introduction, London, Macmillan, New
York 2003.
2. Bakshi, P. Constitution of India, New Delhi, 1990.
3. Basu,Durga.Das: Introduction to the constitution of India, New Delhi, 1997.
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UNIT
4 Basic Concepts of Political Science

Part II
4.1 LAW
4.1.1 Introduction
Law is the prescription of rules and
regulations sanctioned by the sovereignty
Leanpub
�
Learning Objectives
Understanding the essence of
for the state. Law as, Bodin said, is the law brings students closer to the
command of the sovereign. Similarly thoughts of Justice.
Aristotle has rightly pointed out that if
� Classification of law helps students
there is no law even man will behave like
to know the different kinds of
a beast. In order to preserve society and
law and its application and its
protect the progressive nation, law has
implication to our society
become an integral part of the system
world over. The enormous power of S ources of law gives students a
�
law could not be a complete solution to broad understanding on the origin
maintain an order in the society due to of law
the limitations it is framed with. Law is a � The interconnection between State,
tyrant for criminal and a guardian for its Law and Morality are highlighted
citizen. for enabling students to understand
There is always an intense debate that how well they are connected to
happens on, why the law is lenient in some society through the law of the State.
part of the world and so powerful in another
4.1.2 Meaning of Law
part of the world. The question of leniency
and powerful the law is, ascertained by its The term ‘Law’ was derived from
functions especially the punishment it an old Teutonic root ‘lag’ “which means
involves. For example, law in a democratic something which lies fixed or evenly.
country is much different and concerned Without law life may witness utter chaos
than the law in a totalitarian state. And and confusion and in fact it is law that
more, how the law unfurls freedom for its regulates life. The word law is used to
citizens matters a lot while executing and denote ‘uniform’. There are two kinds of
exercising it. Ignorance of law is not an laws. They are: physical and human law.
excuse anywhere in the world. Hence it is Physical law regulates nature where as
pertinent to introduce the concept of law human law regulates human life. The term
to the young minds to understand it as the law in political science is used to mean
basic rules and regulations as sanctioned body of rules to guide human action.
by our constitution. The function of state is done through
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government and the government in turn ii. Public laws

interprets the will of the state through law. The laws that determine the relation
� Law in relation to justice of citizens to the state are public laws.
-
the aim is to attain justice in Public law perceives state as an arbiter as
society. well as one of the parties interested in it.
- Justice? It is an abstract idea of iii. Constitutional laws
right and wrong, fairness and Constitutional laws are the basic laws
equality. according to which the government in a
- therefore, the doing of what is state conducts itself. The laws that define
right or just in a particular of interpret and regulate the functions of the
circumstances. government are known as constitutional
laws. For example, the election of President,
Views On Law
the powers and functions of the Supreme
 “Law is the command of the sovereign” court and method of the appointment of
according to John Austin the governor are constitutional affairs.
 “Law is the collection of rules which
iv. Statute Laws
the state recognizes and applies in
the administration of Justice” said Statute laws are the laws which are
Salmond framed by the Legislative Assembly or by
What are the purposes of Law? the Parliament. Democratic Government
being popular in most of the countries,
 Protect basic human rights
the laws of those government are framed
 Promote fairness
mostly by the Parliaments in those
 Help resolve conflicts countries.
 Promote justice
v. Ordinances
 Promote order and stability
 Promote desirable social and Ordinances are generally issued by
the executive branch of the government
economic behaviour
as per the law of the state. Ordinances are
 Represent the will of the majority
temporary by nature and are issued by the
(on some issues)
President in the absence of parliament,
 Protecting the rights of minorities especially to face the emergency.
4.1.3 Classification of Laws.
vi. Common Laws
i. Private laws
The relationship of citizens and the Common laws are those laws which
regulation of relations among one another rest on customs but are enforced by the
courts like statute law. Common laws are
are determined by private laws.
Quotable
uote
popular in England.
vii. Administrative Laws
In private laws the parties concerned are
private individuals above and between The office and responsibilities of
whom stands the state as an impartial government servants are interpreted and
arbiter. - Holland governed by Administrative law. It is the
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Administrative law that enable the public to enjoy its sovereign status. There are
officers to separate law and procedure also laws such as Sea law, where there are
from private individuals. These laws also International borders and as well Air law
make an attempt to interpret the privileges that demands aircraft of other nation to
of government officials. When any dispute fly with permission of respective nations.
arises between a citizen and government 4.1.4 The sources of Law
servant the administrative court resolves
the issue with administrative laws. i. Customs
Customs play an important role in
International the framing of the laws. Most of the laws
Law
Criminal that came from customs are recognized
Family
Law Law by state later. State cannot actually ignore
the customs of the country. The common
Contract law of England for example sprang mainly
Human
Rights Law Law Law
from customs.
Property Customs Religion

Tort Law Law
Administrative
Law
Legislature
Sources Judicial
decisions
of Law
viii. International Laws
The rule that determine the conduct
Secientific
of the civilized states in their relation commentaries Equity
with other states in international arena is
otherwise called International law. There
For example Bull-Taming sport culture of
are no such framed laws that govern
Tamils of India resulted into the creation
international relations but backed by
of Jallikattu Law in 2017. (Read the box
public opinion and the rule of UNO as an
for more information about Jallikattu Law
international body matters for any nation
of 2017)
ACTIVITY ALANGANALLUR – THE BULL – TAMING SPORT
The picture is a bull taming sports
of Tamil culture, popularly called as
‘jallikattu’ at Alangannallur in Madurai
district. Alagannallur is synonymous with
the bull- taming sport, usually conducted
in the month of January, along with Pongal
festival in Tamil Nadu. Every society in
our country is having its own right to life,
liberty and continuing their culture and
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tradition but in this case of jallikatu there iv. Equity

is a tussle between cultural rights and
animal rights. When laws are ambiguous and do
not fit in, the principles of equity are
As per the constitution of India
applied and cases are decided according
Article 29(1) is a fundamental right
to commonsense and fairness. In English
guaranteed under part III which protects
Law, equity means that body of rules
the educational and cultural rights.
originally enforced only by the court of
The 2014 judgement of the supreme chancery.
court asserts that animals as sentient
beings have the fundamental right to life v. Scientific commentaries
under Article 21 of the constitution.
Another source of law are scientific
These contradictions have made commentaries. when the commentary
several interpretations in formalizing this appears it is understood only as an
sport. argument, later on its authority is
ii. Religion recognized as more authoritative than the
Judicial decision.
The religion practiced by Primitive
communities played a decisive role “The opinion of learned writers on law
in evolving the laws of the state later. have often been accepted as correct law:
Religion was a basis of law for most of in England , for instance the opinions
the nation. The origin of Hindu law of Coke and Blackstone in America of
can be traced in the code of Manu. The story and kent , in India of Vijnaneswara
origin of Mohammedian law can be and Apararka” - A. Appadurai
traced in Shariat law. Divine law is a law
vi. Legislature
revealed through man from God. God
is the ultimate source of divine law. For Most of the laws in the modern times
Christians Ten Commandments were the are framed by legislature and it is one of
first law given by the Lord Almighty to his the most important source of law. Indian
people and was considered as the basis of constitution is a classical example where
law. the best provisions of other constitutions
are borrowed and made it available for the
iii. Judicial decisions
best of our nation
The function of the Judiciary is to
Sources Of The Indian Constitution
interpret and declare the law. The main
function of the judiciary creates new i) G overnment of India Act 1935
laws. The laws later gets recognized by ii) UK Constitution
the state. Judicial decisions thus became iii) US Constitution
an another source of law. Some time the 4.1.5 How law is related to state and
verdict of High Court and Supreme Court morality?
are treated as laws. Law and morality are complimentary
to each other. Ethics reveals its citizens the
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code of conduct. Similarly the laws framed which are based on morality remain
by state also aim to achieve the same goal. permanent
4.1.6 How Law and Public opinion are
“The best state is that which is nearest
related to each other?
in virtue to the individual. If any part
of the body politic -suffers, the whole The power of democracy lies in the
body suffers”. -Plato participation of people in the democratic
exercise of electing their representatives.
A bad state will have bad citizens and a People are not directly involved in the
good state will have good citizens. So it framing of laws, yet they could elect their
is the sole function of the state to keep a representatives to legislature. The elected
good standard of morality. body are just expected to represent the
Quotable
uote
will of the public.
The Modern state appeals to morality,
Morality is concerned with the moral to religion, and to natural law as
duties whereas the laws of the state are the ideological
concerned with the legal duties. foundation of its
existence. At the same
Distinction between Law and Morality:
time it is prepared to
 L aws are enforced by the state, if not
infringe any or all of
obeyed to the commands of law, he is
these in the interest
likely to be punished by the state.
of self-preservation.
The severe punishment one can be
 J.M. Coetzee
awarded to a person for not observing
the scruples of morality is the social In democracy laws are framed only
boycott. based on the support of public opinion.
Morality is concerned with both
 People carry out peaceful demonstrations
internal and external affairs of man to express their opinion or resentment.
whereas law is concerned only with Common welfare of the people and social
the external affairs of man. Hence, progress are the primary considerations of
law punishes only those persons who public opinion.
Quotable
violate laws by their external actions.
uote
Public Opinion: Opinion held by Law and order exist for the
people for the common welfare purpose of establishing
justice and when they fail
What is Moral law? in this purpose they become
the dangerously structured
A law framed with a purpose of dams that block the flow of
eliminating evils such as drinking of social progress.
wine, gambling, theft, dacoity and Martin Luther King, Jr
murder are moral laws. The laws
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4.2 CITIZENSHIP Republics but they disappeared from the

feudal systems. This was later revived
4.2.1 Introduction
as a desirable aspect of civic humanism
In political theory, citizenship refers during the Renaissance. Citizenship was
not only to a legal status which means considered only as participation of duties
the ruled are full and equal participants during the ancient Athens.
in the political process. Democracy and 4.2.3 Marshall’s Analysis
citizenship go hand in hand. Citizenship
According to Marshall, a liberal-social
focuses on the attributes of individual
citizens. Citizens have certain rights that democrat links citizenship to social class in
differ from one country to another. the context of capitalism. citizenship has
three essential divisions: civil, political and
Natural citizens are the citizens by
social. Every individual requires a right
virtue of their birth but naturalised citizens
for freedom and that is what is in as civil
are the ones who acquire citizenship.
component. As a citizen we have the right
Aristotle defined citizenship with
to participate in political decision-making
reference to the birth place, family lineage
process.
and culture.
Aristotle
4.2.2 Citizenship and the City-state:
Defines citizenship as “he who has
Citizenship was an important
the power to take part in the deliberative
theme in the ancient Greek and Roman
or judicial administration of any state.”
The Maintenance and welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act was passed in
2007 by to provide maintenance and support to elderly parents and senior citizens.
What the Act states …

� The Act established the Maintenance Tribunal to provide speedy and effective
relief to elderly person.
� Maintenance, according to the Act, pertains to “provision for food, clothing,
residence and medical attendance and treatment’’.
� The only condition for claiming maintenance under this Act is that the persons
must be unable to maintain themselves from their own earnings and property.
� The Act mandates that the maximum maintenance paid will be 10,000/- per
month. The maintenance amount is determined by the needs of the claimant and
the aim is provide maintenance for the person to lead a normal life.
� Parents or senior citizens can avail the services of the State government appointed
maintenance officer to represent their interests during proceedings before the
Maintenance Tribunal. Lawyers are not allowed to present cases before the
Tribunal according to the Act.
� Any person who is responsible for the protection and care of a senior citizen
and intentionally abandons the senior citizen completely is liable to pay a fine of
5000/- or be imprisoned for three months or both.
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Greeks enjoyed the privilege of not discriminate against citizens on the

being governed by democracy; their grounds of race, caste, sex, place of birth,
government was made up of commoners, etc. The rights of religious and linguistic
and they were allowed freedom of minorities are also protected.
speech to a large extent through public 4.2.5 Global citizenship and National
speaking rights. citizenship
Standard of living and they have all
National citizenship assumes that
the rights to enjoy the fruits of this. Hence,
our state can provide us with protection
Marshall stresses upon the social services.
and rights we need to live. However, states
4.2.4 Citizenship in India today are to tackle a lot of problems and
The Indian Constitution attempted to hence individual rights are guaranteed to
provide full citizenship to all irrespective protect the safety of the people. Global
of whichever groups they belonged to. citizenship on the other hand, deals with
Prepare a chart on your idea on the the importance of citizenship across the
qualities of a good citizen and share it national boundaries. Here, one may need
with your teacher and friends. the cooperative action by the people and
the governments of many states.
The provisions about citizenship are
found in Part II and in the subsequent Therefore, citizenship for all can
laws passed by the Parliament Citizenship resolve many socio- economic inequalities.
can be acquired by birth, descent, Moreover, global citizenship reminds us
registration, naturalisation or inclusion that we live in a world where the states
of territory. There is also a provision in are interconnected with each other and
the Constitution that the state should strengthening the links is most important.
4.3 RIGHTS AND DUTIES

4.3.1 Introduction
Rights are so common in our world
that we might suppose that they are
woven into a fabric of human rights. The
� The meaning of rights and its
significance of rights in the modern era is features.
not limited to their entrenchment in the � Differences between rights and
constitutions and their announcement in responsibilities.
international declarations. If all human � Different types of rights.
beings possess rights merely in virtue of � Directive Principles of State
being human, then all humans possess Policy.
rights merely in virtue of being human,
� Political Obligations of the
then all humans possess a certain equality citizens.
of moral standing which cuts across
� Citizenship
differences of class, caste or race or
� Theoretical aspects of Property.
religion.
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“Rights are powers necessary for the iii. Legal Rights

fulfilment of man’s vocation as a moral Legal rights are equally available to
being...” T.H. Green all the citizens and they follow without
any discrimination. Legal rights are those
Do you know about rights? which are accepted and enforced by the
They are the common claims of state. Legal rights are of three types:
the people which every cultures society
recognizes as essential claims for their C
ivil Rights: These are the rights which
development and which are therefore provide opportunity to each person to
enforced by the state. lead a civilized social life and that which
Features are protected by the state. Right to life,
Rights are important for the societal
 liberty and equality are civil rights.
development.
P
olitical Rights: These are the rights by
They are available to all the people
 virtue of which the people get a share
irrespective of caste, creed, race or in the political process. These rights
gender bias. include the right to vote, right to get
 Rights are duties are interrelated to each elected, right to hold public office, etc.
other. “No duties, no rights.”
 Rights are justiciable.  E conomic Rights: These are the rights
which provide the economic security to
 It is the duty of the state to protect the
the people.
rights of the people.
Different types of Rights. Legal rights are what the law says
Rights there are, insofar as the law is enforced.
They gain importance through legislation
or decree by a legally authorized authority.
Natural Moral Contractual Legal Human
rights rights rights rights rights iv. Contractual Rights
i. Natural Rights These rights originate from the
practice of promise – keeping. They
These rights are parts of human
nature and reason. Political theory apply to particular individuals to whom
explains that an individual has certain contractual promises have been made.
basic rights and the government cannot v. Human Rights
deny these rights.
ii. Moral Rights Human Rights are the rights of
highest order. They are protected and
Moral rights include rules of good
supported by international and national
conduct, courtesy and moral behaviour.
Moral Rights include rules of good laws and treaties.
conduct, courtesy and of moral behaviour
and stand for moral perfection of the
people.
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Have you heard of Bill of Rights and

Fundamental Rights? James Madison proposed the
Bill of Rights. Bill of Rights was
The Bill of Rights, in the United States, influenced by George Mason’s
was adopted as a single unit on December 1776 Virginia Declaration of
15, 1791, and they constitute a collection Rights & 1689 English Bill of Rights.
of mutually reinforcing guarantees of The Bill of Rights derives from the
individual rights and limitations on Magna Carta (1215), the English Bill
federal and state governments. of Rights (1689),- James Madison
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND CYBER CHALLENGE
I. Mention the Fundamental Rights which is violated/supported in each of the following
case:
No. Cases Support/Violation of Rights
1. A women is prohibited from a visiting art gallery
on the ground of her sex.
2. The Minorities can establish and administer
educational institutions of their choice
3. Shreya Singhal, a 21-year-old girl from Delhi,
filed a public interest petition in the Supreme
Court challenging the Section of 66A of the IT
Act.
4. Cartoonist Aseem Trivedi, who was charged with
sedition by the Maharashtra government for his
caricatures on the Internet.
5. A girl from north-eastern India is not allowed to
settle in Chennai.
6. The increasing curbs on social media through
controversial legal provisions pose a grave
challenge to civil society.
7. Pakistani activist Malala Yousafzai who was shot
in the head by the Taliban last October 2012 for
advocating girl’s education.
Fundamental Rights Right to Equality
Part-III of the Indian Constitution Right to Equality guarantees equality
contains Fundamental Rights. before law to all the people irrespective of
their caste, creed, gender and race, etc.
The Constituent Right to Freedom
Assembly took 2 years 11 This article assures freedom of
months and 20 days to frame speech and expression, freedom to
the Constitution. assemble peacefully and without arms,
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freedom to form associations and to move are forms of forced labour. It also prohibits
freely throughout India. the children below the age of 14 years from
What do you infer from this given employment in any factory or mine or any
cartoon? (The Hindu/5.12.2012) kind of hazardous labour.
Right to Freedom of Religion
In India, all the people have the
right to choose their own religion and
faith. Article 26 allows establishing
Democracy and Women

Empowerment
Agree and Disagree
Arrange the statements given
Section 66 A of the Information
below in these two sections, according
Technology Act deals with ____________
to what you think is appropriate for the
_________________________________
section. (I Agree and I Disagree)
Right to Life and Personal Liberty 1. When women and girls are educated,
they accelerate development in their
No citizen can be denied of his
families and communities.
personal liberty. This means no person
can be detained without informing the 2.
Women always depend on male
grounds of his arrest. An arrested person companies like father, husband,
has also the liberty to consult and be brother and son.
defended by a lawyer of his choice. Besides 3. Providing education for women and
this, he is not to be kept under custody girls our economies grow. Health
beyond 24 hours and must be produced improves. Nation rise.
before the Magistrate. 4. Women are exclusively for managing
Preventive Detention the house and cooking purpose only.
5. Girls and women are good at dance,
Preventive Detention is considered
painting and cooking.
as a check on the actions of the miscreants
which is actually the dire need of the hour. 6. Education is the pathway to saving
If the State feels that a person can be a lives, building peace and empowering
threat to law and order as well as to peace girls and women.
and security of the nation, it can arrest or 7. Malala Yousufzai, 17-year-old
detain that person. Pakistani muslim girl supports girls’
education.
Right against Exploitation
I agree _________________________
The Constitution has provided with ________________________________
the Right against exploitation, wherein
I disagree _______________________
trafficking in human beings and beggary
________________________________
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and maintaining institutions related to the citizens and initiate transparency and
religious affairs and charitable purposes accountability. An informed citizen is kept
also. You can own a movable or an more vigil on the instruments governing
immovable property and administer the the functions of the government thereby
property in accordance with law. making them accountable.
Cultural and Educational Rights Right to Privacy
There are certain non-political Right to privacy is moreover an
rights of religious, cultural and linguistic integral part of human dignity. “The right
minorities, groups or sections of people. to privacy is protected as an intrinsic part
Constitution guarantees these rights for of the right to life and personal liberty
them. under Article 21 and as a part of the
No citizen is denied the admission freedoms guaranteed by Part III of the
to the State or the State aided educational Constitution”
institutions owing to caste, creed, gender,
Rights of Transgenders
etc. The citizens have their right to get
educated in any schools or colleges of Transgenders are different from how
their choice. If in case the institutions men and women are supposed to be. Today
are found to practise discrimination, the they are addressed as the third gender.
government will not extend aid to such The Supreme Court has infact directed
institutions. Moreover, the State should the Union and the State Governments to
not dictate the pattern of education to grant legal recognition of their gender
these institutions too and must allow them identity.
to decide in order to preserve our culture. 4.4 Political Obligation
ACTIVITY Political obligation binds a person to

the performance of duties as mentioned
1. Find out how many languages, scripts in the Constitution. An individual has
and dialects are there in India? to follow the rules and regulations in the
2. What are the official languages of society for his own welfare and the society’s
India? welfare. When the State is responsible
towards the citizen, the citizen must also
Right to Constitutional Remedies reciprocate to the Government.
Article 32 provides the remedies to
the citizens at the Supreme Court while 4.4.1 Political Obligation and Political
Article 226 by the High Court. The courts Authority
can issue writs or orders in the nature of
When the state has a political authority,
Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Certiorari,
it has the right to compel the non-
Quo Warranto and Prohibition or
compliers. For example if anything within
Injunction.
the State’s authority to levy the taxes, then
New Rights the State has all the rights to compel the
Right to Information non-compliers to pay the taxes. However,
Right to Information Act of 2005 as even if the State does not enforce its
mandate of posing queries to the working authority, still it is the moral duty of the
of the Government. This is to empower citizens to comply with the laws.
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Hence, every human being is subject Features of Political Obligation

to political obligation owing to the
� There prevails a source of political
omnipresence of the modern nation state.
spirit and social service
Political obligation otherwise involves
three major aspects: � Honesty and integrity are the
The identifiable authority to which essential aspects when it comes to the
political obligation is rendered performance of public duty.
� There must prevail political legitimacy
To what extent political obligation
can be rendered and effectiveness
� The citizens also have the responsibility
The basis of Political Obligation
of guarding their guardians
Fundamental Rights
No discrimination against
Freedom to move freely
any citizen on grounds of
throughout the country
caste, religion, sex or place
? ?
Freedom to profess; Forced labour or
practice and propagate Right to Freedom Right to against beggary in anyform
any religion of Religion Exploitation is prohibited
Cultural and
Educational
Rights
?
All minorities have the right to Equality before law

establish and administer
educational institutional of
their choice
Kinds of Political Obligations i) Moral Obligation: Are you hospitable

Political Obligations are of four kinds. to the guests who come to your house?
Do you help the poor? Will you not take
care of your parents in their old age?
These are your moral obligations. They
do not legally bind the community and
the individuals and if you do not behave
within the moral obligations, you can
also not be punished.
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ii) Legal Obligation: Our nation is a Theories of Political Obligation

welfare state where the Government
All of us have some theories, values
focuses on providing us with the
in life. In the same way, theories are
infrastructural facilities. Roads, health
applicable for political obligations too.
centres, hospitals, education, etc are
There are different types of theories of
few of the examples of concern.
political obligation.
iii) Positive Obligation: There are certain
rules made by the state which cannot i. The Divine theory
be disobeyed and hence they are In the olden days, people thought that
considered as the positive obligation. the God created the state and the king was
For examples, paying tax and serving his representative. But this theory could be
the defence. popular only during the ancient and middle
iv) Negative Obligation: This is the direct ages but not during the modern era.
opposite of positive obligation. Here,
an individual is not permissible to do ii. The Consent Theory
what the government prevents him This theory proposes that the
from doing so. Commission of crime authority of the state is based on the
is also a negative obligation. people’s consent. Hobbes, Locke and
Rousseau justified this theory on the
Which are your obligations to the state? grounds that the authority of power was
dependent on the people’s consent. But,
� Playing with your friends. later it could not be accepted because it
� Cast votes during the election time. treated state as an artificial organisation.
� Teaching your sister.
iii. The Prescriptive Theory
� Payment of taxes to the state.
� To join the Public Service. This theory states that political
� To serve the army during emergency time. institutions are continuous from the past,
this idea has been supported by Edmund
Burke. But over a period of time, it lost
The Constitution and important
its effect due to its overemphasis on the
obligations
respect for the well-established practices.
There are situations where some laws
are framed by the Government which are iv. The Idealistic Theory
harmful and yet they get a support, which is
called the Steam roller legislature. It is the
duty of the citizen to resist such laws too.
Hence, the concept of political obligation
not only informs people to obey the rules
and regulations of the authority of power
but also informs to resist if the laws are
found not to be good for the society.
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This theory regards man and the state as i. Fear of Punishment: Do you fear
two entities. “Man” is regarded as a political being punished by your teacher with
and rational creature while “state” is an imposition if you go to school with
considered as a self-sufficing community. an incomplete homework? Does your
This idealistic theory propounds that father obey the traffic signals properly
when the individual receives his rights fearing being penalised? Yes, Fear is
from the state, he can have no rights that always there if we do not perform
can conflict with the state. However, this our tasks properly. In the same way,
theory proved to be quite abstract and individuals perform their functions
which could not be understood by man. fearing punishments. In other ways, it
is actually the coercive authority of the
v. The Marxian Theory
state that compels a man to conform to
The Marxian theory has been the system of regulations.
classified into three stages:
ii. Patriotism: Why do we stand up for
Pre-Revolutionary Stage- This stage our National Anthem? It is because
explains political non-obligation of patriotism. We love our nation. So,
Revolutionary Stage- It is an the members of the state are conscious
eventual change from political non- about the state they live as without that
obligation stage to a stage of total political they cannot live as civilized human
obligation. beings. The members develop a binding
towards the state.
Post-Revolutionary Stage- This
stage is a complete transition from total iii. Fear of disorder and anarchy: It is a
political obligation to social development. general principle that human beings
The Marxian theory of politics always wish for peace and order. They
explains the state as an instrument of not only obey the laws but also look
power in the hands of the proletariat. upon the ones who do not obey.
Towards the success of the revolution to iv. Habits and traditions: We are all
consolidate the socialist order, it may lead brought about to follow good habits like
to what is called as ‘withering away’ of being courteous, honest, discipline and
the state. However, this theory was also obedient. This is what our traditional
considered to be illogical since it made values instilled. Hence, in a nation,
man subservient to the state. even the citizens wish to establish good
Why should we obey the state? Is it traditions, and obedience to the state,
necessary? that which becomes a habit.
Though the theories mention about Therefore, let us understand that political
the political obligation, yet some seem obligations are necessary for the citizen to
to be abstract while some are illogical maintain a good system nationwide. Every
too. what are the reasons that make an individual hence has to abide by the laws for
individual to obey the state? a good reciprocation from the state as well.
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productivity must be encouraged by

DEBATE protecting individual’s property rights. No
government should take away the property
Critical Debate on Property from the people who are expected to
inequality possess and enjoy.
In most parts of our country, a 4.5.2 Feminist Perspectives
son has a right by birth to a share in With the advent of women
the undivided family property equal to empowerment in the 20th century, women
the father’s while a daughter can claim too claim equal status. Feminist scholars
state that an important condition for the
no such right. The Hindu Succession
subjugation of women has been owing to
Act of 1956 granted daughters equal
denial of access of women to resources
inheritance rights with sons in their
to income, such as land. This is owing to
father’s share of the undivided family the prevailing patterns of male ownership
property. and control of such resources. Owing to
Critical Debate: Teacher can form this, status of women has been one of
two groups. Each group consists of the dependence on men. This dependent
threemembers and one moderator. status has actually led to their rights to
Team A will support the Hindu own and claim property.
Succession Act of 1956 and Team B The Indian Constitution does not recognize
will oppose the Act. property right as a fundamental right. In the
year 1978, the 44th amendment eliminated
4.5 Property the right to acquire, hold and dispose of
property as a fundamental right. However,
Property is considered as a natural
Article 300 (A) was inserted in another part
right which is necessary for human dignity,
of the Constitution. This was to affirm that
freedom and dignity of life. Property refers
no person shall be deprived of his property
to the legal relations between the persons
save by authority of law. Hence, this has
with respect to specific things which may
be material or abstract. become a statutory right now.
4.5.1 Locke and the Utilitarian Glossary
Justification
According to Locke, the Government’s Justiciable: Subject to trial in a court of
main function is to guarantee every law.
citizen the protection of their individual Liberty: The state of being free within
rights and secure conditions to enjoy society from oppressive restrictions
their properties peacefully. Humans need imposed by authority one’s behaviour or
property which is also the necessary political views.
means of life. Democracy: The practice or principles of
Hence, the utilitarian’s state that the social equality.
system of property rights is necessary if Obligation: Duty or commitment.
the individuals is to achieve a sense of Patriotism: Vigorous support for one’s
happiness. If at all the governments want country.
to promote the happiness of it people, Acquisition: Buying or obtaining of assets
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Evaluation

1. Which right is the one that entitles an individual to voice their
opinions publicly?
a. Right to liberty c. Right to free expression
b. Right to education d. Right to religion
2. The right to life, liberty and equality are called as
a. Political Rights c. Legal Rights
b. Civil Rights d. Natural Rights
3. The rights that are protected and supported by international and national laws and
treaties are
a. Fundamental Rights c Natural Rights
b. The Bill of Rights d. Human Rights
4. The drafting committee of the Constituent Assembly was under the chairmanship of
a. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar c. Sardar Vallabhai Patel
b. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru d. Rajendra Prasad
5. Equality and freedom of liberty are the two kinds of rights necessary for
a. Communism c. Monarchy
b. Democracy d Communalism
6. The detention of a person to protect the law and security of the nation is called as
a. Habeas Corpus c. Preventive Detention
b. Mandamus d. Prohibition
7. Which Article provides the Constitutional Remedies to the citizens at Supreme Court?
a. Article 21 c. Article 15
b. Article 32 d. Article 18
8. A uniform civil code can be obtained through
a. Fundamental Duties c. Directive Principles
b. Fundamental Rights d. Human Rights
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1. What is natural Law?
2. What is natural citizen ship?
3. What are the fundamental rights that are available to us?
4. What are the constitutional remedies available for the citizens of India?

1. Explain the divine theory of political obligation.
2. What does citizenship mean in the political theory?
3. What are the different ways where citizenship can be acquired in India?
4. Explain Locke’s definition on Utilitarian justification.

1. Explain the difference between the Bill of Rights and the Fundamental Rights.
2. What are the different kinds of laws? Explain.
3. What do you mean by political obligation and what are the features of political
obligation?
Reference books
1. Rajeev Bhargava, Ashok Acharya, “Political Theory- An Introduction”, Pearson
India Education Services Pvt.Ltd., Uttar Pradesh, 2017.
2. Biswaranjan Mohanty, “Dynamics of Political Theory- The Current Analysis”
Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd., New Delhi, 2010.
3. Sushila Ramaswamy, “ Political Theory – Ideas and Concepts”, Macmillan India
Ltd., Chennai, 2009.
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ICT Corner
BASIC CONCEPT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
PART-II
Through this activity you will

learn about citizenship.
CITIZENSHIP - Procedure:
Step - 1 Use the URL or QR code to open the citizenship activity page.
Step - 2 An activity window will open, click the ‘Explore’ button at the bottom right to start
the activity.
Step - 3 Use the navigation key to know the features of Citizenship.
Step - 4 Explore back and forth by clicking the navigation key at the bottom.
CITIZENSHIP URL:
http://mocomi.com/what-is-citizenship/
ICT Corner
BASIC CONCEPT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
PART-II
learn about the Fundamental
Duties
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES OF INDIAN CITIZEN - Procedure:

Step - 1 Use the URL or QR code to open the Fundamental Duties activity page.
Step - 2 An activity window will open, click the navigation key on the top right corner of the
activity window.
Step - 3 After a small introduction story, an explanation of fundamental duties will
start.
Step - 4 Explore the different aspects of the fundamental duties by clicking the forward
navigation button.
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES URL:

*Pictures are indicative
http://mocomi.com/indian-fundamental-duties/
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UNIT
5 Democracy
5.1 Definition and types of Democracy

The term ‘Democracy’ is derived Law, ii) Equal
from the Greek word as ‘demo’ means Protection before Law
people and ‘cracy’ is referred as rule. The iii) Freedom of
concept of democracy in its Greek term Speech, iv) Freedom
comes from “demos and “kratos” meaning of Religion; v) Right
“people” and “rule”. Thus the term to organize and participate fully in the
democracy is Rule by People. political, economic, and cultural life of
Democracy society.
is one of the most d) Democracies conduct regular free and
important and well- fair elections open to all citizens.
debated topics in e) Democracy ensures that all citizens
the world since the receive equal protection under the law
beginning of the and that their rights are protected by
Twentieth Century and it has increased the Legal-constitutional system.
importance in the Twenty-first century.
Democracy defined by Philosophers:
The concept and practice of Democracy
in the Modern period evolved in Britain, “Democracy would, it
although it’s ancient concept and practice seems, a delightful form of
was in Ancient Greece. The spread of government, anarchic and
Democracy in began in the world in mostly, assigning a kind of
different countries from the beginning of equality indiscriminately
the Twentieth-century. to equals and unequals
Characteristics of Democracy alike.” - Socrates
“Freedom in a democracy is the glory of
a) Democracy rests upon the principles the state, and therefore,in
of majority rule, along with individual a democracy only will the
and minority rights. freedom of nature design
to dwell.”
b) The right of the people to demand the
- Plato
Government they elected and the duty
of the Government to be accessible and “The foundation of democratic
constitution is liberty. People constantly
responsive to their needs and demands
make this statement
is the main function.
implying that only in this
c) One of the primary functions of constitution is there any
Democracies is to protect such basic share in liberty at all”.
Human Rights i) Equality before - Aristotle
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f)
Democracies are diverse political acceptance of the laws. This is known as
systems, reflecting each nation’s unique Popular Referendum.
political, social, and cultural life.
The second type of Democracy is the
g)
Democracy ensures the citizens to Representative system of Democracy in
participate in the political system. which the elected representatives of the people
(representative democracy)are elected for a
h) Democracy is a system of government
term of office who determine public policy
in which power and civic responsibility
on behalf of the people. Political Democracy
are exercised by all citizens, directly
by Representative system of democracy is
or through their freely elected
the dominant form of Democracy all over
representatives.
the world, whereas the Direct Democracy
Types of Democracy is practiced in the Federal Republic of
Switzerland.
Democracy by its function has
different scope and importance. ii. Social Democracy
i) Political Democracy Social Democracy is a combination
ii) Social Democracy of social, economic and political ideas that
iii) Industrial Democracy supports economic and social policies.
It promotes social equality and social
iv) Economic Democracy
justice giving strength to economy and
v) Totalitarian Democracy representative and participatory democracy.
vi) Radical Democracy Social Democracy is based on the principle
vii) Plebiscitary Democracy of Social equality in all aspects of gender,
status, beliefs, values and customs. Social
i. Political Democracy Democracy believes strongly in Equality
Political democracy feature's the of opportunity and equality in freedom
popular participation of citizens in as the basis of human rights and life in a
government by which citizens elect their Democracy.
representatives to the Legislature of the
iii.Industrial Democracy
state. The elected representatives are
accountable to the citizens who elected Industrial democracy is defined
them. As a political system of government, as the means to promote democratic
Democracy works either as a function by principles in industry and labour by the
the direct involvement of the citizens in provision and protection of Labour Rights
making laws and the elected legislators and Responsibilities in the workplace.
would introduce it in the Legislature. This is
known as the process of Popular Initiative. Industrial democracy encourages the
Similarly, when the legislators elected by participation of labour in decision making
the people frame legislation, it is approved along with the management. Industrial
by a popular vote that is based on popular democracy enables the workers participate
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actively in the process of building both vi. Radical Democracy

community and individual interests for
Radical Democracy was proposed
the collective good of the society and
by M.N.Roy a leading Indian political
state. Industrial democracy empowers
thinker who believed in “real rule” of the
workers as partners in the industry calling
people for the term of office to which the
for their joint efforts to build community
legislators are elected. Radical democracy
interests and welfare
supports the idea of direct accountability
iv. Economic Democracy of the legislators and executive to the
people during the term of office. Radical
Economic democracy is defined Democracy believed in the humanism
as the process of creating democratic of the people who are the real masters
conditions of economic productivity, of political authority and power and not
minimising the rich-poor gap and the elected legislators. Radical democracy
socio-economic differences, promoting brings into Democracy the real sense of
affordable economic development and the people’s participation, accountability of
ideal of creating greater equality among the elected and the power of the people to
various classes. change the government.
v. Totalitarian Democracy
vii. Plebiscitary Democracy
Totalitarian Democracy is known as
populist democracy or mass democracy Plebiscitary Democracy is defined as
in which Citizens after electing the the process of a direct voting by the people
representatives have no voice in decision- of a candidate, or party or a public issue
making, but the elected representatives or the adoption of a new constitution of a
decide for the entire country. Totalitarian state or to determine the association of the
Democracy elevates the ruler, party and the province with the state known as national
elected legislators over the voting citizens self-determination. The voters have the
and captures power through democratic choice to accept or reject the choice.
means but runs as dictatorship. The
Plebiscitary democracy gives the
political ideology of the ruler, party and
citizens the right and power to collect
the legislators becomes dominant over
a sizeable number of signatures on a
people interests. Totalitarian democracy
petition to draft a law or a public policy
in the name of people’s rights would use
programme and put the proposal or draft
internal terror against certain sections
law to vote by the citizen population
of people and also speech restrictions to
keep the population under its complete Plebiscitary democracy can by a
control. collection of signatures could result in the
Totalitarian democracy would have recall of the elected representative because
complete control of the economy of the of failure to represent the real interests of
state and would use it to control the the people.
population.
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5.2 Theories of Democracy

ACTIVITY – TRUE OR FALSE
Democracy is a theory that has various
Which of the following applications in different historical periods,
statements is true about today’s world? different civilizations and cultures. The
a) Monarchy as a form of government Ancient theory of Democracy emerged in
has vanished. Ans : __________ Ancient Greece that saw the rise of several
b) The relationship between different city-states (polis) which believed and
countries has become more applied the procedure of Direct election,
democratic than ever before.
Debating of public policies and Decision
Ans : ____________
by the people. Greek Civilization, Culture
c) In more and more countries, rulers
and Language spread widely throughout
are being elected by the people.
Ans: ____________ Europe in the ancient historical period.
d) There are no more military And it also saw the spread of democracy
dictators in the world. as a “form” and “system” of government
Ans : ___________ initially in Europe and later into North
e) Which is the good form of and South America.
government Democracy or Polity? As the Greek polis increased in
f) Democracy is a failure in a country size the nation of democracy by elected
of people who are ignorant. representatives gained importance and
g) Democracy fails when the rights of relevance. Representative democracy later
the people are taken away emerged as the dominant form and system
of government in the European Middle
Scholars view of Democracy Ages, the Age of Enlightenment. The mass
Democracy is a ‘living popular demand for Democracy was made
reality’ in every sphere in the American (1775-1783) and French
of social, economic and Revolutions (1789-1799). Democracy has
political activity. now emerged as a “universal” form of
- George Douglas government widely accepted by several
Howard Cole countries with various people groups,
cultures and languages.
Democracy is defined as,
1. A government by the
people; especially: rule
of the majority:
democracy Republic Dictatorship Monarchy
2. A government in which the supreme
power is vested in the people
There are various Theories of Democracy
and exercised by them directly
defined in terms of scope and impact:
or indirectly through a system of
representation usually involving
5.2.1 Classical Democracy: Emerged as
periodically held free elections.
a direct form of democracy in Ancient
- Thomas Jefferson
Greece. Athens was the first city to
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introduce such a democracy. Direct rights and liberties. Protective democracy

democracy in Athens emerged in between as a Rights-based democracy emerged in
800-500 BCE (Before Common Era). In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth
Athenian direct democracy, the citizens centuries placing it as an instrument of
of the city-state are all as members of the protecting human rights and liberties.
assembly, who participated directly in The English thinker John Locke (1631-
the decision making and the process of 1704) was regarded as the great advocate
legislation. Given the limited population of protective democracy. Locke argued
they were able to gather in the city square that the citizen’s freedom and right to
and were able to deliberate. All citizens vote was based on the existence of natural
were free to express their different rights characterized by Life, Liberty and
opinions, debate, and vote in a system Property.
directly and this was called as Classical Protective Democracy was proposed
Democracy. Classical democracy for its by English thinkers Jeremy Bentham
success should have two preconditions: (1748-1832) James Mill 1773-1836)
a) The community must be small enough and John Stuart Mill(1806-1873) of the
for citizens to be proficient in attending Utilitarian School of Democracy and
debates and voting on issues; b) the Rights. Utilitarianism was powerfully
economy of the state should be sufficient advocated in favour of protective
for enabling the citizens to engage in democracy.
politics.
The following are the basic features of
The principles of classical democracy
protective democracy:
are mentioned below:
a) The chief political ideals were equality
Protective democracy believes in
among all people, liberty and respect for popular sovereignty.

law and justice.
Both the popular sovereignty and
b) Equality before law and equal treatment representative form of government are
of law enabled justice to prevail in legitimate.
almost all the spheres of society.
Political life was free a nd open. � It is the primary duty of the state to
protect the rights and liberties of
The main subject of classical
citizens.
democracy was the participation of all
peoples in the processes of state. Classical
�
The authority is accountable to the
democracy was to bring equality among
People and in order to establish it
citizens in respect of rights and privileges.
elections are held on regular basis.
Protective Democracy:
� S eparation of the Legislature, Executive
Democracy has been regarded as and Judiciary are the most important
a means at the disposal of individuals means of protecting the rights, liberties
which they can use to safeguard their and the distribution of privileges.
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�
The introduction of rights-based the falseness of the liberal democracies
protective democracy brought in are thus seen as ‘capitalist’ or ‘bourgeois’
the idea of constitutionalism that democracies which are manipulated
governed the ruler and the ruled by the and controlled by the entrenched power
principles laid down in constitution. of ruling class. The Marxist theory
The Constitution is the sole source of emphasises the importance of economic
power for all and is the guarantor of factor as the key factor for the class
rights and liberties. divisions and ownership and the control
of the means of production.
5.2.2 Marxist Theory of Democracy Democratic Marxists view (a) State
The Marxist theory views the as an agency of anti-people crimes and
democracy in the social context of class considered the abolition of standing
analysis during the era of industrial army and instituting a citizen’s militia,
revolution. Society was divided into two (b) Implement the election of all officials
classes viz: capitalists or owners of the subjecting them to recall, (c) Totally
property are called as ‘bourgeois’ and remove the political attribute of police,
the working class is called as ‘proletariat’. (d) Eliminate the monarchy.
The Marxist theory of Democracy held
the political position to always challenge Views of leaders on Democracy
the dominance of capitalists and against
the exploitations of working class. The Democracy is the road to
Marxist theory of democracy did not socialism. -Karl Marx.
support electoral rights, but strongly
Democracy is the form of
supported economic rights and the
the government for the
creation of ‘socialist democracy’.
people, of the people, by the
The Marxist theory of Democracy people. -Abraham Lincoln.
favoured the collapse of capitalism and My notion of democracy is
calls for the revolutionary transformation that under it the weakest
of the society. It believes that political should have the same
power is possible only through the ideals opportunity as the strongest.
of ‘socialism’; and is based on the equal This can never happen except through
distribution of economic power against non-violence. - Mahatma Gandhi
the unequal wealth and ownership of
production. The Marxists democrats
and socialists believe in the removal of 5.2.3 Elitist Theory of Democracy
class differences and privileges are the The role of the elites in a democracy is
necessary step to freedom, equal status an unavoidable force. Elites of Leaders rule,
and democracy. control key resources and enforce major
The socialists believed that with decision for centuries. In an industrial,
universal education people can govern agrarian society the ownership of property
themselves. The Marxist theory criticises and control over production were the
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important factors. Elites from the agrarian Pluralism paves way for participatory
and industrial sectors emerge as feudal democracy that enables diverse group
landlords and owners of industry. They participation, to protect their rights. In
later take a political role to govern the state. this scheme, political power is distributed
Three important theorists Vilfredo Pareto and shared to many groups in the
(1848-1923), Gaetano Mosca (1857-1941) society representing diverse interests.
and Robert Michels (1876-1936) are the Pluralism leads to defend their particular
leading thinkers of elitist democracy. interests through government by creating
Pareto classified the elites into governing ‘competitive equilibrium’ that intends to
and non-governing elite from the masses. benefit large sections of the society for the
The governing elite are the power elites long run.
who are the ruling classes. They derive Pluralism suggests that democracy
power from the variety of sources such in the system necessitates the conduct of
as education, social status, bureaucratic regular elections that encourages political
position, political connections, and competition among parties, groups and
wealth. Pareto described the Elite qualities individuals. The thinkers of Utilitarian
in two psychological types (a) Foxes – school were the great advocates of
who rule the masses by cunningness and pluralist democracy James Madison, John
manipulate their consent, (b) Lions – Stuart Mill and Tocqueville predicted
who achieve power through domination, that elections expresses the preferences
coercion and violence. Elitism developed of divergent competitive groups rather
as a critique of egalitarian idea such as than the wishes of many in the majority
democracy and socialism. group. Robert Dahl pointed out that the
Robert Michels had an alternative very essence of democracy is realized
view about the democracy that even though by Polyarchy that accommodates the
the organization tend to be democratic presence of divergent groups, association,
but the small group of dominant figures organizations in large number to enjoy
who can organize and make decision relative autonomy in governmental power
rather than having deliberation with rank and jurisdiction.
and file of the organization an d called it
as ‘iron law of oligarchy’.
5.2.4 Pluralist Theory of Democracy  Later there was a revision in Robert
Pluralist addresses the interests Dahl’s Theory, he forwarded the theory
and rights and the representation of the of “Deformed Polyarchy” to better
minorities thus forming the core content describe the working of American
of liberal democracy. It offers the scope democracy.
of institutions for the democratic process
in the case of Legislature known as 5.2.5 Deliberative Theory of Democracy
Bicameralism and a form of governance Democracy is Deliberative in its
namely Federalism to govern the state scope. It emphasizes on the form of
through various set of representation. democracy that emphasizes the need for
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deliberation, discourse and debate that

defines the public interest. Deliberation
and participation are two critical aspects
of democracy. Deliberative democracy
and participation are usually strong in
the grassroots level. India’s Panchayati
Raj institutions are usually strong in this
process. Grass roots democracy features
Panchayati Raj Institutions and civil
Deliberative democracy is
societies that strengthen the functioning
harmonious with both representative
of the government. James Miller defines
democracy and direct democracy. Rawls
that deliberative democracy is built on the
and Habermas famous theorists of justice
system of deliberation that features that
and public opinion have observed that
decisions are reflective of the discussion
political choice, to be legitimate, must be
among the participants. It features the
the outcome of deliberation about ends
willingness of the people to listen to the
among free, equal, and rational agents.
views and consider the interests of the
Deliberative democracy recognises “the
others modifying their own opinions
full and equal membership of all in the
accordingly. Public interest and public
sovereign body responsible for authorizing
opinion are the key components of the
the exercise of that power, and establishes
deliberative democracy.
the common reason and will of that body”.
ACTIVITY
a) Why it is important to separate the religion from the State in democratic

societies?
b) W
hy it is important that government schools do not promote any one religion?
c) G
ive two evidences which suggest that India is a secular state.
d) D
iscuss any three key factors that threatens the growth of secular state in India.
e) You have read that most elected members whether in the Panchayat or Corporation,
State Assembly or the Parliament are elected for a period of 5 years. Why do we have
a system where the representatives are elected for a period of 5 years?
f) List the three forms of protest that you see in newspaper and paste it in the Chart.
Display in your classroom.
g) R
OUND ROBIN – Generate ideas on short comings of democracy and speak in
order moving from one student to the next.
Democracy is the most popular form of government emerging the modern times. Still
the shortcomings cannot be ruled out. Justify the statement by assessing any five short
comings of democracy.
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Case Study Case Study
TALE OF TWO CARTOONS HISTORIC TRANSITION IN

BHUTAN
Democracy
o cra
cy Voluntary
D em
Nepal Monarchy Transition
racy
Democ
Courtesy : The Hindu - 3.11.2008

Cartoon by Keshav
Courtesy : The Hindu- 31.12.2007
The fourth King of Bhutan, Jigme
Cartoon by Surendra
Singye Wangchuck travelled to all the 20
districts of the tiny Kingdom. The purpose
APRIL REVOLUTION AND of the travel is to explain the importance of
DEMOCRACY IN NEPAL historic transition to the people of Bhutan.
Transition from the hereditary monarchy to
On April, 2006 the leaders of Nepal‘s
the Parliamentary Democracy. In 2006, the
vibrant pro-democracy civil society
King has abdicated the throne, 34 years after
movement “Seven Party Alliance” (SPA)
ascending it. His son Crown Prince Jigme
called for a million-strong demonstration Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck becomes
to be staged at seven different points the fifth monarch and head of State of the
along the ring road encircling the capital Himalayan Kingdom. Now Bhutan is a
Kathmandu. The millions of citizens who parliamentary democracy and King Jigeme
made up the people’s movement demanded a constitutional monarch
a end to autocratic rule of monarchy and Discuss the salient features of April
restoration of total democracy in the Revolution of Nepal and Voluntary transition
Himalayan Kingdom. An unprecedented of power in Bhutan. Discuss the key terms
development forced the King Gyanendra such as Hereditary Monarchy, Parliamentary
to step down and paved the way for Democracy, Monarchy, Autocracy and
democracy. Democracy.
Modern and Contemporary Democracy: Written constitution the basic
requirements and it must be kept up
Modern and contemporary
in everyday life by politicians and
democracies emerged in the late eighteen
authorities:
centuries in Western Europe as a result of
industrial revolution, rise of labour and Importance of Constitutionally
the social changes that emerged. Modern guaranteed basic Human Rights and
and contemporary democracies feature: fundamental rights to every individual
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of all the social groups’ especially the law; civil liberties; human rights;
religious minorities and other and elements of civil society outside the
underprivileged. government. Freedom of speech is the
fundamental requirement of modern
The Separation of Powers between the democracy.
institutions of the state:
All democratically elected
Government (Executive Power),
Governments are held responsible by free
Parliament (Legislative Power) and
speech, every decision must have a reason,
Courts of Law (Judicative Power)
accountable. The free flow of information
Freedom of opinion, speech, press and allows both people and governments
mass media to make the best informed decisions.
Democracy has been described or defined
Religious liberty broadly as
General and equal right to vote (one a) Political System of Competition for
person, one vote) – Universal Adult Power
Suffrage
b) Right to participation in public life
The “majority rule” is characterized
as only important features of democracy, c) The Rule of Law
however the process should have free and
TYPES OF MODERN DEMOCRACY:
fair competitive elections. Additionally,
the importance of Rights is very important Representative Democracy:
viz: freedom of political expression,
freedom of speech, and freedom of
the press are indispensable in the
representative democracy and the masses
are informed through political campaign
and the manifestoes of the political parties DEMOCRACY
enable to vote in their personal interests.
Free Media
Legislature
Executive
Judiciary
Democracies have been practiced

by different models of political system
ranging from one party rule to multi-party
system. In several countries, democracy is
based on the legal principle of equal rights
to vote. People in Asian and European
countries use the term “democracy” as A representative democracy is the
the basic expression meaning for liberal system of government in which all qualified
democracy, which has the salient features citizens vote to elect their representatives
of political pluralism; equality before based on the constituencies divided by the
population or eligible voters.
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People elect their representatives to numerous Third World countries and may
power to run the government through gradually be well established in the former
political parties according to their views USSR and its former states in Eastern
on ideology, principle, policies and Europe. Liberal Democratic regimes may
programme for their socio-political and be classified as either Presidential or
economic development. The parties are Parliamentary systems and there are also
allowed to have choose the candidates important variations within these broad
on their own to attract the masses and categories. Representative democracies
winning chances. are based upon numerous interconnected
principles:
During the election they announce
to the people about their programmes and �T
he existence of regular, free, fair
policies are known as the ‘party manifesto’. elections based upon universal
A transforming country like India, every suffrage and secret ballots under the
national and regional party used to supervision of Election Commission as
release their election manifesto to have an independent body.
a direction and trajectory of their future
�T
he existence of competing political
plan of action so as to win the confidence
parties offering electoral choice.
of the masses.
� The existence of electoral laws
The individuals are allowed to contest supervised by an independent judiciary.
elections as independent candidates too, if
they do not wish to belong any political �F
reedom of speech and association.
party. The role of political parties is vital
�F
reedom to stand as an election
in a representative democratic system.
candidate.
The members of political parties keep the
people informed about important issues
ACTIVITY
by holding public meetings, for either
supporting or opposing the policies of the a) The sessions could be watched in
government. Thus, the political parties the television where the MLAs and
mobilize the people in knowing their needs MPs of our constituencies raising
and in turn mould the public opinion. issues related to their particular
The representatives are constitutionally constituencies.
recognized and entitled to execute their
duties and responsibilities in the people’s b) This can be practiced for electing
interest, with authority. the Leader of the Class through a
secret ballot system according to
Representative Democracy is closely the wish of students.
associated with Liberal Democracy which
c)
Student parliament can be
describes the political system which
organized to take part in discussion
originated in the USA and Western Europe
with parliamentary procedures.
and has subsequently been adopted in
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Participatory Democracy: for its “political” operation in that it

revolves around a structure of authority
Participatory democracy is been
increasing and extending the scope
promoted to achieve equity reversing the
of participation and political equality
concept of equality. In the recent days
involves democratizing society.
participatory democracy is a process that
enables and ensures the wider participation The aim of participatory democracy
of constituents in the direction and is to make people interested to take part in
operation of political systems. Democracy the political, legal and economic processes
tends to support more involved forms of the state and also to make people more
of citizen participation than traditional responsible for the decisions made. The
representative democracy. A civil society important feature of a participatory
based concept, participatory democracy democracy is that people will have the
attempts to create opportunities for all opportunity to directly participate in
members of a group to make expressive the functions and access to the decision-
contributions to decision-making, and making institutions of state and there
to increase the range of access to such shall be no provision for delegating power
opportunities. Social relations is base to another body or organ. It is designed to
ACTIVITY
Hey,
They should be
talking to us! I Know the village
wants water but I
My uncle
think we should is in the
budget for a road business
Local
development
plan
Include other what we really need

Local Council
n,
Actio communities
d P l an let’s budget
A i
dge t
& Bu
Try to take part in the meetings of Grama Sabha held on Independence Day and
Republic day of India where the people of the particular village come together to
discuss about their demands and getting involved in the decision making process.
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revitalize the democratic participation in The qualitative analysis of

the era of economic growth, to redress the democracy can be measured through the
inequality among the people. The most political participation in terms of protest,
important characteristic is the importance demonstration, campaign, opinion
of political equality in democratic system making, freedom of expression and other
a long side basic or fundamental rights, constitutionally guaranteed rights. The
liberties that needs emphasis and to be social reflections are adding values to the
highlighted. social changes in terms of social upward
mobility occurring within the caste
5.3 Measuring and evaluating democracy system, religious, gender and cultural
Democracy has found to be a perspectives. Democracy has direct
right, system, approach, mechanism relationship with changing economic
and the profound channel of expression pattern of development through policies to
of consent and dissent. Measuring and minimize the inequality. The quantitative
evaluating democracy complement part of the democracy is to evaluate
each other. As it was strongly expressed through human development index, per
by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, the Drafting capita income and so on. The democracy
Committee Chairman of the Constitution can be measured and evaluated by the
of India, ‘In politics we will have equality following criteria.
and in social and economic life we will
a) Sovereignty: The degree to which
have inequality. In politics we will be
a polity is able to govern itself in its
recognizing the principle of one man one
domestic affairs and foreign policies and
vote and one vote one value. In our social
free from interference of other nations.
and economic life, we shall, by reason
of our social and economic structure, b) Authority: The degree to which central
continue to deny the principle of one man governmental authority is pre-eminent
one value.’ Democracy can be measured throughout the territory claimed as
and evaluated in terms of qualitative and part of the polity.
quantitative methods. The qualitative
analysis will help to understand the c) E lected government: The extent to
dynamics of social change and the which executive functions are carried
quantitative analysis will help to prove the forward by officials elected through
net result of the change to accentuate the election through secret ballot.
democratic process.
d) Universal Adult suffrage: The extent
to which all the adults have been given
the right to exercise vote in elections.
e) Turnout: The percentage of people’s
participation in voting during elections.
f ) Regular elections: The extent to which

elections are held in regular interval
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(every 5 years) and on schedule, n) Party strength: The extent to which

according to the constitution of India. parties are institutionalized and
decentralized its power, functions and
g) Free and Fair elections: The extent inclusiveness.
to which parties and candidates can
gain access to the ballot, and have their o) Party ideology: The extent to which
votes counted and allocated fairly. parties have well-defined, consistent,
Also, the extent to which citizens are and coherent ideologies.
able to register to vote without fear and p) Party system: The number of parties
favour. gaining seats in the legislature.
h) Access to media and campaign: The q) Freedom of Press: The extent to which
extent to which all parties/candidates major media outlets are independent,
are granted equal access to the media free to air their diverse political expert
and to campaign, proportional to their views, and able to reach the citizen.
support in the electorate. r) Civil society independence: The extent
i) Ensuring rule of law: The extent to to which civil society is independent
which the executive follows the law, of the state and able to voice opinions
as defined by the constitution and as critical of political leaders.
interpreted by the judiciary. s) Civil liberty: The extent to which
j) L egislative power: The extent to which citizens enjoy all the fundamental
the legislature controls the executive and human rights enshrined in the
with parliamentary systems constitution.
k)
Role of Opposition parties: The t) Property rights: The extent to which
extent to which the opposition parties property rights are protected.
function in a parliamentary democracy u) Religious freedom: The extent to
to control the excess of ruling party which freedom of religion is guaranteed
when it moves out of the constitutional to maintain religious harmony and
framework. secular content of government policies
and programs.
l) Independent Judiciary: The extent to
which the highest judicial bodies are v) E qual access to resources: The extent
independent of the executive and other to which resources are redistributed
outside influences. to achieve economic equilibrium
through income, education, and health
m) Judicial review: The extent to which which would make greater impact of
the highest judicial bodies are able to participating in politics.
review acts of legislation and other w) E qual access to natural and common
governmental actions in the light of property: The extent to natural and
constitutional provisions, and the common resources to ensure their
extent to which such decisions are livelihood, environment and social
respected by other bodies. emancipation.
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x) G ender equality: The extent to which � I n the first General election 1951, 173
women achieve equal representation million citizens were given right to vote;
with indiscriminate dignity in the of these, 44.87 percent exercised their
legislature, social institutions and other franchise. In the 16thgeneral election
high positions within government. in 2014, the size of the electorate had
y)
Political equality to achieve socio- increased to 814 million the voting
economic status for underprivileged: percentage had gone up to 66.4 and
The extent to which underprivileged of these, 67.9 percent were men and
ethnic groups defined as caste, tribe, 65.6 percent women. The number of
race, religious minority, or other contestants was increased to 8,251.
ascriptive characteristics are granted
�S
ince 2004, votes are recorded through
constitutional rights and remedies to
(EVMs) electronic voting machines.
come up to positions of power within
These are manufactured in India and
the government, as well as the extent
their accuracy is ensured and secrecy
to which such groups actually gain
has been fully tested.
representation in the legislature and
other high positions within government �O
ur electoral system known as FPTP or
according to their political participation First-Past-The-Post system, is a single-
and social position. member district, simple-plurality
system in which voters cast a single
5.4 Achievements of Indian Democracy
ballot to choose a single representative
The founding fathers of India and its to the lower house of parliament or the
Constitution had built strong democratic State legislative assembly, the candidate
foundations in the Indian State and the with largest number of votes, even
Constitution thus making India a great if only a plurality, getting elected to
country. The democratic constitutional represent the constituency.
foundations have strengthened the
Constitution in every aspect of socio- �S
ince 1989, the citizens were given a
political and economic changes. The chance to elect their representatives at
Preamble of the Constitution laid down the age of 18, this is another feather in
clear road map with Fundamental the crown of democracy.
Rights and Duties, Directive Principles; � I ndia is the world’s the largest democracy
Parliamentary System and Amendment proved success in accommodation
Procedures; Judicial Review and Basic of group and regional demands in a
Structure doctrine. complex, quasi-federal, polity.
Political front �T
he 73rd and 74th amendment of the
�D
uring the first general election in constitution has given the reservation
the 1951 India had 54 political parties for SC/STs, women in the Local self-
and now it has grown up to 464 in the governing bodies like panchayats,
2014 general election as an evident of municipalities and corporations as
deepening of the democratic process. members, councillors and mayors.
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� I ndia’s democratic set up has been Economic Front:

vibrant and able to keep the military
These include strategic affairs and security,
out of political power. It also shows
politico-legal democratic governance as
prudence on the part of military
well as society and economy.
generals and defence personnel earning
respect from the executive.  India has been able to emerge as a
Social Front: The democratic process regional power in Asia and super power
has brought about a shift of political in south Asia backed by its economic,
power from the middle and higher castes military and nuclear capabilities.
and classes of urban society to backward
classes who are now the politically most It meant centralized planning till

influential ones in the country. They 2017 and a very big public sector for
have won reservations for themselves in industries catering employment and
legislatures and government services as science and technology education for
were accorded to the Scheduled Castes the youth in the country, but soon
and Scheduled Tribes after independence there were inefficiencies and labour
through Constitutional provisions. issues it resulted in a move towards
a more open liberalized and market
India’s institutions like the free press and driven model of the economy starting
an independent judiciary have ensured in the 1991 reforms called as Structural
that India remains a society based on rule Adjustment Programme. Post this,
of law. the economy has seen greater private
The life expectancy at birth has almost and foreign participation found the
doubled from 36 years in 1951 to 66 years base for the emergence of professional
in 2011 due to the availability of better new middle class. The technological
health facilities and the health programmes innovations applied in transforming the
consistently implemented for the well- service sector particularly Education,
being of the people to get away from the Health and transportation along with
epidemics, endemics, communicable and rural and urban infrastructure lead to
non-communicable diseases. digital India and reforms in banking
sectors has brought a great social
Similarly, diseases like smallpox and polio transformation in reality.
have been eradicated. In education, the
number of universities and colleges has  India’s Gross National Income (GNI)
gone up from a minuscule 27 universities at constant prices has increased more
and 578 colleges in 1950-51 to an estimated than 35 times from 2.92 lakh crore in
712 universities and 36,671 colleges in 1950-51 to 105.28 lakh crore 2014-
2014. Similarly, literacy rates have almost 15. Similarly, the per capital income at
quadrupled from 18.3 current prices has risen from a poultry
274 In 1950-51 to a decent 88,533
percent of the population in 1951 to 73
in 2014-15.
percent in 2011.
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Food grain production grew from

 political violence, regional disparity in
50.8 million tonnes in 1950-51 to an development, inadequate Judicial and
estimated 264.77 million tonnes in administrative reforms, civil society
2014-15 that indicates more than a five- participation, civil-military relationship,
fold increase and the fact that India is criminalization of politics and growing
food secure for the time being. It was economic offences. The challenges now
made possible with rapid advances in and for the future include ensuring
agricultural technology. greater transparency, accountability and
independence in the broad framework
5.5 Challenges to Indian Democracy of checks and balances on which India’s
The challenges that are faced by democratic framework rests.
Indian democracy ranges from individual
to society as a whole the problems
of Illiteracy which resulted in poor
implementation of universalization of Even after 73rd and 74th constitutional
education, Poverty, corruption, Casteism, amendments, there were villages in
Communalism, religious fundamentalism, which panchayat elections were not
Sustainable development, gender conducted for many years.
discrimination, violence against women,
Glossary:
Authority is the right to exercise the power Corruption is generally known as

and influence of a particular position that favouring one through illegal means. But
comes from having been placed in that on the other hand it is a failure to carry
position according to regular, known and out ‘proper’ responsibilities as a result of
widely accepted procedure. the pursuit of private gain.
Civil society is the realm of autonomous
Deliberative democracy: A form of
groups and associations; a private sphere
democracy that emphasises the need for
independent from public authority
discourse and debate to help define the
Civil-Military relationship: It is the public interest.
discipline that has emerged to study and
Elite means that a minority in whose hands
understand the relationship between the
power, wealth or prestige is concentrated.
civil society as a whole and the military
and its organizations to protect it. Gender discrimination: A practice of
Communalism as a political ideology that discrimination between females and
has come to be associated with conflicts, males based on their different social roles
tensions and resulting it in violence and positions.
between different religious, ethnic and Grass-root democracy is participating
caste groups. in the process and practice of local self-
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governance to design their political Liberty refers to authoritative permission

process and decision-making for fulfilling to act in some particular way.
the needs of the people from lower strata
of the socio-economic category. Equality: The principle of uniform
apportionment, rather than ‘sameness’;
Polyarchy means the rule by the many. A equality may be applied to rights,
series of minorities, some self-interested opportunities or outcomes.
and other disinterested within the
boundaries stipulated by consensus with Fraternity means as brotherhood, bonds
not being able to dominate but all having of sympathy and comradeship between
space for the manoeuvre and bargaining. and amongst human beings
Republic: The principle that political Sovereignty: Absolute and ultimate power;
authority stems ultimately from the sovereignty can imply either supreme legal
consent of the people; the rejection of authority or unchallengeable political
monarchical and dynastic principles. power.
Right: The concept of right is the Socialism: The concept of Socialism is

acceptance of ideas of personal autonomy, an ideology and it is applied in terms of
individuality, liberty and human equality achieving equality in the economic system
and any denial and discrimination has to in which property is held in common
have sufficient reasons. and not individually, and relationships
between the state and society are governed
Freedom is 1) The ability to think or act as by a political hierarchy.
one wishes; freedom implies either non-
interference or personal self-development. Secularism: The concept of secularism is
2) Liberty from the arbitrary power of the that the state should not patronize any
tyrants along with the right of citizens religion and also treat all the equally.
to manage their common affairs by The state is defined as a political entity that
participating in government. possesses people, territory, a government
and sovereignty.
Evaluation
I Choose and write the correct Answer
1. The term democracy means

a) Rule by People c) Revolution
b) Power of People d) Polyarchy
2. Democracy is a _____________________
a) Form of Government c) Political System
b) Rule by Law d) Power of People
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3. Democracy underlines the Principle of
a) Rule by the people c) Election

b) Rule of Constitution d) Governing principle
4. Social Democracy believes strongly in
a) Equality of opportunity and freedom c) Socialism

b) Human rights d) Liberty
5. Direct Democracy is practiced in the

a) Federal Republic of Switzerland c) United States of America
b) Russia d) China
6. Economic democracy is based on the importance of
a) economic rights and social equality c) Workplace democracy

b) Labour Rights d) Employment Guarantee
7. The leading Indian political thinker who Proposed Radical Democracy was
a) M.N.Roy c) Gandhi
b) Nehru d) Ambedkar
8. Radical Democracy is believed to be the
a) Power of the people c) Rule of Law

b) Local Community Rule d) Participatory Democracy
9. Protective democracy is based on
a) Equality c) Rights
b) Liberty d) Social security
10. The Marxist theory views the democracy in the social context of
a) Community c) Class analysis

b) Social Group d) Capitalist Class
11. W
hich was the theory of Democracy favoured the collapse of capitalism and calls
for the revolutionary transformation of the society?
a) Classical Theory c) The Marxist theory

b) Egalitarian Theory d) The Elitist Theory
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12. P
luralism leads to defend their particular interests through government by
creating
a) Social Equilibrium c) Economic Equilibrium
b) competitive equilibrium d) Political Equality
13. One of the salient features of Indian Democracy is

a) Citizen’s Participation c) Secret Ballot
b) Parliamentary Democracy d) Universal Adult suffrage

1. Define: Any one of the popular definitions of Democracy.
2. Explain: Pareto’s classification of the elites.
3. What are the essentials of radical democracy?
4. How do you explain the class analysis of Marx.
5. What does the term ‘polyarchy’ mean?
6. Mention few principles of Representative democracy.
7. What are the factors to have qualitative democracy?
1. Write a short note on M.N.Roy’s local republics in Radical democracy.
2. Describe the qualities of Elites in Pareto’s theory of elites.
3. Define: Robert Dahl’s view on Polyarchy.
4. What are the merits of participatory democracy?
5. Write about the view of B.R.Ambedkar on democracy.

1. Explain the elitist theory of democracy.
2. Write an essay on achievements of Indian democracy in the political front.
3. Write an essay on achievements of Indian democracy in the economic front.
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Reference books
1. Iain McLean and Alistart McMillan (2006),Oxford Concise Dictionary of Politics
(Indian Edition), Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
2. SushilaRamaswamy(2005),Political Theory: Ideas and Concepts, MacMillan India
Limited, New Delhi.
3. Andrew Heywood (2002), Politics (Second Edition), Palgrave Foundations, New
York.
4. Joseph A. Schumpeter (1980), Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy,S.Chand and
Company, New Delhi. (with introductory note by Tom Bottomore).
5. C.B.Macpherson (1977), Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval, Clarendon Press,
Oxford, London.
ICT Corner
DEMOCRACY

know which countries have
democratic Government.
DEMOCRACY MAP
Procedure:
Step - 1 Use the URL or QR code to open the DEMOCRACY MAP page.
Step - 2 Click on the Forward button placed on the bottom of the activity window to initiate
the activity.
Step - 3 A legend with colour codes are given at the bottom. With this legend, the countries
which have the democratic form of Government will be identified.
CITIZENSHIP URL:
https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/peace/democracy_map/
production/index.html
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UNIT
6 Forms of Government
6.1 Introduction Think about the following statements

The Government
a. What comes to your mind when
is the main agency of
you hear
the state. It comprises
the term
several members belonging to political
and administrative wings. It serves as the Government?
instrument for delegation and execution b. In what way
of the state policies for the welfare of the you, your family
people. It formulates expresses and realises or the citizen are connected with
the will of the state. It exercises certain government?
legislative, executive and judicial powers c. Can you identify the role of
based on the constitution and the laws. government in your day to day
There are three organs in government, life?
namely – Legislature, Executive and
Judiciary. These organs carry out the d. Do you think the government is
activities of the state. Governments inevitable or citizen can survive
are classified under Unitary, Federal, without the government?
Parliamentary and Presidential forms. e. Can you differentiate the role
of elected representatives and
ORGANS OF GOVERNMENT
appointed Bureaucrats role in the
functioning of government?
Legislature Executive Judiciary f. Identify some government
departments and segregate
into central government, state
Leanpub Learning Objectives government and local government.
Students will be able to g. Try to describe your own definition
 define Government of Government ……….
 understand the purpose of
Government
 describe different types of Quotable
uote
Government No man under takes a trade he has not
 understand the relationship learned, even the meanest: At everyone
between individual and thinks himself sufficiently qualified
Government critical analyze the for the hardest of all trades, that of
performance of the Government government.
-Socrates
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CHECKS AND BALANCES (PRESIDENTIAL FORM)

Executive Branch Checks on the Legislative Branch
(President carries out laws) Can propose laws Checks on the Judicial Branch
Can veto laws Appoints federal judges
Can call special sessions of Congress Can grant pardons to federal
Makes appointments
offenders
Negotiates foreign treaties
Legislative Branch Checks on the Executive Branch Checks on the Judicial Branch
(Congress makes laws) Can override President's veto Creates lower federal courts
Confirms executive appointments Can impeach and remove judges
Ratifies treaties Can propose amendments to overrule
Can deciare war judicial decisions
Appropriate money Approves appointments of federal
Can impeach and remove President judges
Judicial Branch
(Supreme Court interprets laws)
Checks on the Executive Branch
Checks on the Legislative Branch
Can declare executive actions
Can declare acts of unconstitutional
unconstitutional
Approaches to the study of Government approach focuses on formal legal structure

of political institutions. They helped to
Studying governments from different
develop certain theories which explain
approaches help us to understand
the relationship and interconnection
government from its evolution to its
between government and Law. Bentham
performance in the contemporary times.
is the distinguished legal reformer in
The approaches to study the Government
England Likewise Austin provided a legal
are...
base to sovereignty which is indivisible,
1. Comparative-Historical Approach inalienable and absolute. A.V.Dicey
This approach studied the western judged the government on the basis of law
political institutions from ancient to and its applicability to different branches
modern times, this approach is descriptive of government.
in nature, Aristotle, Montesque and 3. Political Economy Approach
Locke adopted this approach to study and
This approach deals with economic
analyse governments in those days. For
aspects of the government which gives
instance before writing his monumental
economic interpretation of politics
work politics Aristotle studied 158
also deals with role of market, mode of
constitutions. Montesque studied the
working of the British constitution and production and delivering goods to the
came to the conclusion that the stability society. This approach is classified into
of British constitution was due to the liberal political economy and the Marxist
adherence to the principle of separation political economy approach.
of powers. 4. Political Sociology Approach
2. Legal-Institutional Approach
Scholars like Bentham, Austin This approach derived its ideas from
and Dicey adopted this approach, This sociology and anthropology also known
as systems approach. Political sociology
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asserts that government or political system

is a sub system of a larger social system.
This approach examines the interaction
between the larger and the sub systems.
Early Montesque proposed a three-
fold division of Government namely
Republican, Monarchical and Despotic
Monarchy is the oldest form of
government government in the United Kingdom.
Republican Government: “People possess In a monarchy, a king or queen is the
the sovereign Power”. Head of State. The British monarchy is
known as a constitutional monarchy.
Monarchical Government: “Rule by one
This means that, while The Sovereign
single person and governed by fixed and
is Head of State, the ability to make
established laws”.
and pass legislation resides with an
Despotic government: “Rule by one elected Parliament.
single person but there is no fixed rule for
governance, everything conducted by his Criteria One:
will. According to Montesque the survival Number of People having Power –
of the government depends on “persistence One, Few, Many; Thus he distinguished
in given society of that particular spirit between Monarchy, Aristocracy and Polity
which is characteristic of the form”. Criteria Two:
6.2 Meaning, Definition and Nature To whose interest the Government works
of Government for – Working in General Interest, Working
Government refers to the executive in Personal Interest. The respective
functions of the state. It denotes a body perverted forms of the three types are
having authority to make and enforce Tyranny, Oligarchy and Democracy
laws applicable to the civil, corporate,
No of People Working Working
religious, academic or other groups. The having in General in Personal
term Government is derived from an old Power Interest Interest
French word “governor”, derived from
Latin word “gubernare” which means to One Monarchy Tyranny
direct, rule, guide, govern. Few Aristocracy Oligarchy
Democracy
Which is the oldest form of government?
Many Polity or
Aristotle’s Classification of Governments Mobocracy
Aristotle identified a
combination of two ACTIVITY
criteria to classify the
“Every activity of individuals from
constitution that he
‘Womb to tomb’ is regulated and
analysed.
controlled by the State agencies.”
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Can you list out some activities

DEBATE which are rendered by the government…
Organise a debate on - Compare womb to tomb
Aristotle’s Classification of Government
with contemporary Indian system of 1.
Government by discussing the following 2.
points namely 3.
1. Whether our government is working 4.
on general interest or Personal
interest Types of Constitution
2. Do our Indian Democracy really
represent General will or Personal
will of a Few? Democracy /
Written Constitution /
Communism /
Un Written
6.3 Unitary Form of Government Constitution
Monachy /
Dictatorship
A unitary system of government, is a
sovereign state governed as a single entity.
The central government is supreme, and Presidential Form Secular / Theocracy
of Government /
the administrative divisions exercise only Parliamentary
powers that the central government has Form of Government
delegated to them. In a Unitary form of
government all authority and power vested Single Executive
Model
in a single centre examples of Unitary Form
of governments are England, France, Japan, Plural Executive
Sri Lanka. Model
Definition:
Merits Of Unitary Form Of Government
A.V.DICEY: “Habitual exercise of supreme a. Suitable for small countries.
legislative authority is by one central b. There is no conflict of authority and
power” responsibility.
GARNER: “Where the whole power c. A unitary government will make prompt
of government is conferred by the decisions and take speedy action.
constitution upon a single central organ” d. A unitary government is less expensive.
e. Amendments to the constitution are easy.
C.F.STRONG: “Two important qualities f. There is unity, uniformity of law, policy
of the Unitary Government”. and administration.
They are:- De-Merits of Unitary Form Government
1. The supremacy of the central government; a. It is not suitable for big countries.
2. The absence of the subsidiary sovereign b. The central government will have to
bodies. tackle so many complex problems that
lead to administrative delay.
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c. The central government will not vi.Emergency Provisions

concentrate on local problems, local
During an emergency, the Central
interest and initiative.
government becomes all powerful and
d. The concentration of powers may pave the states go into the total control of the
way for the despotism of the central Centre. It converts the federal structure
government. into a unitary one without a formal
Unitary Features Of Indian Constitution amendment of the Constitution. This
i. Strong Centre kind of transformation is not found in any
other federation.
The division of powers is in favour
vii. Single Citizenship
of the Centre and highly inequitable
from the federal angle. Firstly, the Union India adopted the system of
List contains more subjects than the single citizenship. There is only Indian
State List. Secondly, the more important Citizenship and no separate state
subjects have been included in the Union citizenship. All citizens irrespective of the
List. Thirdly, the Centre has overriding state in which they are born or reside enjoy
authority over the Concurrent List. the same rights all over the country. The
other federal states like US, Switzerland
ii. Central Government’s control over
and Australia have dual citizenship, that
state territory
is, national citizenship as well as state
The Parliament of India can citizenship.
by unilateral action change the area, viii. Single Integrated Judiciary
boundaries or name of any state.
It means that all the courts of India
iii. Single Constitution are in a hierarchical order from the
The Constitution of India embodies lower courts to the Supreme Court of
not only the Constitution of the Centre India. Courts in India have Original and
but also those of the states. Both the Appellate Jurisdiction.
Centre and the states must operate within ix. All India Services
this single-frame.
It has the features of All India
iv. Flexibility of the Constitution Services or Central Services, and the State
Civil Services. The Central and All India
The bulk of the Constitution can be
services promotes uniform administrative
amended by the unilateral action of the
system and process throughout India.
Parliament, either by simple majority or
by special majority. x. Appointment of Governor
v. Unequal representation of states The governor of a state is not elected but

In a federation states are given with appointed by the president and holds
equal representation with regard to upper office at the pleasure of the president. He
house, but in India states are not given is the head of the executive in the state.
with equal representation with regard to He has powers like Legislature, Executive
Rajya Sabha. Judicial and emergency powers.
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6.4 Federal Form of Government Centre and the states must confirm to its
The classification of governments provisions.
into unitary and federal is based on the
nature of relations between the national b. Rigid Constitution
government and the regional governments Amendment of the Constitution is
A federal government is one in which by a procedure of 2/3rd majority in each
powers are divided between the national of the house and laws cannot be easily
government and the regional governments changed by any ruling party.
by the Constitution itself and both operate in
their respective jurisdictions independently. c. Independent Judiciary
US, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Russia, The Judiciary is separated from
Brazil, Argentina have the federal form the Executive and Legislature. The
of government. In a federal model, the Judiciary given its national and state
national government is known as the Federal level jurisdictions, exercises Original,
government or the Central government or Appellate and Judicial Review functions. It
the Union government and the regional functions independently of the Executive
government is known as the state government and Legislature.
or the provincial government.
Federal Features Of Indian Constitution d. Bicameralism
a. Dual Government It provides for a two-house legislature

that has an Upper chamber and Lower
The Indian Constitution establishes
chamber. With the Lower house having
a dual polity consisting the Union at the
powers of enacting financial legislation.
Centre and the states at the periphery.
Each is endowed with sovereign powers to Merits Of Federal Form Government
be exercised in the field assigned to them
respectively by the Constitution. a. Reconciliation of local autonomy with
national unity.
a. Written Constitution b. Division power between centre and
The articles of the Constitution are states leads to administrative efficiency.
written and cannot be easily changed c. It gives rise to big states.
without due parliamentary approval.
d. Distribution powers checks the
a. Division of Powers despotism of central government.
The Constitution divided the powers e. More suitable for bigger countries.
between the Centre and the states in f. It is good for economic and cultural
terms of the Union List, State List and progress.
Concurrent List in the Seventh Schedule. g. De-Merits Of Federal Form Government.
a. Supremacy of the Constitution h. Federal government is weaker when
compared to the unitary government.
The Constitution is the supreme law
of the land. The laws are enacted by the i. Federal government is more expensive.
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j. Provincial tendencies are very common. n. Double Citizenship.

k. lack of uniformity in Administration. o. Rigid constitution cannot be amended
l. Threat to national unity. easily for the changing needs.
m.
Distribution powers between centre p. The state governments sometimes place
and states lead to conflict. hindrances in the foreign policy.
Confederation Federal Unitary
National National
States
Government Government
Central
State
Government
The People The People

The People
Of the State Of the State
Difference between Unitary form and S.No Country Name of Parliament

Federal form of Government 1. Israel Knesset
S. Unitary Form Federal Form of 2. Germany Bundestag
No 3. Japan Diet
of Government Government
4. Norway Storting
Only one Level
Two Levels of 5. Nepal Rashtriya Panchayat
1. of Government
Government 6. Pakistan National Assembly
or Subunits
7. Russia Duma
Mostly Single
2. Dual Citizenship 8. U.S.A Congress
Citizenship
9. South Africa Parliament
Federal Units
Sub Units 10. Switzerland Federal Assembly
are answerable
3. cannot operate
to Central
Independently
Government
No Division of
4. Division of Power
Power
Centralisation Decentralisation
5.
of Power of Power
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Summary
Summary
S.No Category Types Countries
Presidential form of
U.S.A
government
Parliamentary form of
U.K,India
government
Direct democracy Switzerland
Indirect democracy India
1. Forms of government Absolute Monarchy - Bahrain
Constitutional Monarchy
Monarchy -Japan
Commonwealth Realms -
Australia
Hitler’s Germany and
Authoritarian
Mussolini’s Italy
Secularism India
2. Role of religion Pakistan, Iran, Vatican City,
Theocracy
Nepal
Distribution of Unicameral China
3.
power:territorial Bi-cameral U.K, U.S.A, India
Single Executive Model U.S.A
4. Types of executive
Plural Executive Model France
Independent All Democratic Countries
5. Types of judiciary
Committed Erstwhile U.S.S.R
Rigid &Written U.S.A
6.
Nature of Flexible &Un-Written U.K
Constitution
Partly Flexible
India
Partly Rigid
Capitalism
Nature of state (In
7. terms of Objectives, Communism Cuba, China, North Korea
Ideology, Policies)
Socialism
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6.5 Parliamentary form of government ish constitutional and political experts de-
scribed the Prime Minister as ‘primus inter
Modern democratic governments
pares’ (first among equals) in relation to
are classified into parliamentary and
the cabinet. In the recent period, the Prime
presidential on the basis of nature of
Minister’s power, influence and position
relations between the executive and the
have increased significantly vis-a-vis the
legislative organs of the government.
cabinet. He has come to play a ‘dominant’
role in the British politico-administrative
system.
Features of parliamentary form of

government
The parliamentary system of government Nominal and Real Executives: The
is the one in which the executive is President is the nominal executive (de
responsible to the legislature for its jure executive or titular executive) while
policies and acts. The presidential system the Prime Minister is the real executive
of government, on the other hand, is one (de facto executive). Thus, the President is
in which the executive is not responsible head of the State, while the Prime Minister
to the legislature for its policies and acts, is head of the government.
and is constitutionally independent of the
legislature in respect of its term of office. Majority Party Rule: The political party
which secures majority seats in the
The parliamentary government is also LokSabha forms the government. The
known as cabinet government irresponsible leader of that party is appointed as the
government or Westminster model of Prime Minister by the President; other
government and is prevalent in Britain, ministers are appointed by the President on
Japan, Canada, India among others. the advice of the prime minister. However,
when no single party gets the majority, a
Ivor Jennings called the coalition of parties may be invited by the
parliamentary system as ‘cabinet system’ President to form the government.
because the cabinet is the nucleus of
power in a parliamentary system. The Collective Responsibility: This is the
parliamentary government is also known bedrock principle of parliamentary
as ‘responsible government’ as the cabinet government. The ministers are collectively
(the real executive) is accountable to the responsible to the Parliament.
Parliament and stays in office so long as it
enjoys the latter’s confidence. Double Membership: The ministers are
members of both the legislature and the
It is described as ‘Westminster mod- executive.
el of government’ after the location of the
British Parliament, where the parliamenta- Leadership of the Prime Minister: The
ry system originated. In the past, the Brit- Prime Minister plays the leadership role
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in this system of government. He is the Demerits of the parliamentary form of

leader of council of ministers, leader of government
the Parliament and leader of the party
Unstable Government: The parliamentary
in power. In these capacities, he plays a
system does not provide a stable
significant and highly crucial role in the
government. There is no guarantee that
functioning of the government.
a government can survive its tenure. The
Merits of the parliamentary form of ministers depend on the majority legislators
government for their continuity and survival in office.
Harmony between Legislature and A no-confidence motion or political
Executive: The greatest advantage of the defection or evils of multiparty coalition
parliamentary system is that it ensures can make the government unstable.
harmonious relationship and cooperation
between the legislative and executive No Continuity of Policies: The
organs of the government. The executive is parliamentary system is not conductive
a part of the legislature and both are inter for the formulation and implementation
dependent at work. As a result, there is less of long-term policies. This is due to
scope for disputes and conflicts between the uncertainty of the tenure of the
the two organs. government. A change in the ruling party
Responsible Government: In the is usually followed by changes in the
parliamentary system establishes a policies of the government.
responsible government. The ministers
Dictatorship of the Cabinet: When the
are responsible to the Parliament for all
ruling party enjoys absolute majority
their acts of omission and commission.
in the Parliament, the cabinet becomes
The Parliament exercises control over the
autocratic and exercises nearly unlimited
ministers through various devices like
powers.
question hour, discussions, adjournment
motion, no confidence motion, etc. Harold J Laski says that the
Prevents Despotism: under this system, parliamentary system gives the executive
the executive authority is vested in a group an opportunity for tyranny.
of individuals (council of ministers) and
not in a single person. This dispersal of Ramsay Muir, the former British
authority checks the dictatorial tendencies Prime Minister, also complained of the
of the executive. Moreover, the executive ‘dictatorship of the cabinet’.
is responsible to the Parliament and can be Against Separation of Powers: In the
removed by a no-confidence motion. parliamentary system, the legislature and
Wide Representation: In a parliamentary the executive are together and inseparable.
system, it is possible to provide The cabinet acts as the leader of legislature
representation to all sections and regions as well as the executive. Hence, the whole
in the government. The prime minister system of government goes against the
while selecting his minister scan take this letter and spirit of the theory of separation
factor into consideration. of powers.
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Parliamentary
System
Clearer division of Formalized Higher flexibility Checking the

responsibility Lower potential for coalition building (no rigid presidential power of
intra-executive terms problem) executive
infighting
Higher Better Lower risk of

Less conflicts Lower security
accountability representation democratic
threads
erosion
Higher Higher Less

effectiveness effectiveness corruption
Higher legitimacy
Why the framers of the Indian Constitution executive system of government basically
adopted for the Parliamentary Form of built on the principle of separation of
Government? power, and is prevalent in USA, Brazil,
Russia, Sri Lanka among others.
1. Familiarity with the System
Features of Presidential Form of
2. Preference to More Responsibility
Government
3. Need to Avoid Legislative—Executive
The American President is both
Conflicts
the head of the State and the head of
4. Nature of Indian Society, India is government. As the head of State, he
one of the most heterogeneous States occupies a ceremonial position. As the
and most complex plural societies in head of government, he leads the executive
the world. Hence, the Constitution- organ of government. The President is
makers adopted the parliamentary elected by an electoral college for a fixed
system as it offers greater scope for tenure of four years. He cannot be removed
giving representation to various by the Congress except by impeachment
section, interests and regions in the for a grave unconstitutional act. The
government. This promotes a national President governs with the help of a cabinet
spirit among the people and builds or a smaller body called ‘Kitchen Cabinet’.
audited India. It is only an advisory body and consists
6.6 Presidential Form of Government of non-elected departmental secretaries.
The Presidential Form Of They are selected and appointed by him,
Government is also known as non- are responsible only to him, and can be
responsible or non-parliamentary or fixed removed by him any time.
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The President and his secretaries are lower house of the Congress. The doctrine
not responsible to the Congress for their of separation of powers is the basis of the
acts. They neither possess American presidential system. The
membership in the legislative, executive and judicial powers
Congress nor attend its of the government are separated and vested
sessions. The President in the three independent organs of the
cannot dissolve the House government.
of Representatives—the
Difference between Parliamentary Form “World Bank - World Development Report
of Government and Presidential Form 1997 : The State In A Changing World”.
of Government
The report is devoted to the role and
S. Presidential Parliamentary effectiveness of the state: what it should do,
Form of Form of how it should do it, and how it can improve
No Government Government
in a rapidly changing world. Governments
President is Prime Minister
with both centrally-planned and mixed
1. directly elected by is the leader of
the People majority Party economies are shrinking their market role
because of failed state interventions.
Central
President is This report takes an opposite
2. Legislature is
Supreme
supreme stance: that state’s role in the institutional
Absence of environment underlying the economy,
Separation of Separation that is, its ability to enforce a rule of law
3.
Powers Powers to underpin transactions, is vital to making
Centralization government contribute more effectively to
Independent development. It argues against reducing
Independent branches with
4. government to a minimalist state,
branches Overlapping
explaining that development requires
functions
an effective state that plays a facilitator
President - head President - head role in encouraging and complementing
5.
of the State of the State
the activities of private businesses and
President - Prime Minister individuals.
6. head of the - head of the
Government Government The report presents a state reform
Separation of framework strategy: First, focus the
7. Centralization
Powers state’s activities to match its capabilities;
Independent and second, look for ways to improve the
Independent branches with state’s capability by re-invigorating public
8.
branches Overlapping institutions.
functions
Individual Collective According to this report, five
9. fundamental tasks are core of every
Leadership leadership
President is not Collective and government’s mission, without which
10. accountable to Individual sustainable, shared and poverty reducing
Congress Responsibility development is impossible.
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They are… development (ADB, 2000) The movement

1. Establishing a foundation of law from government to governance is not
2. Maintaining macroeconomic stability merely a task of creating new institutions
3. Investing in basic social services and but also that of refurbishing old ones. The
infrastructure state has to be strengthened to play a new
4. Protecting the vulnerable role. It is also for the civil society to accept
5. Protecting the environment that democracy is not going to polls every
6.7 The Concept of Governance from five years but being vigilant and monitoring
Government to Governance institutional performance and holding them
Good governance is an indeterminate accountable throughout these years.
term used in the international development Partnership with civil society
literature to describe how public institutions In the shift of government to
conduct public affairs and manage public governance the role of civil society has
resources. Governance is “the process of been very significant. There have been
decision-making and the process by which two kinds of strands in this role,
decisions are implemented”. “Government” a. Social Movements
and “governance” are synonyms, both b. Non-Governmental Organizations
denoting the exercise of authority in an Social Movements which works
organization, institution or state. Government for the cause of poor and marginalized
and governance became distinguished along do influence the governments to be
the following dimensions: responsive to their needs through changes
a. What activities are encompassed in the in institutions, laws and procedures.
act of governing? NGO’s have taken up diverse roles that also
b. What actors are involved in governance? involve implementation of government
c. What processes have made this programmes. Social movements and
redefinition necessary? NGO’s occupied new spaces in the political
d. What criteria are used to evaluate good process and delivering public services.
governance? From Government to Governance
e. What capacities should be developed to

Governance
achieve it? • Collaborative
Governance is the exercise of political, • Flexible
• Open
economic and administrative authority • Innovative
• Risk-taking
to manage a nation’s affairs…Governance • Of the People
embraces all of the methods – good and bad– • Intentional
that societies use to distribute power and

manage public sources and problems (UNDP,
ACTIVITY
1997):
Governance is the manner in which
Cartoons cape Thinking about a
power is exercised in the management of a
global perspective
country’s social and economic resources for
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by 10 percent by 2032 from 2024-2026

levels, and them by 85 percent by 2047
KIGALI (RWANDA)
In a major step toward curbing global
ha
ge
n warming, envoys from nearly 200 nations
n
pe
Co reached and agreement on Saturday to
phase out potent greenhouse gases used in
refrigerators and air conditioners. Under the
amendment to the 1987 Montreal Protocol on
Developed Developing protecting the ozone layer, rich countries are
countries
countries
to take action sooner than developing nations.
The agreement was greeted by
applause from exhausted envoys who had
Copenhagen and Climate summit / worked through the night in the Rwandan
09.12.2009 / P.8 and 18.12.2009/ P.10 capital Kigali to put the final touches on
the deal to phase our production and
197 Nations agree to phase out AC
greenhouse gases. consumption of hydroflurocarons (HFCs)
But some representatives voiced
Legally – binding deal to tackle global
warming, reduce use of gas 1,000 times regret that countries such as India,
worse than CO2 Pakistan, and Gulf nations would begin
the transition later than others. “It may not
be entirely what the islands wanted, but it
3 GROUPS OF NATIONS
is a good agreement,” said a representative
Developed countries including the of the tiny pacific nation of the Marshall
US must slash their use of HFCs’ by 10 Islands. The elimination of HFCs could
percent by 2019 from 2011-2013 levels, reduce global warming by 0.5 degrees by
and then by 85 percent by 2036.
2100, according to a 2015 study.
A second group of developing However, swapping HFCs for
countries, including China and Africa alternatives such as ammonia, water or gases
nations, are committed to launching the called hydroflurolefins could prove costly for
transition in 2024. A reduction of 10 develop countries with sweltering summer
percent compared with 2020-2022 levels temperatures, such as India. “There are issues
should achieved by 2029, to be extended to of cost, there are issues of technology, there
80 percent by 2045. are issues of finances,” said Ajay Narayan Jha
of India’s environment and climate change
A third group of developing ministry before deal was announced. “We
countries, which include India, Pakistan, would like to emphasize that any agreement
Iran, Iraq and Gulf nations, must begin will have to be flexible from one side and not
the process in 2028 and reduce emissions from the other,” he had said.
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HFCs’ predecessors, chlorofluorocarbons Such broad participation is built on

(CFCs), were discontinued under the freedom of association and speech, as well
Montreal Protocol when scientists realized as capacities to participate constructively.
they were destroying the ozone layer.
ii. Rule of Law
But it emerged that HFCs, while safe for
the now healing ozone, are thousands of Legal frameworks should be fair and
times worse for trapping heat than carbon enforced impartially, particularly the laws
dioxide, the main greenhouse gas. on human rights.
The new Indian express: 16.10.2016 iii. Transparency

Transparency is built on the free flow
Thinking about a global perspective
of information. Processes, institutions
A global perspective asks you to and information are directly accessible to
think beyond yourself, your family, those concerned with them, and enough
your school, your community, your information is provided to understand
village, your district, your state or and monitor them.
country where you are living. Issues
iv. Responsiveness
that are in the news are after global in
nature for ex., environmental issue. Institutions and processes try to
serve all stakeholders.
Often, a global issue or problem
demands a global solution. It would v. Consensus orientation
not be possible to solve the global
Good governance mediates differing
problem of climate change with a
interests to reach a broad consensus on
local solution, even though local
what is in the best interests of the group and,
courses of action might be taken to
where possible, on policies and procedures.
help towards a global solution. For
the problem of climate change, for
vi. Equity
ex., a local course of action might
be creating awareness through All men and women have
street play or exhibition or human opportunities to improve or maintain
chain or a poster campaign aimed at their well-being.
encouraging people think globally
vii. Effectiveness and efficiency
and act locally.
Processes and institutions produce
Characteristics of good governance results that meet needs while making the
best use of resources.
i. Participation
viii. Accountability
All men and women should have a
voice in decision-making, either directly Decision-makers in government,
or through legitimate intermediate the private sector and civil society
institutions that represent their interests. organizations are accountable to the public,
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as well as to institutional stakeholders.  Corruption free Politics and

This accountability differs depending on Administration
the organizations and whether the decision  Transparency in Administration
is internal or external to an organization.  Independent Press
ix. Strategic Vision  Independent Judiciary
Leaders and the public have a broad  Human Rights
and long-term perspective on good Economic factors
governance and human development,
 Human Development Index (HDI)
along with a sense of what is needed
for such development. There is also an  Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
understanding of the historical, cultural  Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
and social complexities in which that  Growth Vs Development
perspective is grounded.  Equal Distribution of Wealth
Source: UNDP (1997) Governance for Environmental factors
Sustainable Human Development.  Sustainable Development Goals
United Nations Development National Action Plan for Climate

Programme. change(NAPC)
6.8 How to evaluate the performance  Green Budget
of a government?  Disaster management
It is difficult to evaluate the Gross National Happiness (GNH):
performance of a government with uni- Gross National Happiness is a
factor analysis; the actual assessment developing philosophy as well as an
can be done only after considering “index” which is used to measure the
various aspects of governance, namely collective happiness in any specific nation.
Socio, Cultural, Political, Economic, The Concept was first mentioned in the
and Environmental factors. To evaluate constitution of Bhutan, which was enacted
the performance of a government the on 18 July 2008.
following factors can be considered.
The term “gross national happiness”
Socio Cultural factors
was coined by the fourth king of Bhutan,
 Gender Parity Index Jigme Singye Wangchuck, in the 1970sThe
 Religious Freedom GNH’s central tenants are: “Sustainable and
 Equality Based on caste equitable socio-economic development;
 Protection of religious and Linguistic environmental conservation; preservation
Minority Rights and promotion of culture; and good
 Gender Budgeting governance”.
GNH is distinguishable by for example
Political factors
valuing collective happiness as the goal of
 Effective functioning of Democracy
governance, and by emphasizing harmony
 Free and fair elections with nature and traditional values.
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Activity
Glossary
Discuss the Recently Published Aristocracy
Reports of the Following
Rule by an upper class.
Checks and Balances
 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX, A principle of a system of government
 TRANSPARENCY whereby each branch of the government
INTERNATIONAL, can check the actions of the others. As
 ECONOMIC SURVEY OF INDIA, originally conceived, this was true of the
government of the USA.
 Budget - Green Budget, Gender
Budgeting, Concurrent Powers
 GENDER PARITY INDEX Powers held jointly by the national

and state governments.
 Annual Reports of following
Confederal System
institutions
A league of independent states, each
 NHRC – National Commission
for Human Rights having essentially sovereign powers. The
central government created by such a
 NCSC - National Commission league has only limited powers over the
for Schedule Castes states.
 NCST - National Commission Democratic Republic
for Schedule Tribes
A republic in which the
 NCW – National Commission representatives elected by the people make
for Woman and enforce laws and policies.
 NCPCR - National Commission
Devolution.
for Protection of Child Rights
Transfer of powers from the national
or central government to state or local
government. This happened in the United
GOOD Kingdom in the late twentieth century.
GOVERNMENT
Direct Democracy
CONSENSUS ORIENTED
EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT
A system of government where
FOLLOWS THE RULE OF LAW political decisions are made by the people
EQUITABLE AND INCLUSIVE directly, rather than by their elected
ACCOUNTABLE PARTICIPATORY representatives.
RESPONSIVE TRANSPARENT Federalism
A political system in which authority
is shared between a central government
and a state or regional government.
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Liberal Democracy Representative Democracy was created by

Democratic government that the framers of the US constituion.
provides for the protection of individual
Separation of Powers
human rights, in order to prevent a
majority from oppressing a minority. The division of governmental
functions and powers among different
Liberalism
branches of government, so that the
Advocacy of positive government various self-interests of each group would
action to improve the welfare of moderate those of the others.
individuals, support for civil rights, and
tolerance for political and social change. Theocracy. [From Greek theos = god and
krateein = to rule.]
Limited Government
Rule by a god, which in practice means
A government whose powers are limited,
rule by a priesthood. No separation of
particularly by institutional checks.
church and state. Compare with aristocracy.
Presidential System
Totalitarian
Representative democracy where
political power is vested in separately A regime of command by the
elected and appointed branches of national government and obedience by the citizens.
government. This system is used in the USA. The regime controls all aspects of political
and social life (as in George Orwell’s
Representative Democracy 1984). In contrast with an authoritarian
A form of government in which state, all social and economic institutions
representatives are elected by the people are under government control.
to make and enforce laws and policies.
Unicameral Legislature
Political decisions are made by the
officials elected by the people. [Some A legislature that comprises a single
such democracies retain a monarchy in a part or chamber. In the USA (early 21st
ceremonial role.] century) only the state of Nebraska has
a unicameral legislature. Compare with
Republic
bicameral legislature.
A form of government in which
sovereignty rests with the people (or a Universal Suffrage. [From Latin
portion of the people), as opposed to a suffragium = voting tablet, vote.] The
king or monarch or dictator. This form of right and privilege of all adults to vote for
their representatives.
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Evaluation

1. “ Parliamentary form of Government” is also known as
(a) Cabinet Government (b) Responsible Government

(c) Westminster forms of government (d) All of the above
2. W
hich of the following characteristics is not related to the federal government?
(a) Written Constitution (b) Flexible Constitution

(c) Supremacy of the Constitution (d) Independent Judiciary
3. T
he Federal System in India is based on the model of which country?
(a) Canada (b) UK (c) America (d) Japan
4. W
hich three indicators are used in the Human Development Index (HDI)?
I. Standard of living II. Education
III. Life expectancy IV. Condition of environment
(a) Only I,II & IV (b) Only I, II, & III (c) Only I & II (d) All of the above
5. Which of the following are the features on the basis of which the parliamentary
system of government in India operates?
a. Nominal and real executives b. Executive responsible to lower house

c. Prime Minister is the real executive d. All of the above
6. Due to which of following reasons the founding fathers preferred the British
parliamentary system?
1) Familiarity with system. 2) More responsibility.

3) Separation of power. 4) Heterogeneous Indian Society.
a. Only 1, 2, 4 b. Only 1, 2, 3 c. Only 2, 3, 4 d. All of the above
7. Which federal institution oversees the implementation of Constitutional provisions
and procedures?
A) Legislature B) Executive C) Judiciary D) Cabinet

8. I n U.S.A. The form of government is:
A) Parliamentary B) Presidential
C) Absolute monarchy D)Limited monarchy
9. W
hich major country does not have a single, written constitution?
A. Russia B. Iran C. Germany D. United Kingdom

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1. Define Government.
2. Write about the merits of Unitary form of government.
1. List out the Unitary features of Indian constitution.
2. List out the Merits and demerits of Federal form of government
3. Why the framers of the Indian constitution adopted for Parliamentary form of
government?
Reference books
1. Vijayaragavan, Political Thought, New Delhi, Sterling Publications

2. D.D.Basu, Introduction to the Constitution of Indian, New Delhi, Lexisnexis
3. R.C.Agarwal, Political Theory, New Delhi, S.Chand
ICT Corner
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
Through this activity you

will learn about the different
forms of Government.
TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
Procedure:
Step - 1 Use the URL or QR code to open the Types of Government page.
Step - 2 A grid of slides explaining different forms of government are placed.
Step - 3 Click on the explanation slide to know the form of Government.
Step - 4 Click the play button on the top of the activity window to run a quiz and recall.
Types of Government URL:

http://www.brainrush.com/lesson/play/types-of-government
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UNIT
7 Political Thought
7.1 Plato
(428/427 – 348/347 BCE)
He was a disciple of
 Socrates’s Student
Socrates who was
 Founded the
Plato one of the foremost
Academy-
First institution philosophers of Greece. During his time
for higher there was great chaos in the political life
education. of Athens which was a Greek City State.
 First Western This resulted in the Athenian government
philosopher condemning Socrates to death because of
whole writings have survived his teachings. This greatly affected Plato’s
 Most of what we know about views on politics especially in Athens.
Socrates comes from Plato’s
In about 387 BCE Plato founded his
writings
‘Academy’. The name ‘Academy’ comes
 Agreed with Pythagoras that
from the name of a famous Athenian
Mathematics were essential in
understanding the world. hero called ‘Akademos’. Here Plato taught
Political Philosophy which contained
politics, ethics, mathematics and
sociology.
Leanpub Learning Objectives Plato’s Works
 To understand the Political thought
of Plato. The three most important works of
Plato are ‘The Republic’ (386 BCE), ‘The
 To apply in the present context. Statesman’ (360 BCE) and ‘The Laws’ (347
 To gain knowledge about Plato’s BCE). Apart from these works, he has
ideas on state, government, Justice, written a number of other smaller books.
Education, Communism. Plato’s Thought
The important ideas of Plato are
Plato was born in 427/428 BCE. found in his three major works and can be
He belonged to an aristocratic family in summarised as follows:
Athens a Greek City State. Plato’s real Ideal State
name was ‘Aristocles’. Some historical
sources say his wrestling coach Ariston In Political Science, the most
of Argos dubbed him ‘Platon’ meaning important concept around which the
‘Broad’ on account of his large build. subject is built is ‘The State’. According
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to him in an Ideal State (i.e., the most He also devices methods of eliminations
suitable State for a human being to live as higher stages of education is reached by
in according to Plato) should be made human beings depending on the proportion
up of three classes namely Ruling Class, of the three parts of their souls namely
Military Class and Economic Class. He reason, spirit and appetite. Persons who are
gives details of how this is possible in his found suited to fulfil economic duties of
subsequent ideas of Justice and Education. the State are separated from the ones suited
for Ruling and Military services. In the
Idea of Justice
second process of elimination the persons
He believed that justice resided suited for ruling are given special training
both in one single human being as well to become what Plato calls ‘Philosopher
as the State. He said every human being Kings’ to rule his ‘Ideal State’.
is endowed with three qualities though
in different proportions. He said these
qualities are Reason, which resides in a
Every philosopher is the child of
person’s head, Spirit which resides in a his/her own time. The execution of
person’s heart and Appetite which resides Socrates, the wisest man in Greece,
in a person’s stomach. He said these are the filled Plato with contempt for
three parts of the human soul. Firstly, he democracy and believed that it had
said true justice is that, these three parts to be replaced by the rule of the wisest.
should do their rightful business in order
to make a human being whole. Secondly, Views on Democracy
these three parts existing in every In his work ‘The Republic’ Plato had
individual, should be faithfully reflected practically condemned Democracy. He
in the State which is a collective of human had developed the idea that all were not fit
beings as a whole through the formation to rule and that only the philosophers who
of the three classes namely, Ruling Class, had been specially trained for the purpose
Military Class and Economic Class by should rule. He said this because it was
which his Ideal State is formed. Athenian Democracy which condemned
his teacher Socrates to death.
HUMAN BEING THE STATE Classification of Constitutions
Reason Ruling Class
Plato’s idea of a constitution is much

different from the modern understanding
Spirit  Military Class of this term. By constitution he meant
Appetite Auxillary Class
a particular way of life the people of a

society have designed for their wellbeing.
This included social customs, traditions,
Concept of Education
practices and also politics and government
Plato designs an education system to oversee all these. Plato discussed about
based on various stages suited to the age of constitutions as they existed in many parts
the students from childhood to adulthood. of the world during his time and as they
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ought to be. He classified constitutions 7.2 Aristotle

as Aristocracy, Timocracy, Oligarchy,
(384 – 322 BCE)
Democracy and Tyranny. He also said
that there is a tendency of Aristocracy to
degenerate into Timocracy, Timocracy
into Oligarchy, Oligarchy into Democracy
and Democracy into Tyranny.
Bringing up of Children
According to Plato, children were
national possession and as such it was
obligatory on the part of the State to bring
them up according to their attitudes.
Plato’s dialectical Method Leanpub Learning Objectives

 To understand the Political thought
Plato used this method in his book of Aristotle.
‘The Republic’. He writes this book as if
 This will help to compare thinkers
he is asking questions as a student and
on similar concept
Socrates is answering as his teacher. Unlike
‘Didactics’ i.e. a teacher authoritatively  To gain knowledge about Aristotle
teaches a subject because the teacher ideas on Ideal State, Citizenship,
knows it and the students don’t, ‘Dialectics’ normal and perverted forms of
is a question and answer type of method constitution and Monarchy, forms
where the student has a vague idea about of government and democracy
something and throws questions to the
teacher about it and the teacher’s answers
are again questioned. By this the teacher Man is by nature a political
facilitates the student to formulate and animal and he, who by
reformulate his idea in order to arrive at nature and not by mere
the best possible understanding of the idea. accident is without state is either above
humanity or below it.
Assessment -Aristotle in his book Politics
Plato, though by no means the first Life and Times

philosopher, undoubtedly is one of the
William Ebenstien says” In the
earliest to leave us a significant body of
history of political philosophy no one
work. He spent most of his time asking and
has surpassed Aristotle in encyclopaedic
providing answers to questions that have
interest and accomplishment”.
always troubled people. Even centuries
after his death, Plato is considered the Aristotle was Plato’s student at his
most influential political philosopher of ‘Academy’. After Plato’s death, Aristotle
all times. found his own school called ‘The Lyceum’
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in 335 BCE. It is here that Alexander to come out of their limited circle and
studied under Aristotle. The teaching and thought of creating the State. The families
research program included every branch combined together to make the State and
of knowledge. Aristotle was born in made it a perfect association. Aristotle
Stagira in 384 BCE. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believes that the State is an individual writ
came from an upper middle class family. large because the individual can think of
His father Nicomachus was the personal perfection only in a State.
physician to king Amyntas of Macedon.
Functions of the State
‘Aristotle’ whose name means ‘the According to Aristotle the foremost
best purpose’ stood true to his name when function of the State is to promote good
he proposed the ‘Best Practicable State’ as life and create essential conditions for
opposed to Plato’s ‘Ideal State’. According mental, moral and physical development
to Aristotle, “the State exists for an end and of the people. The State should also
this end is the supreme good of man in both function in such a way that good habits
moral and intellectual life”. of individuals are converted into good
Aristotle’s Works actions and promote good, happy and
He wrote many books on subjects honourable life.
ranging from Greek literature to Zoology. Theory of Citizenship
But his most famous work is called
Aristotle did not believe that mere
‘Politics’ from which modern Political
residence or enjoyment of legal rights or
Science has grown. Thus he is called as the
birth should confer the right of citizenship
‘father of Political Science’. Though the
on a person. He said, “It is the function
exact date of its publication is not known,
which entitles a person to become citizen”.
it is a voluminous work consisting of 8
A person should participate in the popular
books and having more than 1000 pages.
assembly which was vested with the
Unlike Plato’s agreement with his teacher
authority of exercising sovereign powers. A
Socrates, Aristotle did not agree on many
citizen should be able to partake in decision
things his teacher Plato had to say.
Quotable
making process of the government.
uote
The whole is more than
Classification of States
the Sum of its parts - Aristotle
He classifies States on quantitative as
Aristotle’s Thought well as qualitative basis:
Almost all his political ideas are
known through his book ‘Politics’. Quantity Quality
State as a Natural Institution Type Good Form Perverted Form
According to him authority of the One Monarchy Tyranny
State is moral and the State is natural. A Few Aristocracy Oligarchy
Since the family could not satisfy the ever
Many Polity Democracy
increasing needs of the people, they had
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According to Aristotle, if sovereignty Views on Property

resides in one person it is Monarchy. It
Aristotle supported the possession
degenerates into Tyranny. Thus the people
of private property which is essential
wrest the State from the tyrant and give it
for good and normal life. However, he
to a few rulers and thus Aristocracy comes
into being. Then it perverts into Oligarchy, prescribed limits to private property. He
people again revolt and transfer power to also objected to the abolition of private
many rulers by which the State becomes a property.
Polity. When this degenerates, it becomes Aristotle an Liesure
a Democracy because these rulers no
longer have sight of the common good The reason Aristotle says the citizens
for which the State came into being. This of a State must have property as well as
again gives rise to Monarchy. slaves is because the citizens must have
Views on Slavery leisure, so that the citizen may spend
According to Aristotle, the slave is the useful time in thinking and deliberating
first of the animate property of a Master, i.e., on furthering the good life of all though
the slave is first among all living property the State.
of the household of which the master is the
Views on Revolution
head. He says those who are not virtuous
are slaves. The slave is an instrument of Aristotle is of the opinion
action and not that of production because that revolutions occur firstly due to
as soon as he starts performing productive constitutional changes. This change
functions, he loses his character as a slave could be large or small. For e.g.: change
and becomes virtuous. from Monarchy to Tyranny could set off
Views on Family a revolution by the people. Secondly he
Aristotle believes that the family says revolutions could occur due to loss of
is a natural institution and in fact it purpose of the State though there may not
existed prior to the State. It is natural as be any change in the State’s constitution.
individuals become members from their Aristotle’s Six Forms of Government
very birth. It is the starting point of moral
life and the nucleus of the State. Thus, Aristotle is still considered one of
the greatest thinkers in politics, psychology
ACTIVITY and ethics. His intellectual range was vast
covering most of the sciences and many of
the arts. His works have laid the foundation
Is it true that Aristotle tutored of centuries of philosophy. Even after the
Alexander the Great?
intellectual revolution of the Renaissance,
the Reformation and the Enlightenment,
Aristotelian concepts remain embedded
Yes, he did, at the request of in world philosophy. Therefore, he is
Philp II of Macedon, the father undoubtedly one of the most influential
of Alexander the Great. philosophers of all time.
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7.3 St. Thomas Aquinas world. They finally succeeded by terming

(1224/1225-1274) politics and political theorizing as a trivial
pursuit vis-à-vis people’s higher calling
of getting right with God. St. Thomas
Aquinas was the greatest among these
Christian theologians who architected
this major philosophical triumph.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1224 or 1225-
1274) was born in the family castle of
Roccasecca, north of Naples. His father
was Landulf of Aquino, who headed
a minor branch of an important land
owning family and his mother was
Leanpub Learning Objectives Theodora Rossi belonging to Neapolitan
1. To study about the Political Carracciolo family.
thought of St. Thomas Aquinas
Aquinas’ Works
2. This will help to understand In the nineteenth century, Pope
Aquinas’s concept of law Luis XIII declared that the philosophical
3. To gain knowledge about system which Aquinas founded to be
Acquinas’s ideas on Origin of official Catholic theology, which made
State, Functions of the State, reading his works not only important for
Classification of Government, Catholics but also for those who sought a
Classification of Laws, Relations more than surface understanding of that
between Church and the State. branch of Christianity. Aquinas works
included commentaries that stem from his
theological design. Some of his important
Life And Times
works include, (i) Summa Contra Gentiles
In Western Europe the thirteenth (1264), (iii) Summa Theologica (1274)
Century was regarded as the golden and (iv) On Kingship.
age of western philosophy. Catholicism Aquinas’ Thought
emerged as the universal religion in Summa Contra Gentiles
Western Europe. Eventually Aristotle’s
Politics, re-emerged during the thirteenth It has often been said that Aquinas
century. Sharp differences arose between wrote the Summa Contra Gentiles (SCG)
Aristotle’s secular views and Augustine’s as a manual or text book designed to be
religious ideas on sin, the Fall, and political used by the Dominican missionaries
society which were accepted by the church working in Spain where Islam was then a
and as a binding doctrine. However, some force to be reckoned with by Christians.
philosophers faced the challenge of how The SCG is evidently an apologetic work,
to accommodate their theological views since it defends a series of Christian beliefs
and a set of secular political assumptions,
that were under criticisms or that could
which finally resulted in the reconciliation
come under potential criticisms.
of two different ways of understanding the
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Summa Theologica Kingship’ can be considered as the most

In his Summa Theologica, Aquinas methodical political work. Aquinas largely
establishes the existence of four levels follows the pattern of arguments that were
of law which had an underlying unity adopted by Aristotle in his ‘Politics’. He argues
which is reason. What differentiates one that the State is natural because it is natural
form of law from the other is the level of for man… to be a social and political animal,
reason involved. The highest and most and to live in a group. Consequently he
comprehensive among them is eternal emphasizes that political activity in necessary
law which is reason that is operative in and good. Aquinas further like Aristotle,
the universe as a whole. It is the natural roots people’s political nature in their capacity
and the ethical order which God had to reason and to speak. Subsequently he
established. The next is divine law which emphasizes that it is through reasoned action
is a special category of eternal law which is
in the political sphere that humans achieve
the revealed word of God in the Scripture.
virtue and there for happiness and fulfilment.
The next level of law, Aquinas Like Aristotle, he believes that the state is a
identifies as the natural law. The idea of moral community where the moral good of
natural law goes back to the stoics and
its members are considered as its objective.
refers to moral law that is discovered by
Thus, he argues that the state should be based
reason alone. It assumes that man has the
on justice and the best should rule for the
capacity to reason and arrive at certain
good of the public which should be under
ethical conclusion that would be binding
the constraints of law. Such an argument
on them whether it is specified in the law
leads us directly to the problem of classifying
or not. For example, we do not need to
constitutions and yet again Aquinas follows
have a criminal code to understand that
murder is wrong and behave accordingly. the principles of Aristotle by using both
The uniqueness of Aquinas’ theory of qualitative and quantitative methods. He
natural law is that it establishes a link classifies constitution by the number of those
between the natural and the supernatural who rule and the quality of their rule.
– between nature and spirit. This is so
because, says Aquinas, that right and
Quotable
uote
Law is nothing other than a certain
wrong are determined by God’s eternal
ordinance of reason for the common good,
law and hence natural law is nothing else
promulgated by the person who has the care
that the rational creature’s participation in
of the community.
the eternal law. Human’s moral reasoning
- Thomas Aquinas
is in short the extension of the spiritual
principle that transcends nature. Finally,
human law is the application of human Assessment
reason to the precepts of natural law in St. Thomas Aquinas who is regarded
specific earthly conditions. as one of the great figures of medieval
On Kingship thought founded a tradition which came
to be known as Thomism. The basis of
The political theory of Aquinas his political theory can be found in his
closely parallels Aristotle’s. His writings ‘On commentary on Aristotle’s Politics in
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de regimineprincipum (on the Rule of 7.4 Niccolo Machiavelli

Sovereigns) while he was at the papal (1469-1527)
court in Italy (1259-68). Following
Aristotle he held that the state is a natural
and not a conventional institution and it is
a perfect society (communities perfecta).
He argued that it is n atural and not
conventional because human beings were
social animals. They needed to form a
society to survive, prosper and for their
cultural development. Gregarious animals
do this by instinct but humans on the
other hand do it by reason.
All power according to Aquinas 1. To understand the Political thought
comes from God since it involves the power of Niccolo Machiavelli
of life and death which in the Church’s 2. This will help to compare thinkers
doctrine is a prerogative of God. It is at on similar concept.
this juncture that Aquinas deviates from
3. To know about Niccolo Machiavelli
Aristotle but returns when he turns to the
Politics and Religion, State, Advice
question of the sovereign which is natural.
to the Prince.
It is natural in that without a governing
body capable of making decisions that
would be binding, it would result in Life and Times
anarchy and people would destroy each Machiavelli was born in Florence, the
other. The sovereign or government in the centre of Italian culture where influence
view of Aquinas is the representative of of Italian culture where influence of the
those governed. European Renaissance was the strongest
The state therefore, is not in any way among all areas as the third child of
dependent on the church. Aquinas argued attorney Bernardo di Niccolo Machiavelli
that each had a separate role and an end. and his wife Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli.
However, in Aquinas’ view the Church is His writings reveal that he received an
not subordinate to the state, whereas the excellent humanist education that was
state on the other hand must take into informed by the Renaissance values. He
consideration of the Church since its end entered the service of the Republican
is higher than that of the state and is the Government in 1494, the tear of expulsion
ultimate end of the citizen. Aquinas likens of the Medici. From 1498 to 1512 he was
the relationship of the church to the state Secretary to the Chancellery an important
to that of the soul and the body. Each has post which was concerned with diplomatic,
a separate role to play but ultimately the military and administrative affairs. In
soul’s purpose is loftier. 1512, consequent upon the restoration
of the Medici, Machiavelli lost his office
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and underwent a brief imprisonment after Machiavelli holds the view that
which he embarked on a literary career. men have endless desires and one of the
Machiavelli wrote his famous monograph most important desire is the love for
The Prince in 1513 which is addressed private property. He makes materialistic
to Lorenzo de’Medici. Simultaneously he individualism as the explanation of love
started writing another important work- the of independence and self-government. In
Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus the Discourses also he gives a pessimistic
Livius (in short, the Discourses on Livy) view of human nature. He maintains
which was completed in 1517. However, materialistic gain as the fundamental
both of these works were published consideration of humans. He says that
posthumously in 1531. Machiavelli also this motive of the people make them
produced some minor literary works but desire for republic and dislike monarchy.
his reputation as a political thinker rests on Under Republican government there are
these two books. more chances for people to get material
gain. This is not possible in a monarchy
Machiavelli on Human Nature because the Prince takes all the gains and
Machiavelli’s theory of Government profits himself. An independent nation is
is determined by his conception of the preferred because a free nation enables the
study of human nature. Like Hobbes, he multiplication of wealth for the masses.
is very pessimistic about human nature
Separation between Politics and Morality
and believes that men by nature are
purely selfish and they, in their lives, are In Greek political thought, ethics
always motivated by selfish desires. At was viewed as the foundation of politics.
one place in ‘The Prince’ he says,” Men are But Machiavelli made a striking departure
ungrateful, fickle, deceitful, cowardly and from this classical ideal. He believed that
avaricious.” He suggests that a monarch politics is governed by its own independent
should aim to be feared by the people than standards; hence it cannot be bound by
be loved. For Machiavelli, love implies the conventional ethical standards. He
a bond of obligation which men, being insisted on separation between politics
essentially selfish, break on every occasion and ethics. According to him the ruler
where their own interest demands it, should be honest, righteous and true to
while fear, for the same reason, holds his word, but in reality nobody can have
them indefinitely. He feels that men judge all these qualities and these qualities will
things by appearances and so the ruler not enable a ruler to rule over vicious
should take advantage of this fact and act. people. So the Prince should focus on the
For him men are weak and ignorant and preservation of the State without being
are essentially vicious and become good bound by moral obligations. Machiavelli
only by necessity. He cautions the ruler does not contend that ‘ends justify the
never to trust his councillors but to use means’ but he claims that a ruler’s success
his own judgement. will be judged by popular verdict, and that
he will be excused for using dubious
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means if he is successful in the end. If Niccolo Machiavelli on separation of

political expediency requires the Prince to politics from religion
set aside traditional morality, he should
Machiavelli breaks away from the
go ahead in the interest of successful
tradition maintained by Plato, Aristotle,
politics.
St.Thomas Aquinas and others who
Quotable
uote
believed in the ethical purpose of the State.
He separates politics from both religion
“Let a Prince set about the task of
and morality and gives an autonomous
conquering and maintaining his State:
status to politics. According to Mahiavelli,
his methods will always be judged
it is not a practical policy for the prince to
honourable and he will be universally
follow the principles of religion and ethics
praised.”
in his statecraft.
Machiavelli (The Prince)

Machiavelli’s Method
According to Machiavelli, the right method to study political Science was historical.
He says that human desires and passions remain the same always and when
the incidents of life are comparable, humanity will tend to find the same remedies
and repeat the same conduct. He therefore regarded that the study of the past was very
useful to understand the present and would also make it easy to make predictions for
the future. He placed the study of politics on historical and realistic foundation and
relied on empirical method particularly in the study of political behaviour. He has
been described as a pioneer of behaviouralism. He followed this method almost in all
contexts both in the Prince and Discourses. He conceived of politics as an instrument
of acquisition, preservation and expansion of power which could be accomplished by
harnessing the faculties of the people as they exist in the real world.
Machiavelli’s method has been called inductive or scientific on the ground that
he drew conclusions from practical or historical experiences of human nature that does
not change under different political regimes. His originality lies in focussing on man’s
behavioural patterns instead of certain morals for the analysis of politics. However
critics have pointed out that Machiavelli’s method was only superficially scientific and
historical. He did not follow inductive method of proceeding from the ‘particular to
general’. Nor is his method deductive, which is the method of proceeding from the
‘general to the particular’. According to them Machiavelli never touches upon the central
problems of political philosophy, such as the justificationof the existence of the State,
grounds and limits of political obligation etc., He never looks beyond the necessities of
practical politics although his vision was broad.
“Single ruler is necessary to found and reform states; republican governments are
better at sustaining them once established”.
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Machiavelli (Discourses on Livy) citizens are not allowed to depart from

the conventional morality, otherwise the
George H. Sabine has rightly observed
purpose of the state itself will be defeated.
that there is no inconsistency between
Machiavelli’s tow leading books The Machiavelli \wants the Prince to act
Prince and The Discourses on Livy. Both so carefully that he is held in high esteem
deal with the same subject-The causes among the people. The Prince must be
of the rise and decline of States and the conscious of the prevalence of ‘universal
means of making them permanent. The egoism’. Government is found to provide
Prince deals with monarchies or absolute the people with security from internal
governments and the Discourses mainly offenders as well as external enemies. A
with the expansion of the Roman republic. wise ruler will frame his policy with a view
to creating an atmosphere of security of
Machiavelli’s Statecraft life, property and honour of the people. He
Machiavelli’s enunciation of advises the Prince to provide for security
statecraft is his most notable as well as of women in the state. People will be loyal
controversial contribution. It is notable to their ruler when they are sure that their
because it provides unique guidelines, life, property and women are safe in the
it is controversial because it allows the state.
ruler to use certain immoral practices for
Assessment
successful governance. While Machiavelli
advised the ruler to set aside moral Machiavelli did not intend to
bindings in order to achieve his end, he did undermine the foundations of morality
not think that conventional morality was in society. As a sincere patriot, he was
totally irrelevant to politics. He enunciates particularly anxious to build a strong
a double standard of morals, one for the nation-state in Italy which was then
ruler and another for his servants and fragmented into five parts: Florence,
citizens. The ruler’s moral implies his Venice, Naples, Milan and the territory of
undivided commitment to strengthen the Roman Catholic Church. He wanted
the state and enhancing his power in his country to win a respectable place
order to maintain law and order within among other nation-states of Europe. He
the state and to ensure effective defence was also worried about the then prevailing
from foreign invaders. His performance moral corruption among Italians. Though
will be judged by his success in fulfilling he preferred a republic, he advocated
his responsibility. But his servants and monarchy for the then existing condition
of Italy.
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7.5 Thomas Hobbes he became connected with the Cavendish

(1588 - 1679 ) family where he served as a tutor to William
Cavendish. Although Hobbes showed little
interest on the elements of philosophy, he
began to study the classics with earnest after
he went on a tour with William Cavendish
in the European continent. He developed an
interest in the movement of history and on
the fates of nations and empires. In the year
1629, he translated Thucydides’ History of
the Peloponnesian War and published it.
Quotable
uote
“Fear and I were born twins” - Hobbes
Among Hobbes’ many works, De Cive and the

Leanpub Learning Objectives Leviathan were the most important. Hobbes’
1. To understand the Political thought Leviathan which is his most mature and
of Thomas Hobbes exciting work attempts to demonstrate that the
2. To know about Thomas Hobbes Galilean physics provides a model of human
views on state of Nature, The social psychology which on turn lays the foundation
Contract, Laws, Rights Liberty, for modern politics. His conception of human
Sovereignty and Social Contract nature, the state of nature, the social contract
Theory. and his ideas on sovereignty have captured the
interest of all who read his political philosophy.
In the following sections an attempt to
Life and Times understand these import ant works of Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes the sixteenth century will be examined.
English Philosopher who lived during the Human Nature
scientific revolution was the first to attempt At most times, the Leviathan of
a modern theory of society. He based his Hobbes is taken as the starting point and
views on moral relativism with a highly begins with a coherent theory of ‘Man’,
pessimistic view of the state of nature – a as a pre requisite to an understanding of
war of all against all. Thomas Hobbes was politics. Very often political scientists use
born prematurely in Malmesbury on 5 April the term ‘Hobbesian’ which probably could
1588, when his mother was told that the denote a very pessimistic view of man as
Spanish Armada was spotted off the coast of essentially, anti-social, selfish, brutish and
England. Hobbes grew in the house of his power lusting. If we agree with Hobbes’
well-to-do uncle after his father abandoned assumptions that man existed before there
his family. Hobbes began his schooling early was any society or state, then, man would
and entered the Magdalen college in Oxford. be concerned with doing only what will
Upon his graduation at the age of nineteen satisfy his need and wishes.
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lives in constant fear of everyone else. It

Q uotable
uote is thus by nature that human beings are by
I put for a general inclination of all nature antisocial power seekers.
mankind, a perpetual and restless desire
of power after power that ceaseth only Social Contract
in death.- Hobbes Hobbes’ view of human nature has
a profound impact on his political theory.
In Hobbes’ words human beings
Knowing the true nature of human beings,
are driven by their passions and use their
Hobbes puts forward a scientific theory
intellectual capacity simply as a means to
of politics – the ‘Social Contract’. The
determine what will bring them the greatest
fundamental idea of the social contract is quite
pleasure or the least pain. Hobbes further
simple: The state is the result of a contract
adds that the object of man’s desire is not to
between human beings in which the scope and
enjoy only once, and for one instant only, but
extent of the powers of the government are to
to assure forever the way of his future desire.
be determined by an analysis of the terms of
Hobbes is careful to also state that different
the contract. The state is created by mutual
people desire different forms of pleasure but
agreement or the consent of its members.
there is one desire which is common in man
As a result government is legitimate if it
– Power. Given that all are pleasure seekers,
corresponds to what people have consented to.
it must logically follow logically that all are
power seekers. Hobbes thus regards human
nature as utterly self-interested and self-
Quotable
uote
regarding. Hence innately anti-social. “To do unto others before they do unto
you” - Hobbes
State of Nature
Hobbes in his theory of the state of This is a very modern notion of the
nature provides a corollary method of modern secular state which is contrary
understanding human behaviour..In the state to medieval thought where the secular
of nature Hobbes argues, that it a condition of government exists by divine sanction.
absolute liberty and equality. Absolute liberty Such an idea was still employed by the
since there would be no laws to constrain Royalists who argued that the monarch
individuals and thus would have a right to ruled by divine right. The consent-
everything; absolute equality because human contract flatly rejected this idea and on
beings have roughly equivalent physical and the contrary claimed that the government
intellectual capabilities. Hobbes argues that in is legitimate only to the extent that people
such a condition where everyone has a right have consented to. The importance of
to everything and all have equal capabilities Hobbes theory of social contract is that
in exercising their rights, all are subject to he believes that it is strictly a logical and
attacks from all. The state of nature is thus scientific analysis of the state. He argues
a state of war where survival remains the that human beings would consent only
ultimate motive for human beings to acquire to that which rationally accords to their
power. Thus in the state of nature everyone needs and desires.
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Sovereignty 7.6 John Locke (1632-1704)

The relationship between the individual
and the sovereign was one that was between
the absolute absence of power and the absolute
unity of power. Hobbes is consistent in his
argument in the commonwealth the removal
of all bases of power from the individual on
the one hand and the concentration of it with
the sovereign was essential. In other words,
Hobbes supported the creation of an absolute
sovereign which would lack no power to
enforce law and order against any possibility
of man’s irrationality.. The key to his political
thinking is found in the absolute necessity to
create an absolute authority. The sovereign Leanpub Learning Objectives
could be one man or an assembly of men,
although he preferred the sovereignty of one of John Locke
man.  To know about John Locke views
on Political Theory, Human
Nature, State of Nature, The social
 Fear and liberty are consistent.
Contract.
 Liberty and necessity are consistent.
 Submission consists of both our
Life and Times
obligation and our liberty.
 Other liberties depend on the silence John Locke, the father of
of the law philosophical liberalism, was born on 29
August, 1632 at Wrington, Somersetshire,
Assessment
United Kingdom. He spent his childhood
The importance of Hobbes lies not only at Pensford, near BristolHis acquaintance
on his political philosophy but also on his with William, the Prince of Orange, and
contributions towards the development of an his ascendency to the English throne after
anti-Aristotelian and thoroughly materialist the Glorious Revolution of 1688, brought
conception of politics. It is in his work that the Locke back to London. Locke was made
beginnings of understanding politics from a the Commissioner for Appeals by William
non-teleological point of view emerged. His
III in 1689. The unfavourable political
political philosophy served as the basis for
climate induced him to resign again and
other political philosophers such as John
led to his settlement at Essex. He ended
Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel
his public life with his last assignment as
Kant, who followed the tradition of examining
politics from a modern scientific approach. the Commissioner on the Board of Tea.
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Works of Locke State of Nature

His important works are ‘Letter Concerning The Locke an contemplation on the
Toleration’ (1689), an ‘Essay Concerning state of nature can be found in his “Second
Human Understanding’ (1690), ‘Two Treatise”. In contrast to the Hobbesian
Treatises on Civil Government’ (1690), state of nature, Locke postulates a peaceful
‘A Second Letter on Toleration’ (1692) ), condition by virtue of the social instinct
‘A Third Letter on Toleration’ (1692), ‘A of humans. As dictated by the canons of
Fourth on Toleration’ (1693) and ‘Some natural law, his state of nature is based on
Thoughts Concerning Education’ (1693). perfect freedom. Moreover, the phase is
Central Ideas also characterised by equality defined in
terms of reciprocal power and jurisdiction.
Locke’s central ideas can be discussed as In his own words, “state of nature is a state
follows: of peace, goodwill, mutual assistance and
Conception of Human Nature preservation”. In short, Locke underscores
the optimistic nature of human beings.
Unlike Hobbes, Locke does not
subscribe to a pessimistic view of human Natural law is considered to be the
nature. He identifies reason as the factor source of both rights and duties. Humans
which shapes a rational human being. derive their rights from the domain of
He also acknowledges reason as the natural law and it expects them to respect
foundation of individual and social life. the ordained rights on a mutual basis for
Humans were social, rational, decent, safeguarding the same. Locke goes to the
mentally stable and capable of self-rule. extent of denoting natural law as the moral
Lockean view also upholds the natural law enacted by God, which is sensible
state of equality for individuals. To him, through reason. It would not be wrong to
humans are entitled to natural liberty. refer his state of nature as “an anarchist’s
It is qualified as an inherent privilege to paradise”.
be free from any superior element but
to be subversive towards the “dictate of Finally, Locke identifies the three
the nature”. He also reaches a consensus fundamental demerits which threatened
on the fact that individuals are prone to the balance of state of nature. Firstly, the
some degrees of discrepancies in terms absence of a legal framework. Secondly,
of intelligence, strength and their skills. the lack of a “known and impartial
Nevertheless, his reliance on similarities judge”. Thirdly, the requirement of an
among individuals were outweighing the executive agency for the enforcement of
differences. Locke is also particular in decisions. Hence, the phenomenon of
reflecting the utilitarian trait of humans. state was the means of liberation from
Following the line of Bentham, Locke this malady. Besides, it is worthwhile to
says, humans seek to strike a balance of keep in mind that the Locke an state of
pleasure over pain. It is this notion of nature is inconsistent with facts. It rests
pleasure or utility which forms the basis on a fictional premise unsupported by any
of his covenant. historical justification.
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Social Contract alternative blueprint on the separation of

powers. According to him, the powers of
Social contract is configured as an
the government were separated among
instrument of admission to the civil society.
three organs. Firstly, the legislature, which
The Lockean view proposes two contracts.
he refers as the “supreme power of the
The first one establishes the civil society and
commonwealth”. Secondly, the executive,
the second one calls for the constitution of
which also includes the judicial powers.
government. He also recognises consent as the
Thirdly, the federative, which implies
bedrock of the contract. To him, no individual
the power of external relations of a state.
can be admitted into this commonwealth
Locke was also tolerant towards the idea
without his/her own consent. Locke speaks
of a single-ruler which sanctions the
of two kinds of consent: 1) formal or active
concentration of all powers in one hand,
consent, which is irrevocable in nature and
provided that it is an outcome of the
2) implied or tacit consent, which sanctions
consent of the majority.
the departure of the stakeholders from the
‘trust’ and initiate a new order. Locke prefers Q uotable
uote
“Government has no other end, but the
the former as far as his version of contract
is concerned, making it clear that there is preservation of property”. -John Locke
no return to the state of nature. Another Assessment
striking attribute of the Locke’s contract is
that individuals do not surrender their rights John Locke, by virtue of his scientific
which they enjoyed in the state of nature. temper and rationality, finds a significant
Submission of the rights would defeat the place in the Western Political Thought.
purpose of the contract itself as the state is Being an individualist by conviction, he
being raised as the guarantor and protector of believed that humans are the makers of their
rights. Therefore, the contract is synonymous own destiny. His works were a great source
to a “charter of liberty” than a license for of impetus and inspiration for thinkers
subjugation. The Locke an vision on social like Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, and
pact also authorises the option for revolution even for the French Revolution. According
against a tyrannous system of governance. to Parrington, Locke’s Two Treatises on
This measure is included in order to reaffirm Government “became the textbook of
the role of the state as the guardian of the American Revolution”. In the words of
natural rights of individuals. Furthermore, Prof. Laski, “Hobbes worked with an
Locke leaves the decision on revolution to impossible psychology and sought no more
the legislature with a focus on the principle than the prescription against disorder.
of majoritarianism and consent. Burke wrote rather a textbook for the
cautious administrator than a guide for the
On the question of the nature of liberal statesman. But Locke saw that the
authority, he outlines the notion of main problem of the state is the conquest
limited-sovereignty. Absolute sovereignty of freedom and it was for its definition in
is against his construct of civil society. terms of individual good that he above all
Locke was also not hesitant to offer an strove”.
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7.7 Jean-Jacques Rousseau induced him to abandon the same. Out

(1712-1778) of the repeated failures, she was forced to
send him to Lyons in 1730. After a year of
wandering, he re-joined her in 1731 and
lived under her bounty till 1740. Influenced
by her intellectual halo and her invaluable
assistance, he joined as a teacher in the
family of Monsieur de Malby. Nonetheless,
he left the assignment and resorted to his
journey as an aimless soul.
His second trip to France in 1744
brought significant changes in his life.
Despite his unsuccessful experiments in
various fields like opera, theatre, poetry
Leanpub Learning Objectives and so forth, Rousseau sustained his

determination and positive spirit. The year
 To understand the Political thought 1749 was a turning point in his life. The
of Jean-Jacques Rousseau Academy of Dijon announced the prize
 To know about Jean-Jacques for the best essay on “Has the progress of
Rousseau’s views on Human sciences and arts contributed to corrupt
Nature, Theory of General Will, or purify morals?” Rousseau writes in
Sovereignty and Social Contract his Confessions, “Instantly I saw another
Theory. universe, and I became another man”. The
work he submitted had received the first
prize in 1750 and it was published under
Life and Times
the title – “A Discourse on the Moral
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, one of the Effects of the Arts and Sciences”.
most prominent philosophers in the
modern political discourse, was born on On his return to Geneva in 1754,
28 July, 1712 in Geneva. Hailing from a Rousseau, a Catholic by himself, accepted
broken family, Rousseau was devoid of Calvinistic denomination and reacquired the
the opportunity to enjoy the privilege of citizenship. After his travel to Paris, he spent
a nurtured childhood. After disengaging 8 years of his life at Montmorency as a ward
from a couple of apprenticeships, he of Madame d’Epinay. Rousseau composed
fled from Geneva and found joy in his most important works - The New Heloise
wanderlust. With the help a young widow (1761), Emile (1762) and the Social Contract
named Madame de Warens, Rousseau (1762) – during this phase. Condemnation
was introduced to formal education in a was the response received for his books
monastery based in Turin and a seminary which led to his further resettlements in
in Annecy. The eventual aversion towards various places. Rousseau’s demise on 2 July,
the style of pedagogy in those institutions, 1778, was received with a shock and was seen
as a great loss to philosophy.
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Central Ideas with this shower of changes that shook the

fabric of the state of nature. The concept of
Rousseau occupies a critical position
private ownership created a new cleavage
in the realm of political philosophy. He is
at the social sphere – rich and poor. In his
predominantly known for his contribution
words, “the first man who after enclosing
towards the “theory of social contract”.
a piece of land said to himself ‘this is mine’
As a social contractualist by conviction,
and found people simply to believe him, was
Rousseau sought to unearth the origin
the real founder of civil society”.
of state as an expression of the “general
will”. He attributed the origin of state as The period was made to witness a chain
a consequence of two phases – “state of of wars, murders and rifts between the rich
nature” and “social contract”. and poor. This new order sanctioned evils at
a universal scale that were unfound in the
State of Nature
savage state. An unavoidable culmination of
Unlike Hobbes, Rousseau’s these turn of events was the rise of inequality
proposition of state of nature was an and a strata of masters and slaves. Rousseau
epitome of perfect liberty, perfect equality opines that there are two premises on which
and perfect innocence. He also identifies a savage acts. Firstly, a human is driven by
it with a more peaceful, pleasant and the need of self-preservation and out of the
idyllic environment. The man in his state interest of his/her own welfare. Secondly,
of nature lived in solitude characterized by the fear of death. He finds the genesis of
a care-free living with no desires. Despite rationality and reason in this emotional
the inconsistency in terms of a settled consciousness. Rousseau is of the view of
life, and inarticulate speech, the life was that the humans by nature are incapable
shaped by contentment, independence, of thinking. Civil society is viewed as
self-sufficiency and prosperity. Absence antithetical to nature and it is apparently an
of wickedness paved the way for idyllic outcome of the march of human reason. He
happiness. As he says, “supreme bliss” was insists on the slogan of “returning to nature”.
the norm of the time. His demand for the retrospection to the
In due course, the status quo nature does not tantamount to a prescription
was threatened by changes in terms for the collapse of the newly woven social
of sophistication of human life. He fabric, but the rule of nature. Such a call
acknowledged a number of factors ranging necessarily unveils Rousseau’s revelation
from the divergences in climate, season and that it is the philosophy and reason that
soil to organized profession and private allured the human life to entropy.
property as responsible for challenging the Social Contract
sustenance of the state of nature. In the The idyllic character of the state of
view of Rousseau, human progress and nature was short-lived. The emerging template
rational advancement accompanied by the of human complexities defined by economic
revolution in the conduct of life and human advancement and social evolution facilitated
thought brought a new layer of evils in its only havoc. Humans were left with no
wagon. He identifies the origin of inequality alternative, but to constitute the civil state. It
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was materialized with the provision of social to be an agent of general will. Rousseau
contract. In the sixth chapter of the ‘Social holds that state is not just an amalgamation
Contract’ Rousseau says, “I assume that of individuals, but a new body with an
men have reached at a point where primitive inherent identity, personality and life of its
conditions can no longer subsist and the human own. Above all, the state possesses a will of
race would perish unless it changed its mode its own, what he terms as volente general or
of existence”. The state of nature is thriving general will. Any separate or particular will
on an individual’s pursuit of self-interest until shall be deemed to be subordinate to it.
a point wherein he/she realises that his/her The instinct-driven life of the state of
self-preserving prowess against the insecurity nature is replaced by a life of justice and
posed by others is not strong enough. Hence, morality in the new civil state. Individuals
the utility of social contract is to encompass lose their natural liberty and unlimited right
the prospects of security deriving from the to everything and in return they receive civil
collective association of individuals with liberty and property rights. He condemns
the element of liberty which was possessed the liberty of the state of nature as a falsity
until their entry into the contract. The next as it is nothing but an enslavement of
dilemma that grappled the individuals was the uncontrollable appetites. On the contrary,
question of force with respect to preservation. the moral liberty offered by the civil society
To him, men are incapable of creating any new make them the masters of themselves. In
forces but only redirect and guide that already his own words, “obedience to a law which
exist. Therefore, a concerted approach is what prescribe to our selves is liberty”. Unlike
recommended by him in this direction. Hobbes and Locke, Rousseau professes
Quotable
uote
a total surrender of the individual to the
sovereign community in pursuit of attaining
“Man is born free, and everywhere he is equality. His idea of individual delegation
in chains. One man thinks himself the of all the rights to the body-politic fosters
master of others, but remains more of a reconciliation between liberty and authority.
slave than they are”- Rousseau
Sovereignty
He also discards any form of authority Rousseau was particular about the
bereft of consent as volatile. In his own inalienable, indivisible, absolute and perpetual
words, “Authority of man over man can nature of sovereignty. To him, general
have no rational basis, save agreement and will was the sovereign. The assignment of
consent”. Rousseau’s equation for the civil administrative powers to certain people do
state can be summed as follows: “Each of us not make them the sovereign, but merely
puts his person and all his power under the subordinate agents. Any attempt on part of
supreme direction of the general will and the community to transfer all or a segment
in one corporate capacity, we receive each of its sovereignty to one of the agents shall
number as an indivisible part of the whole”. result in the descending of the body-politic.
Hence, the state thus formed is a moral body Sovereign was a party in Rousseau’s contract.
with a life and will of its own distinct from Furthermore, what he underscored was the
its members. The government is expected notion of popular sovereignty.
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General Will of conscience. Moreover, it is recognised

as right, altruistic, universal and based on
General will or the community is
common good.
identical to the state. People submit their
powers and personality under the command Assessment
of the general will. The individuals wills are Opinions are manifold about Rousseau’s
outweighed by the general will. Besides, personality and works. G. D. H Cole opined
sovereignty rests in the body-politic as a about his ‘Social Contract’ to be “still far
whole and it coincides with nothing, but by the best of all text-books of political
the general will. Given the residence of philosophy”. Lord Morley took up different
general will in the community, it imposes turn in expressing the status of Rousseau in the
the paramountcy and sovereignty of philosophical discourse by saying, “Would it
the people, i.e. popular sovereignty. He not have been better for the world if Rousseau
emphasises the transferability of power. had never been born?” He tries to say that the
The general will is not equivalent to the awful experiences of the French Revolution
will of all since the former considers the could be prevented if Rousseau had not lived as
common interest whereas the latter attaches the latter’s ideas were fundamental throughout
private interest into its fold. There are two the movement.
premises that determine the general will.
First, it seeks general good, which refers to His philosophy also traces a socialistic
the objective of will. Secondly, it must come background. Capitalism received an “ill-
from all and apply to all, which proposes treatment” in the hands of Rousseau. He also
its origin. General will lacks representative favoured the nationalization of education and
character as the representative bodies have opposed the notion of private property. Besides,
the tendency to develop particular interest his discourse accommodates absolutism and
of their own without paying heed to the authoritarianism as well. Under the pretext
concerns of the community. Ethical values of general will, he is virtually favouring
and right consciousness do not coincide with the “tyranny of majority”. Despite all these,
the will of all. General will is invariably the Rousseau deserves an irreplaceable position
manifestation of inner will and the product among the modern political philosophers.
7.8 John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873)

 To understand the Political
thought of J.S. Mill
 To know about Critique of
Utilitarianism, Liberty,
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Life and Works over the freedoms of individuals,

which could be legislatively enacted.
John Stuart Mill was born on 20 May
Informal mechanisms of social pressure
1806 in Bentonville, a northern suburb
and expectation could in democratic
of London to Harriet Barrow and James
societies could be all-controlling. Mill
Mill, a Scotsman who was educated at
expressed that such powers could have
Edinburgh University. The development
the capacity of stifling conformism in
of John Stuart Mill as a social and political
thought, character and action. In was in
thinker can be divided into three specific
this context that On Liberty was written.
periods. The first period represents
The aims of this work is written in the
the training that he received from his
first chapter which asserts one simple
childhood under both his father, James
principle. This principle states that
Mill and Jeremy Bentham. The second
“the sole end for which mankind are
period marks his recovery from his mental
warranted, individually or collectively, in
crisis which started in his early twenties,
interfering with the liberty of action of
with the termination and dissolution
any of their number, is self-protection”
of the philosophic radicals as a distinct
(Liberty: XVIII 223). Thus, the practical
party towards the end of the 1830s. It was
philosophy of this argument by Mill is
at this period that Mill refashioned his
primarily utilitarian.
thinking under a variety of intellectual
and emotional influences. The final In his ‘On Liberty’ Mill puts forward
period which extends to over thirty years different strategies to argue for freedom
of his career, marks the time in which he of thought and discussion, character,
published his major works that included, and action. Freedom of thought and
A System of Logic, Principles of Political discussion are discussed in chapter two
Economy, On Liberty and Considerations of On Liberty, where arguments against
on Representative Government. the control of expression are explained.
On Liberty Chapter three of On Liberty, puts
forward argument in favour of freedom
On Liberty (1859) brought Mill of Character (individuality) where such
enduring fame, and predicted that among arguments are two pronged. On the one
all his works, this was destined to survive hand Mill argues for freedom of space
the longest. The transformation of society for individuals which individuals should
from aristocratic to democratic forms have to develop their own character
of organization brought with it both while on the other, he maintains that it
advantages and disadvantages. It meant is best for society too. “Human nature is
rule by social masses that would be more not a machine to be built after a model,
powerful, uniform and omnipresent than and set to do exactly the work prescribed
the rulers of previous eras. Mill held that, for it, but a tree, which requires to grow
the dominance of the majority carried and develop itself on all sides, according
with it more risks that from a monarch to the tendency of the inward forces
that had the capacity to place restrictions which make it a living thing” (Liberty,
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XVIII: 263). Mill was of the opinion community, every citizen who not only
that mass society is self-repressive in have the right to at least occasionally be
nature which would lead to the sapping called on to take an actual part in the
of human energy and potential. The government by the personal discharge of
Victorian society he claimed was certain public function, local or general.
governed by an ethos of propriety based
Assessment
on Christian self-denial while in contrast
Mill encourages the Greek model of self- John Stuart Mill occupies a very
development. It is important for society important place in the history of political
to create conditions where individuals thought which was widespread in the
can develop their own ways of living. nineteenth century. His works emphasized
This will enable variety and diversity of the importance of human nature for
character and culture which will become the proper study and understanding
the engine of productive tension that will of the state. He developed his own
drive a nation forward. Mill’s insistence philosophy of franchise. Mill states that
throughout On Liberty, sought to casting one’s vote is as necessary for the
preserve the individual’s freedom against political animal as is the air that he or
the possibility of legislative or state she breathes. No other political thinker
coercion and also from the deceptive has been as emphatic as Mill in the
forms of social coercion. conception of voting. The influences
that utilitarianism had on Mill also were
Considerations on Representative
important in the formulation of his ideas
Government
on the principle of economy and that of
In 1861 Mill’s Considerations representative government where the
on Representative Government was freedom of the individual to develop his
published which contains his views capabilities should be never interfered
on politics. Mill was a convinced with. On each of these subjects Mill was
democrat, however, this work reveals his often provocative that no student of the
disappointment, doubts, and difficulties discipline can afford to ignore.
about self-government. His view is
paradoxical in nature where he views that
 Ut i l it ar i an i s m : Gre at e s t
the majority ought to rule but minority
happiness of the greatest numbers.
rule was probably right. He argued that
majority has power but the minority  Even though J.S. Mill has been
has wisdom. Mill in this work expresses brought under the guidance of
the dangers posed by the tyranny of utilitarian thinkers like James Mill and
the majority undertook to provide Jeremy Bentham, he gave a different
the criterion for good government. notion of utilitarianism.
He concluded that ideally the best
form of government was one that was
representative where the sovereignty
is vested in the entire aggregate of the
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7.9 Karl Marx (1818-1883) Second half of the 18th century

and 19th century witnessed the growth
of Socialism in Europe. This period
was also known as dual revolution era,
wherein politically France witnessed the
Revolution of 1789, which overthrew
absolute monarchy and republic was
proclaimed with liberty, equality and
fraternity declared the right of every
Frenchman. Second important revolution
during this period that had a long lasting
impact on Europe was the Industrial
Revolution. These two events had a major
Leanpub Learning Objectives impact on Marx’s work.

Works of Marx
of Karl Marx The Communist Manifesto
 To know about Karl Marx views on
Dialectical Materialism – Theory The history of all hitherto existing
of Surplus Value – Class Struggle society is the history of class struggle
And Revolution – Dictatorship of
The Proletariat – Withering away The Communist Manifesto (1848)
of The State – Assessment is a collaborative work of Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels. It was a product of the
social, economic and political turmoil
Introduction that characterized Europe before 1850.
This essay explains the social change
Karl Marx is one of the few
through revolution. The Communist
people who changed the way we see the
Manifesto goes on to argue that the nature
world. For Marx, any theory should
of that class struggle varies according
not only support in understanding the
to the nature of production. Hence in
world around, but be a step towards
feudal societies, where the main form
transforming the world. His works –
of production was agriculture, the class
Communist Manifesto, Materialistic
struggle was between those who owned
Conception of History and Das Capital,
the land and those who worked on it. In a
are a culmination of various economic
modern industry, the struggle is between
ideas, channelled towards the single goal
the bourgeoisie (factory owners) and the
of self- emancipation of working class. It
proletariat (workers in the factory). In
is important to know that, Marxism draws
reality the society as a whole is more and
many elements from earlier thinkers
more splitting up into two great hostile
like Hegel, Comte de Saint-Simon, J. C.
camps, into two great classes directly
L. de Sismondi, David Ricardo, Charles
facing each other – bourgeoisie and
Fourier, and Louis Blanc.
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proletariat. It is in this premise that Marx Friedrich Engels. In theory dialectical

and Engels vouch that “the history of all materialism provides both a general
hitherto existing society is the history of world view and a specific method for the
class struggle”. investigation of scientific problems. Marx
In conclusion the Communist and Engels look at every basic sections of
Manifesto simply places two ideas side society as materials and change in society
by side; “to raise the proletariat to the takes place only through “the struggle of
position of the ruling class” and “to win opposites”. Materialism principally dealt
the battle of democracy”. Marx in this with social world. The material world
work also emphases that the communist has always been in constant motion,
should aim to replace private property with contradictions and change. Marx believes
public control of all properties. Marx and that friction caused by constant motion
Engels may not have changed the world, in the society leads to contradictions
but they certainly changed the way we within the society, which eventually
interpret it. The historical significance of leads to change in the society. Dialectical
the Communist Manifesto is that virtually Materialism relates to the process of
all socialist parties, from the Communist change in the society.
Party of China to the Trotskyite sect,
owe a lesser or greater debt to the ideas ACTIVITY
expressed in its pages.
Das Capital Marx’s Work

Critique of Hegel
Marx’s masterpiece, Das Capital,
Philosophy of Right
the “Bible of the working class,” as it
was officially described was published The Holy Family
in 1867 in Berlin. Only the first volume Theses on Feuerbach
was completed and published in Marx’s The German Ideology
lifetime. The second and third volumes, The Communist Manifesto
unfinished by Marx, were edited by
Critique of the Gotha Program
Engels and published in 1885 and 1894.
Das Capital
The first volume deals with the process of
production of capital; the second volume
deals with the process of circulation Theory of Surplus Value
of capital; the third volume deals with Theory of Surplus Value, comes
the totality of the process of capitalist from the Das Capital. Karl Marx opines
production. that human labour was the source of
economic value, hence the term ‘surplus
Dialectical Materialism value’ denotes the difference between
Dialectical Materialism is a labour and labour power. The Capitalists
philosophical approach to reality derived gets surplus value for the extra labour that
from the teachings of Karl Marx and has been put in by the labourer. Surplus
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value is produced no matter how long the the former meant civil war in reality. Marx
working day is: even if the factory only emphasises that the class struggle leads to
ran for an hour the capitalist would still revolution, dictatorship of the proletariat
extract his quota of surplus labour and and the abolition of private production
therefore surplus value. The capitalist resulting in socialism.
pays his workers less than the value their
labour, and in most occasions usually Dictatorship of the Proletariat
only enough to maintain the worker at a Dictatorship of the Proletariat is a
subsistence level. phrase used by Karl Marx to refer to the
Class Struggle and Revolution assumption of state power by the working
class. For Marx, it is a transitional period
Class consciousness and struggle of permanent revolution between the
are related to the social relations of overthrow of bourgeois political rule
production. Marx does not look at class and a classless society. Of all Marx’s
as a factor of ideology, but as a person contribution to political thought, probably
who holds particular social status. The the “dictatorship of the proletariat” has
term class relates to ownership based on had the most profound implication for
property, for example bourgeoisie (person actual governance.
who owns means of production and also
the landowners) and proletariat (one who When the first group of the workers
sells labour for wages). class (proletariat) assert themselves over
the traditional ruling class (bourgeoisie)
Marx’s work on the “Class Struggle of capitalist forms of production is abolished
France”, in the years 1848 – 1850 assesses and the socialist forms of production takes
the arguments on the class struggle and the lead. Establishment of socialist forms
the need for revolution. Marx bases his of production results in the disappearance
idea of class conflict from the French of class groups within the society
Revolution of 1848. During this revolution eventually bringing about Dictatorship of
both bourgeoisie and proletariat fought the Proletariat.
together against the aristocracy and
succeeded in the proclamation of republic. Withering Away of the State
Having come to power with the support
of the proletariat during the February With the break-up of Society into
revolution, the bourgeoisie used the classes, and consequently into oppressed
election process to claim legitimacy of and oppressing groups, state becomes
their rule. The bourgeoisie class instead an instrument of exploitation. The class
of emancipating the working class of all conflict becomes even more intensive and
bondages increasingly alienated them. leading to the dictatorship of proletariat.
Signs of victory of the proletariat can be
The bourgeoisie on coming to power seen with the capture of the government.
started controlling the state and the army, “The proletariat will take control of the
and crushed the proletariat showing that State and converts the means of production
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into State production. Taking control of

the state and production, the proletariats,
destroy all class differences and class
antagonisms, and finally resulting in the Contemporary debates on Marxism
‘Withering Away of the State’. focus on relative importance of its basic
tenets and identification of some new
forms of dominations and conflicts
Assessment emerging in the present day society.
In 1852, Marx summarized his These debates led to the emergency of
contributions into three major sections: Neo-Marxism.
a. Classes (proletariat and bourgeoisie)

are not a permanent features of a society
Glossary
b. Class struggle leads to ‘dictatorship of
the proletariat’, resulting in workers Bourgeoisie: The capitalist class who own
taking control of production most of society’s wealth and means of
c. ‘Dictatorship of the proletariat’ would production.
lead to classless society and with the
Classless Society: The ultimate condition
differences vanishing from the society,
of social organization, expected to occur
the state eventually withers away.
when true communism.
The impact that Marxism had on
Dialectic: An enquiry into metaphysical
humanity can only be compared to the
contradictions and their solutions.
influence religion had on mankind.
Nearly half of the world population was Dictatorship of the Proletariat: In
influenced by Marxist ideology. While, Marxism, rule by the proletariat—the
Marx himself would have not followed economic and social class consisting of
everything he wrote, his writings did industrial workers who derive income
influence leaders like Lenin, Stalin, Mao solely from their labour—during the
transitional phase between the abolition
and others who used Marxist theories in
of capitalism and the establishment of
order to bring about change in countries
communism.
like Russia, China, Cuba, Vietnam, etc.
In the present era most of the erstwhile Enlightenment: A European intellectual
communist countries have become movement of the late 17th and 18th
democratic in nature. However, the society centuries emphasizing reason and
continues to witness class differences and individualism rather than tradition.
it is increasing every year. Hence, so long General Will: In political theory, a
there are capitalists and exploitation in the collectively held will that aims at the
society, Marx’s ideas can never be ignored common good or common interest.
or forgotten.
Glorious Revolution: The events of
1688–89 that resulted in the deposition of
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James II and the accession of his daughter Reformation: A 16th-century movement

Mary II and her husband, William III, for the reform of abuses in the Roman
prince of Orange and stadholder of the Church ending in the establishment of the
Netherlands. Reformed and Protestant Churches.
Individualism: A social theory favouring Romanticism: A movement in the arts
freedom of action for individuals over and literature which originated in the late
collective or state control. 18th century, emphasizing inspiration,
subjectivity, and the primacy of the
Majoritarianism: A form of democracy individual.
which upholds the rule of the majority.
State of Nature: In political theory,
Political Economy: It is a branch of social the real or hypothetical condition of
science that studies the relationships human beings before or without political
between individuals and society and association.
between markets and the state.
Statecraft: The skilful management of
Proletariat: The working-class people state affairs; statesmanship.
regarded collectively. Timocracy: A form of government in
Rationality: The quality of being based which possession of property is required
on or in accordance with reason or logic. in order to hold office.
Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer

1. Name the philosopher who wrote “The Republic”
a) Marx b) Aristotle
c) Plato d) St. Thomas Aquinas
2. Whose real name was “Aristocles”?
a) Socrates b) Plato c) Aristotle d) Xenophon
3. Who is called the father or Political Science?
a) Socrates b) Plato c) Aristotle d) Xenophon
4. Who is famously known as the Doctor of the Church?
a) St. Thomas Aquinas b) Plato c) Aristotle d) Xenophon
5. Who is the author of “Discourses on Livy”?
a) St. Thomas Aquinas b) Machiavelli c) Aristotle d) Xenophon
6. Who is the father of philosophical liberalism?
a) St. Thomas Aquinas b) Machiavelli c) Marx d) John Locke
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8. Who is the author of the work “Principles of Political Economy”?

a) St. Thomas Aquinas b) Thomas Hobbes c) John Stuart Mill d) Plato
9. Which work is called as the “Bible of the working class”?
a ) Principles of Political Economy b) Das Kapital
c) Theory of Surplus Value d) Class Struggle of France
10. Who promulgated the idea of “Dictatorship of the Proletariat”?
a ) Marx b) St. Thomas Aquinas
c) Thomas Hobbes d) John Stuart Mill
1. Who wrote the book ‘The Statesman’ and when was it written?
2. Who according to Plato would rule the Ideal State?
3. Thomas Aquinas write about which characteristics of gregarious animals.
1. Write a short note on Plato’s Idea of Justice.

2. How does Aristotle classify the state?
3. Write a short note on life and works of St. Thomas Aquinas.
4. How does Machiavelli separate politics and Morality?
5. Write a short note on Machiavelli’s statecraft?
6. Assess Hobbes State of Nature?
1. Analyse Plato’s works on Education, Democracy and Constitution.

2. Assess Aristotle’s engagement on function and classification of State.
3. Assess in detail Machiavelli approach to human nature.
4. Write a detailed note on John Locke’s state of nature and Social Contract Theory.
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Reference books
1. Barker, E, Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle, Methuen & Co., London, 1905.
2. Vivian Boland OP (2007) ‘St. Thomas Aquinas’, London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
3. Western Political Thought, Dr.O.P.Gauba, MacMillan Publishers India
Limited,Delhi,2011.
4. From Plato to Marx, Amal Kumar Mukhopadhyay, K.P. Bagchi & company, Calcutta,
2014.
5. Locke, John. The Second Treatise on Civil Government. Amherst, N.Y: Prometheus
Books, 1986.
ICT Corner
POLITICAL THOUGHT
will learn about Political
thinkers and their works.
GREAT THINKERS
Procedure:
Step - 1 Use the URL or QR code to open the GREAT THINKERS page, in which a list
of great political thinkers names are placed on the top right of the window.
Step - 2 Click on any name, a page which contains the details about the thinker will
open.
Step - 3 Click on the Biography button next to he Home button to know the detailed
biography of the thinker.
Step - 4 Similarly click on the consecutive buttons to explore more about the thinker
such as the works, commentaries on the works, explanatory videos etc.
GREAT THINKERS URL:

http://thegreatthinkers.org/plato/biography/
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UNIT
8 Political Ideologies – Part I
Introduction
Ideology refers to a set of inter-related ideas dealing with
politics, society and economy. Political ideologies are very
important in Political Science and are considered as heart and
soul of Political Science. They deal with the nature and origin
of the state, relationship between state and society, forms of
government, basis of state authority and sphere of state action.
Numerous ideologies operate in our subject.
Learning Objectives
 To understand the meaning compare and contrast Socialism with
and characteristics of Negative Communism.
Liberalism, Positive Liberalism and  To find out the meaning, emergence,
Libertarianism. theories, intra national and extra
 To identify the leaders and thinkers national challenges of Nationalism.
who are central to the ideology of  To analyse the causative factors of
Liberalism. Indian Nationalism.
 To know the thinkers, concepts, and ideas  To grasp the etymological origin, core
of communist stream chronologically in ideological features of Fascism.
the post Karl Marx period.  To have knowledge about the
 To comprehend the essence of emergence, meaning and core
different kinds of Socialisms and to characteristics of Nazism.
8.1 Liberalism western countries like United States of

Liberalism is the most important America, the United Kingdom, Canada,
ideology of modern political theory. and Germany adhere to the tenets of
It emerged in the 17th century and liberalism in politics and economy.
continues to be the most widely followed
Liberalism chronologically had
Idealogy in the contemporary world.
experienced three major phases. In
The etymology of the word liberalism
the first phase till 1930 it was called as
is from ‘Liber’ that means liberty. The
‘Negative Liberalism’. The second phase
supporters of the Spanish Constitution in
termed as ‘Positive Liberalism’ emerged
the 19th century made the word popular
after the Great Economic Depression and
by calling themselves as liberals. Now
lasted up to the 1970s. The third phase,
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known as ‘Libertarianism’ is followed by The State is a necessary evil. It is

major countries of the world for the last necessary for the protection of law and
four decades. order without which individuals cannot
realise their interests. Nevertheless, the
A. Negative liberalism
State is an evil as even its mere existence
Negative Liberalism is also known itself endangers the rights and liberties of
by many names like ‘Laissez Faire’ the individuals.
Liberalism and Classical Liberalism. John The State is a negative State as it is
Locke in his book ‘Two Treaties of Civil prohibited from carrying out
Government’ propounded the basic developmental activities. The State is
political principles of Negative Liberalism called as Laissez Faire State. Laissez Faire
that came to be implemented vigorously has its origin in the French language
in the USA. meaning ‘Leave Alone’. The State must
leave the individuals alone to pursue their
activities. Maintenance of law and order
and enforcement of legally made contracts
are the only functions assigned to the State
by Negative Liberalism.
ACTIVITY
John Locke, Father of Classical Where does India stand in

liberalism. The Equal Right to Life, the concept of liberalism after 1991
Liberty, and Property. economic reforms?
Thomas Paine, Montesquieu,

Jeremy Bentham are the other important Functions of State
proponents of Negative Liberalism. Negative Liberalism
Economically, Adam Smith advocated
Negative Liberalism in his book ‘An
Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Enforcement
Law & Order
Wealth of Nations’ of contracts
Essence of Negative Liberalism
Negative Liberalism considers man
as a rational, capable and masterless Police Army
individual. All human beings are equal
and free. Everyone knows their interests
and is endowed with the capacity to satisfy
their interests. Society is a mere aggregate
of freely existing individuals. There is no
necessity for State and society to interfere
or regulate the life of individuals.
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Economically, Negative Liberalism In this backdrop, Negative Liberalism

supports free market economy based changed into Positive Liberalism because of
on demand and supply. It prohibits the two important factors i.e. Democracy and
State from interfering with the economic Marxism. Nineteenth century witnessed
activities. The State is akin to a cricket the gradual spread of democracy whereby
umpire in its powers and functions. The the common people came to be provided
umpire does not play the game but watches with voting rights. They demanded
whether the players are playing the game fundamental changes in politics. The
in accordance with the laws of the game. second factor is the advent and rise of
Similarly the State should not interfere in Marxism that appealed to the workers
the economy as market alone determines to overthrow the exploitative inequality-
its activities. laden Negative Liberalism. Subsequently,
Negative Liberalism believes in the under pressure from democracy and
concept of natural rights. When Mother Marxism, Negative Liberalism changed
Nature created man, it endowed him with into Positive Liberalism.
basic rights that are called Natural Rights.
The State should not erode or undermine The liberal world experienced a
these natural rights. The Rights to Life, devastating Great Economic Depression
Liberty and Property are indispensable from 1928 affecting economies of
for human existence and development. numerous countries including United
Therefore, the State should never abolish States of America. The newly elected
or erode them. The Right to Property is American President Franklin Roosevelt
special to the proponents of Negative implemented the New Deal Programme
Liberalism. It is an unlimited right as all for uplifting American economy from the
individuals can acquire, enjoy and dispose quagmire of depression.
of property without interference from the
State. I pledge you, I pledge
myself to a new deal for
B. Positive Liberalism the American people.
Negative liberalism metamorphosed - Franklin
into Positive liberalism in the 20th D. Roosevelt
century. Even though Negative Liberalism
contributed to the generation of
unprecedented wealth in the western
countries it had also inflicted enormous J.M.Keyne, economic advisor to
pain on common people. Glaring the American President, played a crucial
inequalities among people, appearance role in the formulation of the programme
of slums in the cities and exploitation of signifying the advent of Positive
the workers exposed the deficiencies of Liberalism. A number of thinkers enriched
Negative Liberalism. Humanist thinkers the content of Positive Liberalism of which
like Ruskin protested against the misery T.H.Green, Harold Laski, L.T.Hobhouse
of the people. are important.
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Positive Liberalism brought out

Franklin D. Roosevelt was the the new concept of Social Welfare State.
longest serving President of the United This concept projects the State as a
States. He played a splendid role in the positive instrument for the promotion
development of the country by lifting it of social welfare. The role of the State is
out of the Great Economic Depression to provide social service to the people. It
through his New Deal Program. He should construct and maintain hospitals,
inspires millions of people even now. educational institutions, factories and
He was a heavily paralyzed polio industries, infrastructural facilities like
victim. The inspiring slogan in the
roads, railway tracks and ports. The
1932 elections was that here comes a
State also came to be known as Social
man on wheels to set America again on
Democratic State, a nomenclature that
the wheels of progress. He presents the
explains the significance of democracy in
winning spirit of positive personality
in the ocean of adversities in life. the constitution of a positive State.
Functions of State
Positive Liberalism
Fair Price
Education Health Industries Transport Shop
The rights of the people can be The economy must be regulated by the
modified so that the welfare of society can State so that alternate, painful appearance
be promoted. Positive liberalism supports of economic boom and depression can
a close relationship between rights and be averted. Progressive taxation can be
duties and argues for Social Welfare theory adopted by the State to generate resources
of Rights. Similarly, freedom is positive required for its social welfare activities.
in content. While Negative Liberalism Similarly, the State has power and
authority to adhere to economic strategies
expounded freedom from the State,
like bank nationalisation, minimum wages
Positive Liberalism recommends freedom
and reservation of industries as public
through the State. Freedom does not mean
sector to bring in the uplift of all sections
being free from the interference of the
of society.
State but adhering to the social welfare
activities of the State. Freedom through Positive Liberalism was followed in
the State and not from the State is their the western democracies for many decades
theme. from 1930s. But gradually philosophers
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and political leaders began to question the There is no such thing as

utility of a Social Welfare State propagated society: there are individual
by Positive Liberalism. They argued that men and women, and there are
State interference in society and economy families.
had precipitated a plethora of problems like
- Margaret Thatcher
industrial sickness, economic inefficiency,
lessened productivity, corruption, erosion
A number of political scientists have
of liberties of people and economic
advocated libertarianism. F.A.Hayek,
stagnation, therefore should be curtailed.
M.Oakeshott, Karl Popper, Milton
Friedman, Nozick and Nock are important
ACTIVITY among the supporters of libertarianism.
Self-Introspection
There is all the difference in the world
Identify the major functions of the
between treating people equally and
state that contribute to your life directly.
attempting to make them equal.
The government had provided you many
- Friedrich Hayek
services. From your own experience
prepare a list of services of the Social
Welfare State that you have benefited Libertarianism is a re-invention and
from. re-application of Classical Liberalism in the
second half of the 20th century and in the first
C. Libertarianism half of the 21st century. It believes in the worth
The third phase in the history of and importance of individuals. It advocates
liberalism is called as contemporary individual freedom as indispensable for the
Liberalism or Libertarianism. It emerged life of man. It staunchly supports the concept
in the western world after the end of of ‘Personal Autonomy’ whereby every
positive liberalism and gradually spread human being is provided with complete
to most parts of the political universe. freedom of choice to make decisions in their
The President of the United States Ronald life as they want. It restricts the domain of
Reagan implemented libertarian ideology the State to maintenance of law and order.
in his country from 1981 to 1989. Nozick famously coined the slogan ‘Minimal
State is Inspiring as Well as Right’. He
The first woman Prime Minister criticised any more functions of the State
of the United Kingdom Margaret as unjustified and unwarranted. Another
Thatcher was the political architect of proponent of Libertarianism, Oakeshort
libertarianism. The last president of Soviet commented that the government merely
Union Michel Gorbachev introduced the pursues peace.
two path-breaking reforms of Perestroika
(Restructuring) and Glasnost (openness)
Karl Popper described Plato as
that pushed the Soviet Union into the
a enemy of open society in his work
direction of libertarianism.
“Open society and its' enemies”.
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Functions of state
Positive Liberalism
Philosophers Leaders
P.V.
Friedrich Albert Jay Milton Ronald Margaret Mikhail
M. Oakeshott Narasimha
Hayek Nock Friedman Reagan Thatcher Rao Gorbachev
Albert Jay party system. The western nations

Nock, a Libertarian have attained these ideal socio-political
even went to the characteristics. They called for an end to
extent of titling his the Liberalism versus Marxism debate and
book “Our Enemy accepted that democracy is not merely a
the State” system of government but the good society
in operation. They praised democracy as
The libertarians argue that the increase the ideal means of conflict resolution and
in the functions of the State in the name governance.
of development and social welfare leads
inevitably to emergence of collectivism and But a set of thinkers collectively
resultant concentration of power in the described as “New Left” rejected the
hands of the State leading to the destruction validity of the End of Ideology concept.
of personal liberties of man. Though, the thinkers do not advocate any
class conflict like Marxism they sought
End of Ideology to improvise the tenets of Marxist State.
A few political thinkers and political The western societies also witnessed
sociologists in the 1950s had brought rise of the voice of many thinkers that
out the new concept of ‘End of Ideology’. demanded not the end of ideology but the
Daniel Bell who authored book ‘End of end of materialism that is implied in the
Ideology’ is the strongest proponent of end of ideology concept.
this concept along with the noted political
sociologist Martin Lipset. End of History
The American political thinker
They argue that the political and Francis Fukuyoma wrote the book ‘The
economic search of humankind had End of History and the Last Man’ in 1992.
reached its final destination with the He argued that history has ended with the
emergence of Liberal Democratic State or end of the Cold War and the victory of
Social Welfare State. The ideal system of liberalism over communism. The history
human life should be planted and rooted of mankind essentially composed of its
in the soil of welfare State, decentralised ceaseless search for the ideal political,
power, mixed economy and competitive social and economic system. The victory
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of Liberalism signifies the end of that India and libertarianism

human search for right ideology and the New Economic Reforms were
advent of post-ideological world. The introduced in India in 1991 heralding the
Liberal State and the Libertarian economy era of Liberalization, privatization and
represent the culmination of the social globalisation. They reflect the ideology of
economic and political evolution of Libertarianism. The State has withdrawn
humanity, therefore human history has itself from many economic and social
ended was the argument of Fukuyoma. activities. ‘Minimum Government and
The end of History Maximum Governance’ is the guiding
and the last man principle of the State. The State has
- Francis Fukuyama consciously shrunk its sphere of activities
encouraging private initiative through
measures like disinvestment. Under the
But many political scientists and
impact of libertarianism the planning
ideologies disagree with this. The post-
process was initially changed to the strategy
modernist thinker Derrida argued that
of Indicative Planning and recently the
liberal democracy is not the ideal political
planning Commission itself was replaced
system that solves the problems of man.
by a body called National Commission for
He said, “Never have violence, inequality,
Transforming India (NITI Aayog).
exclusion, famine, and thus economic
oppression affected as many human 8.2 Communism (Vladimir Lenin)
beings in the history of the earth and of
humanity as it happened in the times of
liberal democracy." Vladimir
The American political scientist Lenin died
Samuel Huntington propounded ‘The in 1924 and
Clash of Civilization’ theory as a counter the mortal
to Fukuyoma’s End of History thesis. remains are
Huntington argued that end of the Cold preserved in Lenin’s Tomb in Red
War has not resulted in the universal and Square in Moscow. The embalmed
permanent success of liberal democracy. body is regularly bathed in special
On the contrary, a new ideological chemicals and has been on public
rivalry has emerged between the two display. Earlier the government funded
major civilizations of the world, Western the finances needed for preserving the
Civilization and Islam that will dominate body and after the disintegration of
the politics of humankind in the 20th. He Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
contended that other civilizations of the preservation of the body is maintained
world will be sucked into the civilization through public donations. There are
clash between Western Civilization and intermittent calls for burying the
Islam, and therefore history has not ended coffin next to the resting place of
in the post-Cold War period, rather it has Lenin’s mother.
entered a new phase of confrontation.
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Vladimir Lenin was a revolutionary organs of the party organisation must

Marxist thinker who elect the members of the higher organs of
organized the October the party. The party units in villages must
Revolution of 1917 in elect the party units of the district and
Russia to implement the State units are to be elected by the district
ideas of Marxism. He units of the party and the central unit will
was the architect of the be elected by the State units.
communist country
called Union of Soviet The element of centralism in the
Socialist Republics (USSR) that consisted Communist Party means that the decisions
of 15 Republics. Lenin contributed to the of the higher unit must be accepted and
theoretical content of Marxism. implemented by the lower units. The State
units should accept the decisions of the
Communist party central unit and district units must obey
Lenin wrote in his work ‘What is the decisions of the State unit and the
to be done?’ his ideas of the Communist village unit ought to follow the decisions
Party. Marx had called for a communist of the district unit.
revolution to end capitalism and
exploitation and Lenin as his successor Democratic Centralism
developed the instrument of the party
General Secretary
to carry out the proletariat revolution.
He said the party should be formed Politburo
De c
t i on
in every industry and factory by a
i s i on
Central Unit
E lec
small group of workers who possess
s
knowledge of Revolutionary Marxism. State Units
They must possess qualities and abilities
District Units
like dedication, commitment and hard
work. The members of the Communist Village & Town Units
Party should mobilize the workers
ideologically to conduct the revolution.
Lenin asserted that the party must be in Imperialism
the vanguard of the proletariat that is the Imperialism refers to the system
forefront of the Proletariat Revolution. where European countries subjugated
and exploited the Asian and African
It was expounded that the
countries through military conquest and
Communist Party should be organised
force. Lenin expounded a new insight
on the basis of an innovative concept
linking imperialism and capitalism in his
called Democratic Centralism. As the
book ‘Imperialism. The Highest Stage
name indicates there are two features
of Capitalism’. He argued that capitalism
in the organisational structure of
had not faced self- destruction as Marx
the Communist Party, democracy and
predicted. The capitalist countries exploit
centralism. Democratically, the lower
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the subjugated Asian and African countries Karl Marx said, ‘The working men have
and through this looted wealth capitalism no country’. Lenin also continued in the
sustains itself in their home countries. There same vein and considered the October
should be two revolutionary struggles, Revolution of 1917 in Russia as a
one the struggle of Asian-African countries springboard to global revolution.
against the imperialist Europe and another Stalin makes a fundamental change
revolutionary struggle of working class in Marxism through the Socialism in
in the western countries. Once these two One Country concept. He claimed to have
struggles become successful, the two inter developed his idea from Lenin’s statement
-linked exploitative forces of capitalism that socialist revolution can emerge in even
and imperialism will be destroyed one country as detailed in the work ‘On
and communist society of equality and the Slogan for a United States of Europe’.
fraternity will be born internationally. The central theme of this concept is that
socialism can be successfully established
Joseph Stalin
in Russia alone. Russian socialism is
threatened by a capitalist encirclement as
Nationalist in form; the western enemy capitalist countries
Socialist in Context. avowedly endanger the existence of
- Joseph Stalin communist USSR. Stalin advocated
the consolidation and strengthening
of USSR so that it can withstand the
capitalist threat postponing the task of
Joseph Stalin was the general organising an international communist
secretary of The Communist Party and revolution to a more appropriate period
Premier of Union of Soviet Socialist in the future. This thesis was accepted as
Republics in the post-Lenin phase up to the State policy of USSR and also by the
1953. He introduced a major ideological Communist International organization.
component in Marxism called Socialism
Leon Trotsky criticized Stalinist
in One Country. The seed of the idea was
socialism and reiterated the concept
first brought out by another communist
of permanent revolution advocated by
theoretician Nikolai Bukharin.
Karl Marx. He called for the export of
Marxism rejected nationalism and communist revolution to other countries
supported universalism. It attacked of the world to achieve international
nationalism as a bourgeois concept and communism and cautioned that otherwise
appealed to the workers of the world to communism within USSR itself will
unite and fight to establish communism collapse.
as seen in the last lines of Marx book
Mao Zedong
‘The Communist Manifesto’. The ultimate
goal of Karl Marx was the formation of Mao Zedong was one of the greatest
international socialist society through the Marxist theoreticians and practitioners in
instrument of world proletariat revolution. the history of the world. He was one of the
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founders of the Communist Party of Chinese conditions. Mao contended that

China and conducted the Communist the masses should not be separated from
Revolution in 1949, leading to the the revolutionary party in the domains
establishment of the People’s Republic of of both policy and struggle. They should
China. be integral to the Communist Party and
the guiding principle is ‘from the masses
All political power comes to the masses’.
from the barrel of a gun.
People’s War and Guerilla War
-Mao Zedong
Mao believed in the ‘revolutionary
struggle of the vast majority of people
against the exploiting classes and their
Signification of Marxism State structure’. He propagated the idea of
Mao introduced certain changes People’s War. He suggested the intensive
in Communism to make it suitable for mobilization of the millions of peasants
China. The modification of communism as part of the People’s War as they are
to reflect Chinese realities is described as the worst victims of feudalism and
Signification of Communism. imperialism. The ideal strategy of war
was to surround the cities by capturing
Peasantry-led Revolution
the rural landscape with the help of
Karl Marx predicted that mobilized peasants.
Communist Revolution will be seen only
in west European countries that are fully Mao believed in the unconventional
industrialised and where workers are guerilla warfare. As a strategy it had three
numerous and organised. But China in stages. In the first stage, the Communist
the decade of 1940s was an agricultural cadre will win the people through
and industrially backward country. Karl propaganda. In the second stage, the
Marx never considered that the peasants cadre will ambush and attack the military
as a class have revolutionary potential as and vital State installations. In the third
they are conservative and reactionary. stage, the cadre will act as a conventional
Mao organized the peasants of China and army fighting the army of the State and
succeeded in overthrowing the feudal capturing cities after inflicting defeat.
exploitative State heralding the arrival Mao also taught that any of three stages
of communism. Mao’s success in China can be used any time depending on the
provided a revolutionary model for the circumstances.
other agricultural countries of Asia and
Africa. Let Hundred Flowers Bloom
Mass line The Communist Party of China

Leninist concept of the Communist conducted the Hundred Flower Campaign
party as the vanguard of the revolutionary in the second half of 1950s and the
struggle was modified by Mao to suit chairman Mao said “Let the hundred
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flowers bloom. Let the hundred schools of Cultural Revolution

thought contend”. He considered each Mao launched the Grand Proletarian
thought as a flower and argued that all Cultural Revolution in 1965-66 to
schools of thought must be allowed to exterminate’ representatives of the
bloom. The clash of thoughts will lead to bourgeoisie who have sneaked into the
the defeat and destruction of the rotten party, the government, the army and
and obsolete ideas and better ones will various spheres of culture’ and destroy
endure competition and become the ‘Four Olds’ — old ideas, old customs,
successful. The ancient philosophy of old culture and old habits. The stated
Confucianism underwent this conflict of aim of the revolution was to save the
ideas test many centuries ago and came Chinese communism from becoming
out successful. Though the State welcomed a victim of bureaucratization induced
constructive criticism in the beginning, by industrialization like the western
the campaign got derailed later as countries and USSR. The actual backdrop
contention among ideas threatened the was provided by the Great Leap Forward
Communist Party of China itself. Campaign.
'The Hundred Flowers Campaign'
Mao implemented forcefully
Where does the term originate?
industrialization and collectivization
Let a hundred flowers as part of this campaign from 1958 to
blossom, let a hundred 1962 to rapidly change China from
school of thought contend'
agricultural economy to socialist system.
But, unfortunately, it resulted in the
What does it actually mean???
advent of the Great Chinese Famine
It means 'to allow free
expression and criticism'.
killing millions of people. To reclaim the
An Ancient Chinese Mao used this expression authority and legitimacy of the leader
Philosopher - the when, in 1956, he invited and the party cultural revolution was
expression comes Chinese people to assess
the performance of the
launched. It was argued that even after the
from a traditional
poem. communist party, and to establishment of communism the class
offer it advice. struggle continues and intensifies and to
weed out the communist enemies, Red
Guards were organized. The members
Cultural Revolution - 1960 of the Red Guards adopted repressive
Mao wished measures against the class enemies even
to regain power he jailing the Chinese President. The role of
lost in the Great the State and party was taken over by the
Leap Forward and paramilitary organization.
create another New Democracy
revolutionary movement. Created the
Red Guard from the Chinese youth - Marxism believed that the State is an
Students, peasants, soldiers. instrument of exploitation of the workers
by the capitalists and workers and capitalist
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are always antagonistic towards each Antonio Gramsci

other. Mao modified this fundamental Antonio Gramsci, the
feature of Marxism. He propounded the famous Italian Marxist,
concept of New Democracy. He created a introduced the concept of
new alliance in which the peasantry, the hegemony to explain the
proletariat, the petty bourgeoisie and the operation of the capitalist
national bourgeoisie became members. State. Hegemony means
Subsequently, Mao declared the formation intellectual and moral leadership. The State
of a new kind of State called People’s manufactures the consent of the people
Democratic Dictatorship. through intellectual and moral leadership.
The working class and peasantry It tries to create a false consciousness
were provided with key positions in the among people through propaganda.
State. The petty bourgeoisie and national
bourgeoisie were accorded with junior
Gramsci was one of the most creative
partner status. The People’s Democratic modern political thinkers. But he was
Dictatorship guaranteed democracy for imprisoned by Fascism in the prime of his
the general people while simultaneously life. The judge convicted him on wrong
acting as dictatorship over the enemies grounds because of the pressure of Fascist
of the people especially those who were government. While in the prison Gramsci
described as ‘running dogs of imperialism’. wrote his thoughts on any available piece
In ideal Marxism, the workers and of paper and that was smuggled out of the
bourgeoisie are adversaries but New prison and therefore his writings are titled
Democracy treated them as partners. "Prison Notebooks".
Its ideas are repeatedly driven into the

It Doesn’t matter if a cat
minds of the people. Only when it fails to
is black or white, so long
create the consent of the people, it starts using
as it catches mice
brutal force to carry out its activities. Gramsci
Deng Xiaoping
also argues that, to destroy the capitalist
State, the revolutionaries should use organic
Maoism continues to be the ruling intellectuals and the Communist Party. The
ideology of the People’s Republic of China organic intellectuals will analyze the strength
in the twenty first century in a changed of the State and elucidate the means of
milieu. The paramount leader Deng destroying the State. The Communist Party
Xiaoping introduced massive changes in will carry out the revolution and establish the
Chinese economy after 1978. Its economy ideal state of communism.
has been infused with liberalization and
globalisation modifying fundamentally All men are intellectuals: but
the communist economy of Mao period. not all men have in society
But politically, the Communist Party of the function of intellectuals.
China continues to exercise monopoly - Antonio Gramsci
of power.
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Neo Marxism Structural Marxism

A group of philosophers who were Structural Marxism propounded by
associated with the Frankfurt Institute for
the French philosopher Louis Althusser
Social Research in Germany developed new
and Nicos Poulantza is a new school of
insights into Marxism that are described as
Marxism that emerged in the 1970s. It
Neo Marxism or Critical Theory. The
repudiated the arguments of Instrumental
important philosophers of this school are
Marxism. Althusser debated with Ralph
Herbert Marcuse, Jurgen Habermas and
Miliband and asserted that the class origin
Theodor Adorno. Though there are great
and position of the administrators is
differences in their writings all of them
uniformly protested against the systems of purely incidental and has no significance.
domination and exploitation. They focused Regardless of class origin of officials the
on understanding the hidden roots and state is bound to aid exploitation because
layers of domination. They concentrated on of its objective or structural position in
preparing the masses for revolutionary the economic system.
transformation by augmenting their true
consciousness. They propounded the Louis Althusser
attitude to question the socio-cultural Louis Althusser introduced further
practices in all societies that perpetuate innovations in the Marxist concept of
domination over the masses. Their writings state. He argued that the capitalist State
can be characterised as counter-culture has two kinds of coercive instruments to
aiming for the emancipation of the masses. safeguard itself.
ACTIVITY They are;

After studying the different leaders 1. Repressive State Apparatuses
of communism do you think Karl Marx’s 2. Ideological State Apparatuses.
stateless society is possible?
The Repressive State Apparatuses
Instrumental Marxism include police, military, law courts etc.
Ralph Miliband is the main They are repressive as they punish the
proponent of Instrumental Marxism. This people when their orders are not obeyed.
school of thought takes an instrumental The Ideological State Apparatuses include
perspective of the state. The officials of family, schools, colleges, the media and
the government and state come from the trade unions. The State creates consent
same background as the property or ruling and support from people by ideological
class. They have personal contact with the indoctrination, without violence.
members of the ruling class. Therefore
the state is used as an instrument by Ideology... is indispensable in any
society if men are to be formed,
officials and the members of the ruling transformed and equipped to
class to perpetuate exploitation and to respond to the demands of their
conditions of existence.
manufacture the ideological consent of
- Louis Althusser
the people for their hegemony.
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8.3 Socialism association of producers termed as

phalanges. Both Saint Simon and Charles
Socialism is an ideology that
Fourier appealed to the conscience of the
supports public ownership of property
capitalists to improve the miserable state of
and natural resources. It is fundamentally
the workers. These three notable theorists
opposed to Liberalism that believes in the
advocated ideas in favour of the workers
private ownership of property. There are
in 19th century. Karl Marx described their
many kinds of socialism like democratic
thoughts as Utopian Socialism as they
socialism, evolutionary socialism, Fabian
provided only a superficial understanding
socialism, guild socialism etc. The terms
of capitalism and their alternative schemes
‘Socialism’ and ‘Communism’ are at times
are wishful and utopian in nature. He
interchangeably used. But Karl Marx
claimed that, in contrast his communism
introduced a distinction by describing
is based on scientific understanding of
his socialism and ideology as scientific
capitalism meriting the name of Scientific
socialism and other prevailing kinds as
Socialism.
Utopian socialism.
B. Democratic Socialism
A. Utopian Socialism
Democratic Socialism as the
Many thinkers in the 19th century nomenclature indicates combines the two
had questioned the negative consequences systems of socialism and democracy to
of liberalism. They strove to protect the provide a unique political and economic
interests of the working class. Robert Owen system to promote equality and freedom.
was an industrialist and a philanthropist. It differs from Marxism in its conception
He started the cooperative movement of the State. It believes that the State is not
and experimental socialist communities an instrument of exploitation of workers
in England to realise betterment in the by the capitalists. Rather, the State is an
conditions of the workers. He associated instrument of social welfare. The State
the workers in the management of his must be made democratic. All classes
industries and showed that profits can be in society own the State. Socialism can
increased by the joint endeavour between be established only through the State. It
workers and employers. He appealed to will not and should not wither away as
the reason of the fellow capitalists to take Marxism predicted.
into account the welfare of the working
classes.Saint Simon, a French industrialist Democratic Socialism argues that
and thinker, argued that the welfare of socialism can be established through
the working class must also be taken into evolutionary and peaceful means. It’s
consideration for realising an efficient methodology of change characterized as
economy and effective society. gradualism or ballot box socialism. It
dismisses revolutionary, violent struggle
Charles Fourier, another French as unnecessary. Democratic Socialism
thinker, suggested the socialist argues for harmonious relationship
reconstruction of the society by forming among classes and class differences must
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be solved through peaceful methods. The "Revolutions have never

right to property need not be abolished. lightened the burden of
Rather for the sake of social welfare the tyranny. They have only
right to property must be limited. shifted it to another soul"
There are crucial differences between - George Bernard Shaw
Marxism and Democratic Socialism.
Many basic concepts of Marxism are
either modified or rejected by Democratic Jawaharlal Nehru while in England,
Socialism. Nevertheless, both have certain was inspired by Fabian Socialism.
similar goals like ending the exploitation
Fabianism believed that socialism
of workers and promoting equality among
and democracy are complementary and
people.
supplementary to each other. They are to
C. Fabian Socialism be appreciated as noble ideals of equality
and justice are dearer to them. The Fabians
Fabian Socialism was the British
did not advocate the abolition of private
version of socialism propagated by the
property. On the contrary, they supported
Fabian Society from 1884. They chose
existence of limited right to property
the nomenclature Fabianism inspired
governed by the principle of social welfare.
by the great Roman General Fabius who
was historically famous for adopting the
Fabianism as an evolutionary
military strategy of ‘wait and hit hard
socialism rejected Communist
at the right moment’. Sidney Webb and
revolutionary methods of change. It
Sidney Oliver and H G Wells brought
supported peaceful methods of change in
out the ideology of Fabianism. English
society. The Fabian ideologues depended
playwright George Bernard Shaw was one
on persuasion tactics to realize socialism.
of the greatest proponents of Fabianism.
D. Evolutionary Socialism
As an ideology Fabianism attacked
capitalism as an exploitative system and Evolutionary Socialism was initially
advocated a thorough reorganization advocated by Lassalle, one of the earliest
of economy and politics of their leaders of the German Social Democracy
contemporary period. It expressed its tradition. The ideals of Evolutionary
resolute support for democratic State. Socialism were formally expounded in the
There are two important attributes of the Gothe Programme in 1875, an important
Fabian State. Firstly, it should be based document in the evolution of socialism in
on decentralization of power. Secondly, Germany and Europe. Later on, Eduard
it should be led by experts. Fabianism Bernstein wrote the book ‘Evolutionary
rejected Marxist call for the abolition of Socialism’ that attracted the many
the State. It wanted the State to exist on supporters like Jaures in France, Anseele
the foundations of decentralized power in Italy, Bauer in Austria. It argues for
and expert leadership to promote social an evolutionary change in capitalism. It
welfare. believes that along with economic factors
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non-economic factors are also important a governing council at the district, State
to explain human life. Democratic and national-levels to administer the
Socialism and Evolutionary Socialism system. A national-level confederation of
are inter-related. Marxism attacked guilds will govern the country.
Evolutionary Socialism as ‘revisionism’
and ‘broker’s view of socialism’. Guild Socialism does not call for the
destruction of the State. It endows the
E. Guild Socialism State with certain common functions like
providing education and health services
It is a kind of evolutionary socialism
to the people. Guild Socialism supported
that emerged in Great Briton in the first
the principle of gradualism to bring about
two decades of the 20th century. The
changes in the existing capitalist system.
English political thinker and the founder
It abhorred the revolutionary methods
of National Guilds League in England, D
of struggle associated with Marxism. All
H Cole was the leading advocate of this
changes in society should be brought
brand of socialism. He wrote the book
through peaceful and democratic means.
‘Guild Socialism: A Plan for Economic
This was a cardinal principle of Guild
Recovery’ to propagate the tenets of Guild
Socialism.
Socialism. Guild Socialism criticized the
exploitation of workers by the capitalists Though Guild Socialism was laudable
in the western world and arose as a protest in its commitment to the welfare of
ideology against capitalism workers it was criticized as an impractical
alternative. Its attempt to reduce the State
The word guild refers to the
to the position of an ordinary guild was not
association of craftsmen and artisans of
accepted by many political theorists who
a particular profession in the medieval
asserted that the weakened state of Guild
period in Europe. It acted as a source
Socialism cannot maintain law and order
of mutual support, as a medium to pass
and protect its people from invasions and
on the professional knowledge to new
insurrections.
entrants. Guild Socialism combines the
medieval guild with modern socialism and F. Socialism in India
envisages a political organization in which
organized workers-based associations will The Indian kind of socialism is
discharge most of the political functions. known as Socialistic Pattern of Society that
This ideology believes that in any society was adopted by the Indian State in the mid
there are numerous professions, trades 1950s. Provision of all basic necessities
and occupations and a member of one to all people irrespective of caste, creed,
profession cannot represent the interests religion, race and gender and elimination
and welfare of members of another of poverty, inequality and illiteracy are the
profession and therefore every profession objectives of Indian Socialism. Parliament
must have its own organization. All such passed a resolution for the establishment
organizations must come together to form of Planning Commission In 1950. The
strategy of Five Year Plan was implemented
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to promote development with socialist Rights and made it an ordinary right

content from 1951. We adopted a Mixed in Part XII of the Constitution. The
Economy where both private and public Directive Principles of State Policy in
sectors were allowed to operate. We Part IV of the Constitution contains
provided the commanding heights of the many provisions that are designed to
economy to the public sector to achieve promote socialistic objectives like Right
development and equality. to Work and avoidance of concentration
The 42nd Constitutional of wealth in the hands of a few people.
Amendment Law introduced socialism as India had adhered to socialism from the
an official feature of the Preamble of our year of independence to 1991 when we
Constitution. The 44th Constitutional launched our New Economic Reforms
Amendment Act removed the Right to that favored liberalisation, privatisation
Property from the list of Fundamental and globalisation.
Differences between Communism and Socialism
Communism Socialism
1. Revolution is the mid-wife of change 1. Evolutionary changes are more enduring
and beneficial
2. The state is an instrument of exploitation of 2. The state should not be abolished. It should
the property-less class by the rich class and be made more democratic and social
therefore should be abolished welfare oriented.
3. Class struggle is the fundamental force of 3. Violent class struggle is unnecessary.
change in human history.
4. The right to private property must be 4. T he right to private property must be
abolished. modified and limitations must be imposed
for social welfare
5. Historical materialism can explain human 5. Historical Materialism is not adequate
history. Economy alone drives human to explain human history. Apart from
history. economy, other factors like culture, politics
and religion are also important to explain
human history
8.4 Nationalism values and traditions. It is based on a
consciousness that exalts the nation above
Meaning, Emergence and Spread
other categories and factors of social life.
Nationalism refers to an ideology It strongly believes that the individual’s
that promotes loyalty, affection and loyalty and commitment to the nation
devotion to a particular nation. It creates should override their attachments with
attachments among people to a common any group interest. Ernest Gellner, an
homeland, a common language, ideals, important theorist wrote the book ‘Nations
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and Nationalism’. He defined nationalism that the people of a particular language,

as “primarily a political principle that region, religion, race etc have developed
holds that the political and the national a great intra-group affinity as they
unit should be congruent”. Nationalism inhabit together since ancient period.
is a modern concept. It emerged first in They develop a strong ethnic identity and
England and later on diffused to other loyalty. They demonstrate the qualities of
countries of Western Europe like France, affection, sentiments and attachments.
Germany aided by French Revolution. They may not exhibit ostensibly sufficient
social interactions as part of their affinity.
The North American colonies
Nevertheless the primordial identities are
revolted and formed their own nationalism
powerful having even coercive impact
in opposition to Europe. The African and
on their lives. The primordial theory of
Asian nations witnessed the emergence
nationalism is grounded on the concept of
of a new kind of nationalism called post-
ethnic nationalism.
colonial nationalism as a result of anti
colonial struggle. Many factors contributed Socio-biological Theory of Nationalism
to the emergence and diffusion of This theory considers nationalism as
nationalism throughout the world and the emotional attachments of a group of people
notable ones include capitalism, French who identify with and agree on a common
Revolution, industrialization, World Wars descent. The people consider themselves
and colonialism. as belonging to an extended family. For
them, the nation is the family writ large.
Theories of Nationalism
Nationalism is a blend of both rationalism
There are many theories of and irrationalism. It is a ‘primitive mind
nationalism that can be listed as with modern techniques’. As for as the
roots are concerned nationalism relies on
P
rimordial Theory of Nationalism the past. But on its relations with other
 S ocio-biological Theory of Nationalism groups it is contemporary. Nationalism
 S ocial communication Theories shows the face of ethno centrism towards
M
arxian Theory of Nationalism the members of the group and xenophobia
 Post-ideological Theory of nationalism to the members of the other groups and
nations.
These theories can be divided into
perennial theories and modernization Post-Ideological Theory of Nationalism
theories. The first two theories can be A number of theorists propounded
categorized as perennial theories and the the post-ideological theories of
last three are designated as modernization nationalism. Anthony Giddens, Paul Brass
theories. and Michael Mann are the main authors
Primordial Theory of Nationalism of this theory. They differ greatly in their
The word primordial means existing expositions about the origin and nature of
at or since the beginning of the world. nationalism but a fundamental similarity
The theory of primordialism considers exists as all of them identify State as the
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most paramount factor in the evolution and intensely with one another than with
and operation of nationalism. They people outside the group’. He examined
argue that though nations and nationalist the data from different streams of
sentiments existed in the medieval period, knowledge like economics, history and
nationalism blossomed fully only in the demography and arrived at the conclusion
modern period with the emergence of the that communication played the role of
modern State. Anthony Giddens argued a parent in the birth of nationalism and
that the advent of French Revolution nationality. The development of effective
engineered the birth and growth of internal communication linked all people
nationalism all over Europe. in the country and created the feelings of
moral and political identity contributing
Michael Mann articulated that there
to the emergence of nationalism.
are four sources of social power. They are
1) Ideological power 2) Economic power Anderson described the nation as an
3) Military power and 4) Political power. imagined community and nationalism as
These four sources, often in combination its life force. He wrote the book ‘Imagined
acted historically to produce nationalism Communities’ and argued that the nation
in different periods. The ideological factor is an imagined community exiting only in
in the form of religion promoted the birth the mind, imagination of the people. The
of infant nations as in the case of England members of a nation do not see, talk and
in the 16th century. The second phase know all the other members of the nation.
saw the economic, especially commercial Yet, they consider all other members as
power contributing to the birth of their own people.
nationalism in Western Europe. The
military power influenced the origin of When a cricket match is played, lakhs
nationalism in the third phase and finally of spectators in the ground and people
political power shaped the evolution of before the TV sets perceive each other as
nationalism. members of the same community sharing
joy and sorrow at the victory and defeat
The central argument of these of the team. Similarly the Tomb of the
theorists belonging to post-ideological Unknown Soldier is another example for
theory of nationalism is that the modern the concept of imagined community. The
State along with commercial capitalism people do not know personally the soldier
initially created and influenced the growth whose body is buried in the tomb but all
of nationalism. compatriots have emotional attachment
Communication Theory of Nationalism with the tomb.
Karl Deutsch and Benedict Anderson Anderson contends that the
are among the important theorists of capitalism and the discovery of the
communication theory of nationalism. printing press played a crucial role in
Deutsch defined nation as ‘as a group of the emergence of nationalism. After the
people who communicate more effectively discovery of the printing press, books
were printed and sold in large volumes in
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the vernacular languages of the period like feelings of the workers. “Nationalist
English, French and German. Millions of consciousness is quintessentially a
the people for the first time in history had false consciousness deliberately
the opportunity of reading books in their created perpetuate and legitimize class
own languages. As they read the same text exploitation”. Marx commented, ‘The
and matter they developed in their minds Proletariat has no fatherland’. He issued
the same thoughts and ideas leading to the a clarion call in the ‘The Communist
creation of the idea of community in their Manifest’ to the workers of the world to
minds. Capitalism helped in the process conduct revolution for ending capitalism
of creation of imaginary community. The and establishing socialism all over the
capitalists wanted to earn profits and world. He favoured internationalism and
printed books in large quantities and sold opposed nationalism. Michael Hechter,
them. The print capitalism (the combined Miroslov Hroch and Tom Narim are the
forces of capitalism and printing press) important Marxist theorists to analyze
contributed to the advent of nationalism nationalism.
in the minds of the people. Indian Nationalism
“The fellow members of even the smallest Indian nationalism emerged in the
nation will never know most of their second half of the 19th century. All Indians
fellow members, meet them, or even hear began to think of nationalist feeling
of them, yet in the minds of each lives the transcending their religious, regional,
images of the communion…… linguistic, ethnic differences and barriers.
Communities are to be
distinguished, not by their There are two kinds of factors responsible
falsity or genuineness, but for the emergence of Indian nationalism.
in the style in which they are They are internal and external factors.
imagined.”
India has been a subcontinent of
- Benedict Anderson pluralism, pluralism in culture, religion,
languages and traditions yet the Indians
Marxist Theory of Nationalism share a common history and have been
Marxism considers nationalism as accommodative of each other. This
an offspring of capitalism. Nationalism unique feature of India is defined as unity
was created by capitalism to protect the in diversity. In the past, India lacked
exploitative capitalist order. Karl Marx political unity, yet Indians have nurtured
contended that the ruling ideas are a culture of peaceful co-existence.
essentially the ideas of the ruling class
Externally, the impact of British
that owns the means of production. The
colonial rule facilitated the growth of
capitalist class possesses private property
Indian nationalism. The major forces are;
and indulges in the exploitation of the
property-less class. Nationalism was A. Colonialism carried out the
conceived and created by the bourgeois political, administrative, economic and
class for its own benefit to numb the communication unification of India. India
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was a politically divided subcontinent in E. Racialism of British rulers and

eighteenth century with over 700 different authorities created bitterness among
territories and rulers. The British unified Indian people. Indian nationalism grew
them into one country. India followed as a protest movement against the racial
village-based economy. Colonialism humiliation of Indian people in the colonial
introduced modern economy and market period. They reacted against the concept
system unifying the country economically. of the White Man’s Burden flaunted by
the colonial rulers. It refers to idea that
The British rule introduced modern means
the white people are the most advanced
of communication like railways, telegraphs,
and civilized race in the world and their
uniform postal system-making transport and
mission in India is to civilize the Indian
movement of people, goods and ideas easier
people. Indian leaders repudiated this
and faster throughout the subcontinent. The
racial myth and mobilized Indian people
newly unified India in the 19th century was
through the medium of nationalism.
conducive for the emergence of the modern
political force called nationalism. F. The patently exploitative and
B. Western education was introduced flagrantly arrogant rule of the Governor
in India by colonialism. Indians learned General Lord Lytten spurred the faster
modern political ideas like liberty, equality, emergence of Indian nationalism. He
sovereignty in the classrooms and demanded imposed discrimination on Indian
that our motherland should be empowered vernacular press. Measures were taken
with those modern political values. to promote the import of goods from
C. English became the lingua franca England and to restrict the export of
of India during colonialism. India is a Indian goods to England. No active relief
polyglot nation as it speaks more than was provided by the colonial government
a thousand languages and political when millions of people suffered and
unity was derailed. In this backdrop the even died under severe drought. There
English language became the language was an unnecessary war with Afghanistan
of communication among nationalists in which thousands of Indian soldiers
facilitating the growth of nationalism. died. Indian nationalism grew as a result
of anger against the maladministration of
D. The 19th century witnessed Lord Lytten.
the emergence of many socio-religious
reform movements like Brahmo Samaj G. Lord Ripon was a notable
of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Prarthana Governor General of India. Along with
Samaj, etc. They strove to sow the seeds the Law Member Ilbert, the Governor
of renaissance and reform in Indian General introduced a Bill granting powers
society. They also revived the memories of to Indian judges to sit in the trial of cases
centuries-old great Indian civilization even involving Europeans. There was a huge
while articulating the need for reforming protest organized by racist people and the
Indian society and eliminating evils like government was forced to backtrack on
sati, caste system and untouchability. its proposal. Indians were disappointed
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at the behaviour of Europeans in India. the world in terms of economy, trade,

The Ilbert Bill controversy taught Indians technology, culture and institutions. The
the art and science of political agitation contemporary world is dominated by the
against the negative actions of the ascendency of globalisation process. The
government. These factors created the barriers between and among nations are
conditions for the conclusive emergence being undermined by the onward march
of Indian nationalism in the 19th century of globalisation. Economically, multi-
that powered the Indian struggle for national corporations have established
independence. their production and sale units across
Challenges before Nationalism many countries and continents. They
employ people belonging to different
Nationalism faces a host of challenges
countries and exercise great influence in
in the contemporary period. Some of
political domain also.
them are intra-national and many of them
are extra-national in origin and theatre of The establishment and functioning
operation. The paramount challenges can of World Trade Organization has hastened
be listed as secessionism and globalisation. the process of globalisation. ’Barrier-
free trade’ is the fundamental slogan of
Nationalism is the last the organization. It has created several
refuge of scoundrels agreements in the last two decades from
- Winston Churchill 1995 the year of its inception and till now
and has brought down the trade and tariff
Secessionism bottlenecks in international domain that
partly contributed to the two world wars in
Today’s nationalism confronts several the 20th century. Trade tariffs are closely
challenges, such as separatist tendencies, related to nationalism and their elimination
such nationalism and divisive trends. The erodes the rationale of nationalism.
Quebec separatism in Canada, Baluchistan
There is a large-scale migration of
movement in Pakistan, Uyghur issue in
the skilled people propelled by the forces
China, Catalan nationalism in Spain,
of globalisation. The highly educated and
Scottish movement in the UK are the living
technologically qualified people migrate
examples of nationalism being questioned
from Asian and African countries to
and endangered by intra-national forces.
the developed countries like the United
Religious fundamentalism, resistance to
States, Australia and countries of Western
over-centralism regional in balances, loss
Europe. The educated and technologically
of faith in democratic resolutions of issues
advanced Indian and Chinese youth have
are some of the major threats fostering
migrated in large numbers to the United
secessionism and endangering nationalism.
States in the age of globalisation.
Extra National Factors The international regional
Many extra-national and global organizations have eroded the stature of the
factors imperil nationalism. Globalisation States and their nationalism by promoting
refers to the increasing integration of regional economic co-operation. The
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European Union consisting of 27 nations is the captured territories in Syria and Iraq
the most advanced international regional in 2014 and appealed to the global Islamic
organization that seeks to achieve economic, community to be associated with the
political and cultural integration. It has international jihad to establish a global
created European Parliament, European Islamic State or universal Caliphate.
Council and European Commission. Euro
is its currency and a large portion of the The environmental problems like
dream to create structures for the free climate change, acid rain, ozone depletion
movement of people, capital, service and have been caused by factors within the
goods has been realized. It has brought nation but the consequences and remedies
out the concept of ‘Pooled Sovereignty’ are transnational and beyond the capacity of
where the States share their decision- nationalism and national States to solve. The
making powers with member-States of environmental conservation responsibility
the regional organization foregoing their is a global challenge and numerous multi-
sovereignty, definitely a blow to the concept lateral environmental conferences have
of nationalism and its cardinal feature of been conducted by global community to
State sovereignty. Succinctly to state, the discuss and provide solutions.
continent of Europe from being the cradle The growth of information
of nationalism has become the beacon of technology especially internet, mobile
globalism. phones and social media have left
a profound impact on the concept
Globalisation of nationalism. It has sided with
internationalism. The national State
cannot effectively protect its nationalism
and national interests as cross border
transmission of ideas and networks
become stronger.
The gradual emergence of the role The communication revolution

and relevance of the United Nations has shrunk the world and the idea of the
indicates the march, though slow of the global village gains momentum that in the
humanity towards a World Government long run may jeopardize nationalism.
that is a negation of nationalism and its
political body the state. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied
that nationalism continues to be a strong
Radical ideologies adhering to a ideology in the 21st century too. The end
different kind of internationalism pose a of nationalism is not observable even in the
threat to the concept of nationalism. For distant horizon. The State still retains with
example the Islamic State with its ideology itself the priceless feature of sovereignty. The
of salafism (Pure Islam) rejected the ultimate deciding factor of internationalism
concept of nationalism and nation States is still nationalism and national interests.
as anti-Islam. It established a caliphate in The BREXIT or exit of Britain from the
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European Union and the exit of United Change on grounds of national interests
States from 2015 Paris Accord of the United reveal the relevance and resilience of the
Nations Framework Convention on Climate ideology of nationalism.
Uyghur Separatism: Case Study

Xinjiang is a turbulent province of People’s Republic of China located in the
north western region of the country. Xinjiang means ‘New Border’ or ‘New Frontier’ in
Mandarin language. It is a thinly populated and expansive semi-arid or desert territory
and the indigenous inhabitants are called as Uyghur Muslims. The restive province
deeply harbours grievances about the putative economic discrimination against them
from the mainstream of Chinese government and economy. They argue that their
province had witnessed a huge leap in Hans Chinese population from a mere 6 percent
at the time of revolution to around 40 percent in the beginning of new millennium
endangering their identity. The ethnic community also contends that the atheist
communist government discriminates against them in the sphere of religion.
They protest against the national government for enforcing regulations and restrictions
on many aspects of religious life like telling people not to grow beard and enforcing
penalty on taxi drivers who transport burqa-clad passengers. The Chinese government
has adopted a stringent attitude towards terrorism in Xinjiang and its response is
characterized by strike-hard policy and zero tolerance for terrorism and splitism (a
favourite slogan of administration to describe secessionism).
Challenges before Nationalism
Sub-Nationalism or
Extra National
Ethno-Nationalism
Challenges
or Secessionism
International
International United Radical Environmental Information
WTO Regional
Migration Nationals Ideologies problems Technology
Organizations
8.5 Fascism the Roman Consuls as symbol of political

power. The bundle of rods signifies unity
Benito Mussolini founded a
and strength and Benito Mussolini chose
totalitarian party, movement and ideology
the nomenclature to arouse the emotions
in the inter-war period and ruled Italy for
of the cadre.
more than two decades. Fascism in Italian
language has its origin in the word Fasci The most important factor for the
meaning the bundle of rods bound with emergence of Fascism can be attributed to
a red cord round an axe helve. In Italian the socio-economic problems of Italy in
tradition, this symbol is powerful as it was the post-war period. Though it was on the
borne by the magisterial attendants before side of the allied powers in the First World
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War, there was a huge popular the need to conquer a single square
disappointment that it did not receive kilometer of territory. Mussolini believed
benefits from the post-war settlement. that the Fascist State is the ‘Third
The country suffered from numerous Rome’, a worthy successor to the First
socio-economic problems like Ancient Roman Empire and second the
unemployment, inflation, stagnation and Renaissance Rome that disseminated the
instability in industrial sector. All sections seeds of renaissance throughout Europe.
of Italy like workers, farmers, middle class
and even rich classes faced war-related Fascism extolled the virtues of war.
miseries. Benito Mussolini, being a Mussolini infamously stated ‘war is to
dangerous demagogue, capitalized on man what maternity is to woman’. It
this widespread discontent and deprecated peace as a slogan of the weak
conducted a ‘March on Rome’ in 1922. and cowardly. Fascism sought to honour
The political authorities in the face of women as ‘reproducers of the nation’.
fascist intimidation capitulated and
Mussolini and National Fascist Party Fascism rejected the idea of a limited
captured power without any violence. State. It enthusiastically followed the
concept of totalitarianism. Mussolini
exclaimed, ‘Everything within the State,
R.M. Mac Iver regards fascism as
nothing outside the State, nothing against
a movement of lower middle class.
the State”. The State was empowered to
create a radically new society. It exercised
Basic Characteristics a complete control over the minds and
Fascism preached and practiced actions of its citizens. Fascists provided
aggressive nationalism. Fascism a positive outlook to the concept of
proclaimed that Italy is the greatest totalitarian State contending that the
nation in the world and created hatred powerful authoritarian State is vital for
against other nations and people. Fascism the metamorphosis of Italy into a mighty
pursued imperialism both in theory nation and moulding of its citizens into
and practice. Its expansionist drive politically-active brave people.
re-ignited colonial rivalries in Africa
Fascism considered communism as
precipitating the Second World War. A
its mortal enemy and endeavored hard to
Fascist writer Giovanni Gentile wrote the
suppress it. The great Marxist thinker of
book ‘Doctrine of Fascism’. He said that
Italy, Antonio Gramsci was jailed for 20
the Fascist State is a will to power and
years. The official prosecutor in that case
empire. The Roman tradition is here a
ended his peroration infamously
powerful force. According to the doctrine
demanding the judge ‘we should stop
of Fascism, empire is not only territorial
this brain working for 20 years’”. Fascism
or military or mercantile concept, but a
banned political parties, movements and
spiritual and moral one. One can think of
writings supporting communism.
an empire, that is, a nation, which directly
Ideologically, it repudiated the Marxist
or indirectly guides other nations, without
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concepts of State, society, class and Criticism

revolution. As against the class-ridden
Fascism was the most powerful
society of communism, Fascism supported
totalitarian State that mankind had ever
the organic unity of the State.
faced. It was undemocratic. Fascism was
attacked as an opportunistic, intellectually
The doctrine of fascism arose dishonest ideology as it changed
as a theory of reaction to democracy, frequently its core ideological principles
socialism and communism. While and postures. Though Fascism and
democracy and communism Nazism had been cruel collaborators in
represented progressive focus of the inflicting massive death and destruction
modern age fascism sought to promote on humankind in the Second World War,
a tendency in reverse direction. Fascism as an ideology was more coherent
and therefore continues to be used as a
term even in the 21st century to assail
Fascism should more appropriately dictators and totalitarian States.
be called Corporatism because it is a
merger of state and corporate power. 8.6 Nazism
- Benito Mussolini
Adolf Hitler was the architect of the
totalitarian ideology of Nazism that ruled
Germany in the inter-war period. Hitler
Notable fact of the Fascist State is formed the Nazi Party (officially National
its nature as a Corporate State. Every Socialist German Workers’ Party) on the
profession, trade or occupation possessed basis of a radical 25-point programme in
its own corporate organisation. The 1920 that included nationalization of all
national objectives of the State were given major industries, forfeiture of war profits
primacy over everything. The corporate and freedom from the thralldom of money-
State was promoted to remove any conflict lenders. Hitler was a wily demagogue and
between employers and employees. attracted all sections of German society
Mussolini firmly believed that the disputes by promising everything to everybody.
between the business classes and labour He promised ‘food to every belly, cloth
should and could be removed through the to everybody, work to every hand and
system of corporate bodies. house to every family’. He arrived at the
citadels of power without shedding blood
The workers were sternly told that
by manipulating the parliamentary and
strikes were illegal. They came to be
constitutional processes in 1933.
affected greatly as wages were fixed low by
the Fascist State and party. The corporate
organizations suffered from corruption
and inefficiency. The corporate State
was the bedrock of Fascist economy but
trampled upon the rights of the workers.
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Cause of Emergence Concentration Camps

The major cause of emergence
of Hitler and Nazism can be located
in the controversial Versailles Treaty
of 1919 that was signed in Paris in
the post-war settlement process. Hitler
resorted to heighten the emotions of the
ordinary German people by condemning The Holocaust
the economic, military, and political
humiliation of the German nation by the
victorious allied powers. He authored
the book ‘Mein Kempf ’ meaning ‘My
Struggle’ containing his views and ideas
about German nation.
Core Features
Nazisim implemented a brutal
Nazism believed in totalitarianism.
campaign of persecution against the Jews
It adhered to the historical slogan of the
that resulted in the killing of millions
German philosopher Friedrich Hegel that
of people which is now observed as
‘the State is the march of God on earth’.
the Holocaust. Nazism suppressed Jews
Complete obedience was demanded from
holding them responsible for the misery
the citizens.
of German people. The disproportionately
Nazism resorted to systematic higher representation of Jews in the
glorification of war. Hitler said, ‘War wealthy classes and their lower percentage
is eternal, war is universal. War is life. presence in lower sections of society
War is the origin of all things’. This war- invited the wrath of the Nazi State. They
mongering precipitated the Second World were subjected to inhuman conditions in
War and inflicted misery on mankind. places of detention known as concentration
Perhaps the one of the most camps.
controversial principles of Nazism is its
racial superiority and purity myth. Hitler Nazism was expansionist. Germany
considered the Aryan race as the most wanted to capture colonies so that the
intelligent and superlative one calling it surplus population can be exported and
the master race of mankind. He detested it could overtake England as the colonial
other races living among or in the vicinity giant of the world.
of German nation especially Jews and Slav
races. A set of laws known as Nuremberg Nazism rejected the prevailing
Laws were enacted in 1934 to preserve the political ideologies and systems like
racial purity of the Aryan race. Marital communism of Soviet Union, liberal
relations between Aryans and other democracy of the United States of America
impure races like Jews, gypsies were and internationalism of League of Nations.
banned.
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Nazism believed in hero worship. The of Germany in the Second World War and
idea that ‘Germany is Hitler and Hitler is the suicide of Adolf Hitler extinguished the
Germany’ was instilled in the minds of the Nazi party and ideology. The emergence
people. The concept of equality of human of the liberal democratic political system
beings was rejected and Adolf Hitler was in Germany based on competitive party
addressed as the "Fuehrer" (leader). In fact, system has denied scope for the revival of
Germany itself was called as "Fuehrer- Nazism.
State" meaning the ‘Leader-State’.
Glossary
ACTIVITY
Laissez Faire : In French language it means
Film Screening Leave Alone. The state should leave the
individual alone to pursue his life
Dear students, now you understand
that Nazism inflicted genocide on Market Economy : Economy driven by
innocent people. There are numerous demand and supply
films dealing with the atrocities of Social Welfare State : The state that
Nazism. For example, the film Schindler’s implements various social welfare
List dealt with programs
Nazi crimes
Perestroika : In Russian language it means
and won many
Restructuring. The former President of
Oscar Awards.
USSR Mikhail Gorbachev introduced
You can arrange
reforms to restructure the economy
the screening of
the film in the Glasnost : In Russian language it means
classroom. Openness. It refers to the political rights
made available to the people of USSR by
Nazism followed irrationalism and its President
was vehemently against reason. Adhering to New Deal : The economic reforms
the philosophy of irrationalism it appealed introduced in the United States by
to the emotions, sentiments and passions President Franklin D. Roosevelt to reform
of the German people. Nazism recognized American economy
only single party rule. All other political
parties were banned and suppressed. Democratic Centralism : The
The party resorted to mobilization of the organizational principle of the communist
people. Organizationally, it was based party visualized by Lenin
on strict hierarchy principles with Hitler Signification of Communism : The
concentrating all power at the top. adoption of Communism to suit the
conditions of China by Mao
Succinctly to state, Nazism is
criticized for being totalitarian, irrational, Hegemony : Moral and intellectual
racist and inhuman ideology. The defeat leadership as provided by Gramsci
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Utopian Socialism : Socialism in the Proletariat : Karl Marx extensively used

pre Marxian era where sympathy and the word to denote the working class or
compassion not science drove socialist industrial wage earning class
ideas
Fabian Socialism : Socialism named U.S.S.R : Union of Soviet Socialist
after the Roman General Fabius who Republics. It was the official name of the
was historically famous for adopting communist country consisting of fifteen
themilitary strategy of 'wait and hit hard republics including Russia
at the right moment'.
BREXIT : Exit of Britain from European
Guild Socialism : Socialism named after Union
Guild that refers to the association of
craftsmen and artisans of a particular Globalisation : The integration of the
profession in the medieval period in world in economic and commercial
Europe. domains
Primordialism : The belief that the people
of a particular language, region, religion, Fascism : In Italian language Fasci means
race etc. have developed a great intra- the bundle of rods signifying unity and
group affinity as they inhabit together strength.
since ancient period.
Concentration Camps : The places where
Imagined Communities : Benedict Anderson
the hapless Jews were imprisoned without
introduced the terms to argue that the nation
trial, exploited and killed mercilessly by
is an imagined community exiting only in the
the Nazi army
mind, imagination of the people.
Evaluation
I Choose the Correct Answer:

1. Which ideology considered the state as a necessary evil?
a) Negative Liberalism b) Positive Liberalism
c) Marxism d) Anarchism
2. Positive Liberalism viewed the state as an instrument of
a) Law and Order b) Exploitation
c) Social Welfare d) Revolution
3. Libertarianism was supported by
a) Nock b) Nozick
c) F.A. Hayek d) All the Above Thinkers
4. The concept of Hegemony was advocated by
a) Karl Marx b) Lenin
c) Antonia Gramsci d) Mao
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5. T
he perspective that the communist party must be the vanguard of the communist
revolution was propagated by
a) Karl Marx b) Lenin
c) Mao d) Stalin
6. The major contribution of Mao to the communist ideology is found in the form of
a) Sinification of Communism b) Historical Materialism
c) Surplus Value d) None of the Above
7. Match the following

1. Bernard Shaw A. Utopian Socialism
2. Robert Owen B. Evolutionary Socialism
3. Eduard Bernstein C. Guild Socialism
4. D.H. Cole D. Fabian Socialism
a) 1-A 2-B 3-C 4-D

b) 1-D 2-A 3- B 4-C
c) 1-A 2-D 3-C 4-B
d) 1-C 2-B 3-D 4-A
8. Fabian Socialism was named after

a) Roman General b) Russian General
c) English General d) Indian General
9. Guild Socialism advocated
a) Modernized Medieval Guild System
b) State Performing Functions Like Education
c) Peaceful Methods of Change
d) All the Above
10. Who among the following is not a communist thinker?
a) Karl Popper b) Karl Marx
c) Louis Althusser c) Antonio Gramsci
11. The Indian variety of Socialism is
a) Syndicalism b) Fabian Socialism
c) Socialistic Pattern of Society d) Guild Socialism
12 .Who described Nationalism in terms of Imagined Communities?
a) Karl Deutsch b) Benedict Anderson
c) Michael Mann d) Anthony Giddens
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13 .Who said “The Proletariat has no fatherland”.

a) Benedict Anderson b) Karl Deutsch
c) Aristotle d) Karl Marx
14. Who authored the book Mein Kempf?
a) Karl Marx b) Plato
c) Adolf Hitler d) Adam Smith
15. Nazism believed in
a) Aryan Racial Supremacy b) National Equality
c) Jewish Supremacy d) European Supremacy
16. A
ssertion: Gramsci advocated hegemony.
Reason: The developed nations can exercise control and domination over the
developing counties.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
1. What is meant by End of History?
2. Explain the term “Democratic Centralism”
3. Give a brief explanation about Neo Marxism
4. Name the leaders who implemented Libertarianism in their countries.
5. What is Instrumental Marxism?
6. Is nationalism based on Primordial Identities?
7. Explain the Ideological State Apparatuses.
1. Identify the functions of the State in Positive Liberalism
2. W
hat do you understand about the concept of Hegemony propounded by
Gramsci?
3. Provide a detailed account of the contributions of Lenin to Communism
4. Compare and contrast Communism with Socialism
1. Analyze the ideology of Libertarianism
2. Examine the main characteristics of the ideology of Mao
3. Describe the salient features of Fabian Socialism
4. Enumerate the causative factors of Indian nationalism
5. Discuss the chief components of Fascist Ideology
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Reference Books
1. Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and

Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso
2. Gauba, O.P. (2009) An Introduction to Political Theory, New Delhi: Macmillan
Publishers India Ltd.
3. Heywood, Andrew(2003) Political Ideologies: An Introduction, London:
Macmillan
4. IGNOU Political Science Study Materials, B.A and M.A
5. Rajeev Bhargava & Ashok Acharya (Ed) (2016) Political theory: An Introduction,
New Delhi: Thomson press.
6. Ramasamy, Sushila (2009) “Political Theory – Ideas and Concepts, Chennai:
Macmillan India Ltd.
ICT CORNER
Unit-8 Political Ideologies Part - I

will learn about different
philosophies and the
philosophers.
Political Ideologies
Steps
1. Use the URL or QR code to open the “histropedia” page.

2. An activity window histropedia home page will open, click on search and type
communism on the top right corner of the activity window.
3. It will show the timeline of the philosophy from the early beginning till is date on
communism.
4. Explore the different philosophies and the philosophers by clicking the year on the
timeline, you will understand philosophy developed during that period and the links
related to that particular philosophy will be shown.
Download Link
*Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.
URL: http://www.histropedia.com/
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UNIT
9 Political Ideologies – Part II
Russian thinker
Learning Objectives Peter Kropotkin and
 To understand the etymology, Russian author Leo
characteristics, kinds and thinkers Tolstoy are among the
of Anarchism other important advocates
 To comprehend the meaning, of this philosophy.
emergence and diverse schools of
Feminism Anarchism as an ideology seeks to
 To know a few measures of the abolish all authority and emancipate man
Indian State to promote women from the State, property and religion. It
empowerment alternatively visualizes a society based on
 To have knowledge about voluntary association of human beings.
the emergence, thinkers
and main characteristics of Anarchism considers the State as
communitarianism especially its an unnecessary evil. State is an evil
stand on Man, Society, Rights and because it suppresses rights and liberties
Justice of man hindering his moral development.
 To grasp the meaning and thinkers Unlike the negative liberalists who called
of Post Modernism and also to the State necessary even though it is an
examine its views on multiplicity evil, anarchism rejects the State as an
of truth, particularism and identity unnecessary institution. They argue that
politics the state does not perform any useful
 To know the basic concepts like function in society and, therefore, it must
Deep Ecology, Shallow Ecology be exterminated immediately. Bakunin,
and Ecological Political Theory another famous anarchist thinker asserted
 To identify a few important
that if there is a State, there must be
Ecological Movements of India
domination and subjugation of one class
9.1 Anarchism by another class and therefore all States
Anarchism is a political ideology must vanish.
that advocates the model of self-governed
societies based on innate cooperative
instincts of man. Etymologically,
Where there is authority,
anarchism is derived from the Greek word
there is no freedom
'anarchos' meaning 'without authority'.
- Peter Kropotkin
One of the earliest political philosophers
of anarchism was Pierre Joseph Proudhon
who famously described profit as theft.
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Anarchy determination and can decide his or her

life based on his wishes and freedom.
(Noun) a theory holding all forms
Similarly, every person has complete
of governmental authority to be
ownership of himself or herself and this is
unnecessary and undesirable and
the most basic form of property. The State
advocation a society based on voluntary
threatens these two important principles
cooperation and free association of
and therefore should be discarded.
individuals and groups
Anarchism opposes not only State
Anarchy is not chaos but also other social institutions like
Anarchy is not lawlessness. family and religion criticizing them to be
Aanrchy is based upon the principle of responsible for the abominable
self-ownership. exploitation of man. Some anarchists
The idea that you are the equate property with tyranny and
exclusive controller condemn it as source of crime. Anarchism
of your own body is similar to Marxism in demanding the
and life. abolition of the State. But while Marxism
believes that the State will wither away
Anarchists are peaceful after the establishment of socialism,
people who reject initiated anarchism demands the immediate
aggression against anyone destruction of the State.
without exception.
Anarchism does not champion the

cause of disorder and disunity. On the
contrary, it claims to embody order and
unity. Human beings are naturally provided
with cooperative instincts. They can lead
a life of happiness and fulfilment guided
by the instinct of voluntary cooperation.
But the artificial institution of the State Gerard Casey supported anarchism
suppresses the cooperative instincts of in the 21st century by stating that not
man. It endangers freedom and rights only the totalitarian and repressive ones
of man. Anarchism aspires to destroy all states are criminal organizations. A
the State and implant in its place a new new system of Stateless societies is the
system of voluntary associations. Every cherished goal of anarchism.
man will voluntarily and enthusiastically
participate in public life. Anarchy does There are different kinds of
not mean a society without rules, rather anarchism. They can be categorised
without rulers. as philosophical anarchism, socialist
Anarchism believes in the principles anarchism, revolutionary anarchism and
of self-determination and self-ownership. libertarian anarchism. However, not all of
Every human being has the right to self- them demand the abolition of the State.
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The libertarian anarchism wants to restrict horizon of Modern Political Theory from
the State to the minimum possible extent. the last decades of the 19th century. It
Still, a majority of anarchist philosophers was propelled by scientific realisation
advocate the abolition of the State. about the innate capability and equality of
women with men
Philosophers, critical of anarchism,
opined that anarchism is too optimistic There are different feminist schools of
of the human nature. Their assumptions thought that can be broadly categorized as;
are plainly naive. They are oblivious to the
ground realities especially the selfish side A. Liberal Feminism
of human beings. Not all human beings B. Marxist Feminism
are instinctively cooperative. Moreover, C. Radical Feminism
as man is not only rational but also D. Eco Feminism
emotional at times strongly influenced by
E. Post-Colonial Feminism
emotions a cooperative individual may
become selfish. A world or society without
the State will prove to be a source of
immense misery as issues like terrorism,
cybercrime, and environmental pollution
will spiral out of control. The safety of
the world becomes fragile in the absence
of the State as extremist groups will gain
access and control over nuclear weapons
and herald death and destruction.
9.2 Feminism
A. Liberal Feminism
The feminist movement, in its
Feminism is the
 infant stage in the late 19th century,
radical notion that advocated equal political rights for
women are people. women. It believed that the subordination
of women in society could be rectified
A feminist is anyone who recognizes
 with electoral enfranchisement of women
the equality and full humanity of and endowment of other political and
women and men. economic rights. The State was considered
- Cheris Kramarae to be a gender neutral institution.
Therefore granting of voting rights to
Feminism refers to the movements
women will culminate in the fruition of
and ideologies that strive to promote
women development. The greatest feat of
empowerment of women so that they
liberal feminism lies in winning voting
achieve equality with men. Feminist
rights to women in the democratic western
schools of thought emerged on the
countries.
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B. Marxist Feminism Carole Hanisch, a famous Radical

It placed gender inequality and Feminist, brought out the most important
exploitation in the origin of private slogan of Radical Feminism - Personal is
property from the second stage of human Political - to reveal patriarchal domination
history called Ancient Slave Society. over women. The liberal politics divides
Friedrich Engels, a close associate of Karl the activities of humankind into personal
Marx, wrote the book “The Origins of The and public domains. The personal domain
Family, Private Property and the State”. is considered to be a sphere of personal
He argued that subordination of women life where family operates. It is believed
emerged with the rise of private property that there is no scope for conflict and
as men controlled the property and used it domination in this sphere and only
to establish their domination over women. love, affection and empathy are relevant.
The struggle for women liberation should Women live in the personal sphere and
take place simultaneously with the therefore there is no need for political
struggle for liberation of the working rights, power and authority for women.
class. Marxist revolution will lead to But the public domain is a sphere
the destruction of capitalism and the of struggle, competition and therefore
establishment of communism where there politics. This domain is dominated
will be no private property. There will be exclusively by men. Therefore, men alone
equality among not only men but also participate in politics and possess political
between men and women power.
C. Radical Feminism Radical Feminism repudiates the
There are no innate differences above liberal exposition and asserts that
between men and women and women private and personal domain is also
came to be subjugated deliberately for the subject to politics. The relationship
purpose of exploitation, is the ideological between man and women in personal
crux of Radical Feminism. domain is not always characterised by
Simone de Beauvoir, the famous the considerations of love and affection.
radical feminist and author of the work Even here struggle, competition and
“The Second Sex”, asserted that “A woman domination operate. For example the
is not born but made”. Both woman and relations between husband and wife and a
man are endowed with same capacities brother and sister are not always friendly
when they are born. Male-dominated and affectionate.
society and culture known as patriarchy Struggle and competition can also
creates through indoctrination the be found in them. Therefore, we should
inequality between them. The differences speak about politics, women rights, gender
in gender are created artificially and equality in personal domain too. Radical
unjustly. We can understand this assertion Feminism argues for a revolutionary re-
when we note the enormous differences in ordering of society and politics to implant
the status and position accorded to women gender equality in personal and public
among the cultures of the world. domains.
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D. Eco Feminism E. Post-Colonial Feminism

Eco Feminism provides a feminist Post-Colonial Feminism arose as an
interpretation of nature. The two ideologies ideology and movement in the 1980s in
of Feminism and Environmentalism the countries of Asia and Africa that were
are fused in Eco Feminism. It argues formerly enslaved in colonialism. Audre
that patriarchy is the root cause of Lorde contributed to the emergence
environmental degradation and women of Post-Colonial Feminism in one
exploitation. The important architects of masterpiece essay “The Master’s Tools
Eco Feminism are Francoise D’Eaubonne, Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House”.
Rosemary Ruether, Ynestra King and Gyatri Spivak, Chandra Talpade Mohanty
Vandana Shiva. and Ethel Crowley are important Post-
Colonial Feminists.
"We are either going
Audre Lorde said, “To imply, however,
to have a future where
that all women suffer the same oppression
women lead the way to
simply because we are women is to lose
make peace with the earth
sight of the many varied tools of patriarchy.
or we are not going to have
It is to ignore how those tools are used by
a human future at all."
women without awareness against each
- Vandana Shiva
other… As an African-American woman
There are two schools of thought in White patriarchy, I am used to having
in Eco Feminism. They are Radical my archetypal experience distorted and
Feminism and Cultural Feminism. trivialised.”
Radical Feminism asserts that patriarchy
or male-dominated system subjugates and
degrades both environment and women.
Male domination of society must be
eliminated to realise the twin objectives of
environmental preservation and women
empowerment.
The other school, Cultural
Feminism argues that women are closer
to nature as both are food providers and It revolts against the western feminist
play indispensable role in biological movements’ attempts at universalizing
reproduction. The environmental their experience. Women do not constitute
degeneration affects women more than a single and homogenous category as they
men. The division of work between the two are differentiated by a host of factors like
genders leaves women more disadvantaged class, race, religion and country. The
in the age of environmental crisis. They mainstream feminism suffers from several
suffer more as in male dominant societies deficiencies when applied to non-western
they are given the responsibilities directly societies The Post-Colonial Feminism
linked with nature. criticises the negative impact of western
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colonialism on the social economic and in elected local bodies in the last two
political universe of women in Asia and decades has led to political empowerment
Africa, a realty that was ignored and never of women. The Supreme Court of India had
experienced by the mainstream feminist provided ‘Vishakha Guidelines’ to protect
thought. They had experienced racism, women from sexual harassment in working
slavery, forced migration and numerous places. Accordingly, the Union government
other evils that make them different from enacted The Sexual Harassment of Women
the Western women. at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and
It also condemns the projection of the Redressal) Act, 2013. The Act establishes
western women as educated, politically- Internal Complaints Committee and Local
conscious, modern and empowered and Complaints Committee to provide redressal
non-western women as passive, powerless to women seeking justice from sexual
victims. Post-Colonial Feminism argues harassment in their workplace. Parliament
that women in these societies are victims had earlier passed The Protection of
of double colonisation represented by Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
the exploitative forces of colonialism to provide justice and protection from
and patriarchy. Post-Colonial Feminism violence within their homes. In conclusion,
castigates the visible indifference of the one can say gender equality paves way for
mainstream post colonial political thought empowerment of the half of humankind.
to the peculiar sufferings of the women in
their societies and countries.
DEBATE
There is a long standing demand

for women reservation in Parliament
and State Legislatures. The struggle
is for reserving one third of the seats
for women. Arrange a comprehensive
debate in the class on the pros and cons
of women reservation proposal.
Marxist
feminism
Indian State and Women Empowerment

Indian State had implemented certain
crucial measures for protecting women. The
73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment
REAL MAN
Acts reserve one-third of the seats in DON'T HIT
panchayat and urban local bodies for
End Domestic violence.
women. The implementation of reservation
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9.3 Communitarianism in a community or culture and therefore

inherit it. Their beliefs, behavior, skills,
Communitarianism emerged as
capacities, attitudes etc are predominantly
a political doctrine during the 1980s
influenced by the community. Every
when Michael Sandel authored the book
individual builds on these commonly
‘Liberalism and the Limits of Justice’. He
available and acquired capacities to
criticised the libertarianism and its thinker
make a mark in his or her life time. Man
John Rawls in that work. The other political
is not an atomistic entity existing alone
scientists supporting communitarianism
but is embedded in the community. The
include Alisdair MacIntyre, Michael
individual is not ‘unencumbered self ’
Walzer, Charles Taylor, Amitai Etzioni
(completely free) from society but ‘situated
nd Will Kymlicka. Though the British
self ’ (rooted and planted) in society
Socialist Goodwyn Barmy coined the
word “communitarian” in the 1840s, the For example a child born in Tamil
doctrine of communitarianism emerged Nadu speaks Tamil language fluently
only towards the end of the 20th century and not Japanese where as a child born
in Japan speaks Japanese fluently and
Communitarianism
not Tamil. A man living in a community
where computer technology is already
available in developed form may become
Rights Responsibilities a skilled person in software domain. On
the contrary, a man living in a remote
community that has not witnessed the
growth of information technology will not
In short Balancing the Rights and have adequate software skills.
Responsibilities of Individual with Rights
and Responsibilities of Community. Concept of State
Communitarianism rose as a revolt Communitarianism considers the

against the prevailing two ideologies of State as a positive instrument that promotes
libertarianism and Marxism. It criticised the idea of the common good. The concept
the thinkers of libertarianism for their over of common good is present in every
emphasis on individuals. It rejected Marxism community. The community develops a
for being committed to class-based action set of goals, practices and measures that
and analysis. However, the opposition was collectively promote the fundamental
directed against Libertarianism that had welfare of all. The State should promote
become the ruling philosophy of mankind the realisation of the common good and
especially in the western world. act against the activities that promote
Importance of Community individual good in contradiction with
common good. It should protect and
Communitarianism argues that man promote those cultural traditions of the
is not born in a vacuum. He is a social community that symbolise and sustain
and cultural animal. Individuals are born
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the common good. Communitarianism Therefore, we can conclude that

supports a State that is democratically Communitarianism as a political doctrine
elected and constituted. They strongly believes in the indispensability of
aspire for a State that is responsible and community for the development of the
responsive to demands of the community. ‘situated and embedded man’. The positive
Concept of Rights State should concentrate on the provision of
positive rights to community and its people
Communitarianism believes that
so that common good can be preserved
rights and responsibilities are intimately
and promoted. But Libertarianism still
related. It rejects the excessive reliance
criticises Communitarianism as preparing
of libertarianism on the concept of
the path for the emergence of collectivism
individual autonomy and rights. Instead,
and authoritarianism.
it focuses on a new concept of rights where
common good is given importance. They
strongly contend that the common good
of the community has supremacy and R o b e r t
priority over the rights of the individuals D.Putnam played
as it is prior to them. Every person may a crucial role in
have his own conception of good but such the emergence of
individual good must be subordinated to communitarianism.
the idea of common good. A new concept He analysed the
of positive rights is propagated where in a game of Bowling
wide variety of rights like State-subsidised in America. In his
education, State-subsidized housing, analysis he found
safe environment, universal healthcare that in the earlier days, a large number of
are demanded for the community Americans played the game. They built
members. A synthesis between rights and social networks, knowledge and skills
responsibilities is advocated by certain (Social Capital) by constantly interacting
thinkers who belong to Responsive with other people in the community
Communitarianism. while playing the game. But gradually
Concept of Justice people lost interest in the game with the
Communitarians attack John Rawls arrival of new forces and facilities like
and other libertarian thinkers on the television, internet, etc. As people spent
concept of justice. They reject universalism more time in their technology-driven
of libertarianism, their argument that gadgets, their social interaction with
the concept of justice is universally other members came down leading to
applicable as it is based on reason. On erosion of social capital. Ultimately, the
the contrary, communitarians articulate quality of democracy also suffered as
the particularistic view of justice. Every people have limited social interactions
community develops its own notions of and public engagement. The political
justice and therefore it differs from society apathy of people eroded the strength of
to society. democracy.
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9.4 Postmodernism
Postmodernism refers to a variety
of ideas that criticize modernity and
emerge as its successor and rival. The
major proponents of Postmodernism
include Fredrick Nietzsche, Jean-Francois
Lyotard, Michel Foucalt and Jacques
Derrida. Modernity has dominated the
political theory in the last 200 years.
Rationality, universalism, reductionism
are among the dominant principles of Postmodernism believes that truth is
modernity. Postmodernism challenges not singular but plural. There are multiple
these principles and advocates alternatives. versions of truth. For example, take any
It emerged in the last three decades in one leader or historical event. Different
western political theory. people will talk about the leader or the
event differently. One person may call
that leader a visionary. Another may call
God is dead..... him a demagogue. Yet another may have a
and we have different perspective. All may be right in
killed him their own perspective and interpretation.
The world is not constituted only by the
- Friedrich Nietzsche two colours of black and white. There are
more colours positioned in a continuum
Fredrick Nietzsche is called Father in between black and white.
of Post Modernism. He famously said
“God is dead”. Modernity believes
in universalism and reductionism. It There are no facts, only interpretations.
explains all the phenomena through a - Friedrich Nietzsche
single factor or one ultimate truth. For
example, Karl Marx said human life
depends on economy and all problems Jacque Derrida was a French
can be solved by eliminating the right to philosopher who advocated an
private property. Similarly Fredrick Hegel, innovative Post- modern concept
the German philosopher argued that the called deconstruction. He provides
world is nothing but the embodiment of deconstruction as an approach to
World Spirit. Postmodernism, in contrast, understand meanings and texts. There
advocates that the world and our life is are multiple meanings in a text and as
complex and cannot be explained by a human language is not so developed it
single factor. A host of factors like culture, may not be possible for the author of a
language, religion, politics, and economy text to communicate all his thoughts and
decide human life and this world. the receiver or reader of the text may
understand the meanings differently.
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Multiple interpretations of a text exist and Postmodernism is dead as its cultural

therefore Derrida suggests deconstructing period is over and the world has entered
the meanings of the text. digi-modernism or the Era of Digital
Modernism.
What is Deconstruction?
Explained as a strategy
"Rules for reading,
interpretation and
writing."
Jacques Derrida
Postmodernism opposes the

universalism of modernity. In contrast
it supports Particularism. It argues that
the parts are more important than the Protests in the
whole. For example, modernity pays United States of America
attention to universal theory of rights 9.5 Environmentalism
or welfare. Post- modernism focuses on The advent of modern science and
the rights of particular social groups like technology driven development had
women, tribal and the like, who are less devastated the planet’s environment
privileged. Modernity devotes attention precipitating several ecological crises like
to systemic change but Postmodernism ozone depletion, climate change and acid
focuses on emancipating or changing the rain. Environmentalism arose as a protest
condition of specific social groups. movement and ideology against the
perilous destruction of the earth. We have
Identity politics is interlinked with
only one habitable planet in the entire
post - modernism. Identity Politics refers
universe and there is no alternative home
to the activities of specific social groups,
and therefore protecting the environment
usually the weak, vulnerable and under-
assumes paramount significance
privileged communities who organise
themselves under the banner of their own
caste, race, and gender to resist domination
of other groups over them. The members
of these groups call themselves ‘we’ and
oppose the activities of others, ‘they’.
Postmodernism and Identity Politics
promote the empowerment of local,
specific communities.
Postmodernism has been criticised There exists a profound debate

by many thinkers and scholars. In fact, in philosophy about the relationship
Alan Kirby, a British cultural critic, said between man and ecology, development
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and environment. The Deep Ecology renewable and environment friendly

versus Shallow Ecology controversy is the should be developed. It believes in the
central point of discussion in the debate. strategy of three R,s - reduce, reuse and
recycle.
Anthropocentrism
Gandhiji says that there

is enough for everyone’s
need but not for
anyone's greed.
Reduce
Shallow Ecology Reuse
Shallow Ecology refers to an ideology
that approaches ecology through an
Recycle
anthropocentric and utilitarian outlook. Deep Ecology
American philosopher Anthony Weston
is the greatest supporter of shallow Norwegian ecological philosopher
ecology. It considers the human beings as Arne Naess coined the term Deep Ecology
fulcrum of life in this world. It accords the in 1973. He was influenced by Rachel
position of centrality and supremacy to Carson and Mahatma Gandhi. Deep
man in ecology. It adopts an instrumental ecology theory argues that the planet Earth
value of nature meaning that the ecology is constituted by three interlinked parts of
is important only as it useful to human the human beings, non-human biological
welfare. The non-human biological forms forms and the inanimate objects and
and inanimate world are nothing but forces. The human beings are one among
natural resources for human life. the millions of living organisms in this
It looks for technological solutions world. They do not possess any superiority
for any environmental problem. If over other organisms. Anthropocentrism,
pollution imperils environment then that is, the belief in the centrality and
alternative energy sources that are supremacy of human beings in this world
must be discarded.
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Wrong Perception Right Perception

Anthropocentrism Biocentric Equality
"Humans are part of the environment
and not conquerors of it."
EGO ECO - Aldo Leopold
We should change our technology,

philosophy, economy and politics so that
ecological crises can be rectified and
averted in the future. The human beings
are ‘ecological selves’ the materialistic and
The non-human biological forms also consumerist life style must be changed
possess intrinsic value, inherent worth and and a new ecologically-sensitive social
identity. It believes in biocentric equality. and economic order must be created. We
The human beings need to satisfy the should reduce our ‘ecological footprint’
vital needs by making careful use of this by adopting a meager resources based life
biodiversity. Preservation of biodiversity is style. As the nomenclature indicated deep
indispensable. The interference of human ecology asks deeper questions of how and
beings on the domain of the non-human why examining philosophically the impact
sphere of the planet so for, is destructive, of human life as one part of the ecosphere
excessive and unacceptable. There is an on other components.
urgent need to limit the population of the
The Earth dose not belong to us: we
world as the current population explosion
belong to the Earth. - Marlee Martlin
has injected enormous stress on the ecology.
Tenets of Deep Ecology vs Shallow Ecology

The Eight-Tenets of Deep Ecology Paraphrased The Eight-Tenets of shallow Ecology
1. All creatures on Earth have value only for
1. All creatures on Earth have intrinsic value.
their usefulness to humans.
2. The whole diversity of living beings. simple as 2. Complex creatures (ie humans) are more
well as complex. contributes to life’s richness. important than simpler ones.
3. Humans should use other beings only to 3. Humans should always use all resources for
satisfy their basic needs. their material and economic advantage.
4. The health of non-humans depends on 4. The human population can increase without
decreasing the number of humans. restraint.
5. Human interference with the world is
5. Technological progress will solve all problems.
excessive and worsening.
6. Human policy (economics. technology and 6. Materialism and consumerism should govern
ideology) must change radically. human society.
7. Quality of life is more important than
7. The standard of living should keep rising.
standard of living.
8. Every human who believes in these points 8. Leave environmental problems for the experts
must work for change. to solve.
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Political Theory and Ecology The unlimited right to private property,

the cardinal principle of capitalism
The words environment and ecology
endangers the precious health and wealth
are synonymous. Andrew Heywood, the
of the planet’s ecology. The nature is seen
noted political scientist classifies ecology
only as a commodity to be traded in the
in political theory into three kinds
market and consumed by the man. Eco-
 Social Ecology socialism propounds a new approach
 Modernist Ecology in politics that combines socialism and
 Deep Ecolog y ecologism. Socialism alone can nurture
environment. The state must be imparted
Ecology in political theory with a socialist content and direction to
end the evil of capitalism and to protect
environment
2. Eco-anarchism
Social Modernist Deep
Ecology Ecology Ecology Murray Bookchin advocated eco-
anarchism. It considers authority as the
enemy of ecology. The emergence of
authority in human history in the form
of State, religion and even family had led
Eco-Socialism Eco-Anarchism Eco-Feminism
to the domination of man over man. The
(Socialism is
friend of Ecology)
(Authority is the
Enemy of Ecology)
(Patriarchy is the
Enemy of Ecology) same forces have produced the subjugation
and domination of nature by man. Man is a
A) Social Ecology voluntary animal and his original instinct
is the cooperative instinct.
The term ‘Social Ecology’ was
coined by American philosopher Murray In the ideal society, man establishes
Bookchin. It advocates radical changes in various associations based on voluntary
the existing social and political structures cooperation to achieve development. But
to make them ecologically correct. There artificial forces of State, religion, private
are three distinct trends in Social Ecology property have subverted the system and
created structures of domination and
1 Eco-socialism
subjugation. They have also wrought
2 Eco-anarchism havoc on ecology. Therefore, we should
3 Eco-feminism create a new society based on voluntary
1. Eco-Socialism instincts to protect man and ecology
Rudolph Bahro in his book ‘From 3. Eco-feminism
Red to Green’ supported eco-socialism.
It considers capitalism as the enemy of Carolyn Merchant in the book
ecology. By breeding materialism and ‘The Death of Nature’ propounded eco-
consumerism capitalism has inflicted feminism. This perspective considers
horrific destruction on the environment. patriarchy as the enemy of ecology and
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feminism as its beloved friend. Patriarchy C) Deep Ecology

means domination of man over women.
Eco-feminism argues that patriarchy It advocates a new style of politics,
created the domination of man over policy and political attitude towards
not only women but over nature also. nature. It argues for a fundamental shift
Patriarchy follows instrumental reason in the relationship between politics
whereby both women and ecology are and nature. Politics must understand,
seen merely in terms of use value, as respect and protect the element of inter
objects to be exploited and not as subjects connectedness found in ecology linking
endowed with life and intrinsic worth. the human beings, other biological forms
Eco- feminism demands gender and and the inanimate world.
ecology sensitive politics so that a new
world of justice and sustainability can be Ecological Movements in India
established.
The destruction of ecology through
B) Modernist Ecology modern development had resulted in the
Modernist ecology is synonymous emergence of many protest movements all
with shallow ecology. It attempts to over the world. India also has witnessed
promote a new harmony between many ecological protest movements
liberalism and ecology. The liberal tenets seeking to protect environment and
and approach should be reformed so that biodiversity. We shall study four such
the menace of ecological destruction can important ecological movements of India
be avoided. It advocates a new ‘enlightened
A Bisnoi Movement
anthropocentricism’ where man, being
the centre of the planet must consider B Chipko Movement
the long-term interests of humanity and C Appiko Movement
ecology in his developmental activities and D Save Silent Valley Movement
should not be driven solely by short-term A. Bisnoi Movement
interests. Modernist ecology believes in
the concept of "inter-generational justice" Bisnoi non-violent struggle was
and argues that we did not inherit the a successful ecological movement in
earth from our previous generations but the 18th century in Rajasthan. Bisnoi
borrowed it from the future generations of is a religious sect in the Thar desert of
humanity and therefore, there is a moral Rajasthan founded by Guru Jambeshwar
responsibility to protect and preserve in medieval period. Bisnoi in Hindi means
the earth for their life in the future. The 29 and the sect came to be named after
concept of ‘sustainable development’ is a the 29 cardinal principles the founder
basic characteristic of modernist ecology. expounded. The sect promoted a socio-
It argues that ‘getting richer faster’ should religious belief system in perfect harmony
not be the goal of human world rather with ecology creating a lush green local
‘getting richer slower’ should be its guiding ecosystem in the desert.
approach.
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The maharaja of Jodhpur desired to at that time) after getting government

construct a palace in the 18th century and clearance. The enraged local population,
sent the army to the Khejarli village to cut especially women protested in a non-
the acacia trees in the locally nurtured violent manner by embracing the trees
forest. The ecologically- conscious local and prevented the contractors. The
population protested against the cutting organisational leadership was provided
of trees. An elderly woman named by an NGO called Dasholi Gram Swarajya
Amrita Devi was in the frontline of the Mandal (DGSM) that was formed a
protest and when the army refused to few years back by a noted social activist
desist from cutting the trees she hugged Chandi Prasad Bhatt.
the trees asking the army to cut her
The famous environmentalist
head instead of cutting the trees. The
Sundarlal Bahuguna joined the agitation
army remorselessly cut her head off and
and appealed to the union government to
concerned but determined villagers came
ban logging in the Himalayan forests. The
forward in a line to offer their lives. A
large-scale participation of women was a
total of 363 people sacrificed their lives
significant and laudable feature of the
for protecting the forest. Ultimately
Chipko movement. Many women leaders
the maharaja after knowing about the
like Dhoom Singh Negi, Bachni Devi
terrible events in the village recalled the
played a prominent role fighting for forest
army and offered his apologies for the
rights of the people. The movement
massacre. He also officially designated the
gradually spread across many parts of the
area as a protected forest. Bisnoi Khejarli
Himalayan Mountains forcing the
movement is perhaps, the first greatest
government to officially ban logging from
ecological movement of modern India.
1980. The movement symbolises the
Quotable
uote
- successful fusion of three major ideologies
of feminism, environmentalism and
“A chopped head is cheaper than a Gandhism
felled tree.”
B. Chipko Movement
Chipko movement was a non-violent

popular, ecological movement organised
by villagers in the mountain state of
Uttarkhand in 1973. ‘Chipko’ in Hindi
'Ecology is permanent economy'
means to hug. The agitators of Chipko
- Sundarlal Bahuguna
movement embraced the trees to protect
them from being cut thereby earning the C. Appiko Movement
name Chipko movement. The contractors
of sports goods company began to cut The Appiko movement is an
the trees in the Alknanda valley of the ecological protest movement in Uttar
Uttarkhand state (part of Utter Pradesh Kannada district of Karnataka in the
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Western Ghats. It was inspired by the The Kerala Sasthra Sahitya Parishad,
Chipko Movement and ‘appiko’ in other civil society organisations and
Kannada means to embrace. The Uttar ecologically-conscious people conducted
Kannada district falls in the Western an intense protest against the project.
Ghats. The launch of many developmental They criticised the negative impact of
projects in the district has precipitated the project on the environment especially
deforestation reducing the forest cover the bio diversity of the valley. The Kerala
of the district from a massive 81 percent government, in the face of stiff opposition
in 1950 to an alarming 24 percent in from diverse sections of society dropped
1980. The ecologically-conscious people the project in 1980. The valley was
launched the movement with three- declared a national park in 1985 and later
fold objectives of conservation of on it came to be designated as the core
remaining tropical forests, afforestation area of the Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve.
of the denuded forests and dissemination The Save Silent Valley movement is one of
of ideas on rational utilisation of forests. the most successful ecological movements
of India in late 20th century.
D. Save Silent Valley Movement
Glossary
The silent valley is an ecologically
rich terrain in the Western Ghats in the
Palakkad district of Kerala consisting Anarchism : A system in which no
of the tropical moist evergreen forests authority exists and cooperation among
largely undisturbed by human activities. members is the basis of its functioning
The valley is named after Sairandhiri Feminism : The ideology that seeks women
(Draupati), the wife of Pandavas in empowerment and gender equality
the Indian epic Mahabharata. Another
explanation of the nomenclature says Patriarchy : The system in which male
that when the Englishmen visited there domination over women exists in family,
during the colonial period the valley was politics, economy, culture, religion etc.
observed to be strangely silent because of Post-Colonialism : The condition of
the supposed absence of the noise-making countries in their independence period
insect Cicadas. after the end of colonialism (For example,
India after 1947)
The valley is rich in biodiversity. The
lion-tailed macaque is abundantly found Colonialism : The process in which the
in the valley. There is even an argument countries of Asia and Africa were enslaved
that the valley itself is named after the and exploited by European countries
binomial name of lion-tailed macaque, Vishakha Guidelines : The guidelines
Macaca Silenus. The Kerala State contained in the judgement of the
Electricity Board began to implement Supreme Court to protect women from
Silent Valley Hydro Electricity Project sexual harassment in working places
across the river Kunthipuzha in the valley
Gender Equality : Equality between man
in the 1970s.
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and woman Anthropocentrism : The attitude that

Common Good : The common welfare or places the human as the superior life form
interest of the community and other biological forms as inferior
ones existing for the pleasure and life of
Not Unencumbered Self : Human being Human Beings
is not a completely free person as he lives
Biocentric Equality : All biological life
along with others in the community
forms are equal and human beings are
Situated Self : Human being is rooted in not superior to other animals and plants
the community in this planet
Reductionism : The approach to reduce Inter Generational Justice : The present
the world to one particular factor while generation must hand over this planet
interpreting it to future generations without greedily
Universalism : The belief that one factor destroying the environment
or idea is universally valid. Sustainable Development : We should
consume natural resources carefully
Particularism : The approach that every
keeping in mind the needs of future
entity has its own particular identity or
generations.
validity. Every region, community, culture
is special or unique Deep Ecology : We should understand
deeply the negative impact of activities
Deconstruction : Understanding the of the human beings on environment and
hidden and inner meanings while reading the urgent need to preserve the ecology of
or interpreting something without the world
accepting the apparent meaning
Chipko Movement : In Hindi it means
Identity Politics : The political Hug. The people hugged the trees to
mobilization of the usually less privileged protect them from being cut
around their language, race, gender, caste Appiko Movement : In Kannada language
etc. for achieving justice, equality and Appiko means Hug. The people hugged
development the trees in Karnataka to save them from
being cut
Evaluation

1. Find out the false statement about Anarchism
a) It strives for Anarchy

b) It supports order
c) It argues for co-operation among human beings
d) It is against the state
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2. Among the following who believed in Anarchism?

a) Karl Marx b) Joseph Proudhon
c) Adam Smith d) John Locke
3. Which institution was opposed by Anarchism as exploitative in nature?

a) State b) Private Property
c) Religion d) All the Above
4. Feminism seeks to promote the empowerment of

a) Women b) Children
c)Minorities d) Tribes
5. The meaning of the statement “Personal is Political” is

a) We should discuss the personal life of leaders
b) We should expect political honesty
c) We should speak about the political rights of women in family and politics
d) We should ignore the personal life of politicians
6. Who is called the Father of Postmodernism?

a) Jacques Derrida b) Michel Foucault
c) Fredrick Nietzsche d) Karl Marx
7. Who coined the term “Deep Ecology”?

a) Michel Foucault b) Robert D Putnam
c) Audre Lorde d) Arne Naess
8) Find out the wrong statement of Post Modernism

a) It repudiates modernity
b) It says that the truth is not singular but plural
c) It opposes universalism
d) It rejects particularism
9. Post Modernism is linked with

a) Identity Politics b) National Politics
c) International Politics d) Class Politics
10. Communitarianism believes in

a) Religion c) Community
d) Class e) Language
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11. According to Communitarianism man is

a) Atomistic b) Selfish
c) Religious d) Embedded in Community
12. Communitarianism propagates
a) Natural Rights b) Moral Rights
c) Positive Rights d) Economic Rights
13. Match the following
1. Modernist Ecology A. Biocentric Equality
2. Deep Ecology B. Reduce, Recycleand Reuse
3. Shallow Ecology C. Hug the Trees Movement
4. Chipko Movement D. Sustainable Development
14. Appiko Movement meant a movement
a) Hug the trees to save them b) Serve the poor by feeding them
c) Educate the less privileged people d) Cure the illness of the people
15. The school of Feminism more apt for the women of countries like India, Namibia is
a) Post-Colonial Feminism b) Liberal Feminism
c) Radical Feminism d) Marxian Feminism
16. A
ssertion : The Deep Ecology concept advocates Biocentric Equality
Reason: Man is not superior to other biological forms in this planet. All forms of life
including man are equal

1. Explain the term Anthropocentrism.
2. What is Identity Politics?
3. Find out the meaning of the term “Situated Self ”
4. What are Vishakha Guidelines?
5. Provide the meaning of Feminism.
6. Why does Anarchism say that the state is an unnecessary evil?
7. Give the etymological origin of Anarchism.
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1. Comment on the famous statement of Radical Feminism “Personal is Political”
2. Provide an account on the concept of Deep Ecology.
3. Elaborate the concept of Positive Rights of Communitarianism.
4. Identify the solutions of Shallow Ecology to protect environment.

1. Critically evaluate the chief characteristics of Anarchism.
2. Discuss the various schools of Feminism.
3. Enumerate the major Environmental Movements of India.
4. Examine the stand of Communitarianism on Man, Society, Rights and Justice.
Reference books
1. Gauba, O.P.(2009) An Introduction to Political Theory, New Delhi: Macmillan

Publishers India Ltd.
2.
Heywood, Andrew (2003) Political Ideologies: An Introduction, London:
Macmillan
3. Naess, A. (1973) ‘The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movement: a
summary’. Inquiry, vol. 16
4. R ajeev Bhargava & Ashok Acharya (Ed), (2016) Political theory: An Introduction,
New Delhi: Thomson press.
5. R amasamy, Sushila (2009) “Political Theory – Ideas and Concepts, Chennai:
Macmillan India Ltd.
6. IGNOU Political Science Study Materials, B.A and M.A
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UNIT
10 Public Opinion and Party System
In fact, democracy
Learning Objectives
derives its authority from
T
o define the meaning of party the people. Public opinion
system is not the opinion of an
T
o identify the role, function and individual, though he
types of party system within a or she may be a highly
democracy respected person. It is not a private
T
o trace the historical evolution of opinion. It is also not an expert opinion,
the party system in modern times. irrespective of the wisdom of the expert.
T
o outline the structure of the party Public opinion is an organized and
system in India at the national and considered opinion of a section or many
regional levels sections of the people on any public issue
T
o evaluate the importance of public or concern.
opinion in the effective functioning
Role of Public Opinion:
of a democracy
T
o assess the impact and limitations Public opinion is an essential element for
of the party system successful working of a democracy where
the views of all citizens are respected and
10.1 Defining Public Opinion: no government can survive by ignoring it.
Public opinion can be defined as 10.2 H

indrances to formation of a
a psychological and social process in genuine public opinion
which the behaviour of each member Public opinion needs to be the true
of the public is conditional to that of all reflection of the peoples` ideas and
others with similar beliefs. In short it is opinion, however there are some
the collective views of the people, their hindrances to genuine public opinion;
attitudes and opinions.
Selfish interests (Me above nation): The
It is the people’s collective preferences interest of the people seeking personal
on matters relating to government and advancement over the affairs of their own
politics. It is based on the premise that country. People need to be sensitized
collective individual opinions matters in towards important issues related to unity,
a democracy and public opinion should commitment, integrity and progress of the
carry more weight than individual opinion. nation.
Others opine that public opinion can be
Illiteracy: It is expected that literate and
influenced and controlled by organized
responsible public make good citizens
groups, government leaders, and media
by exercising their franchise without
elite.
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fear or favour. Illiterate masses are often 10.3 Definition of Political Parties
misled by party workers and guided
Political parties are indispensable
by sentiments, favours and rhetoric. A
instruments in a democratic system. They
sound public opinion can be formed only
are formed with definite ideologies, and
in the environment of free thought and
programme of action. They enlighten the
knowledge.
general public on issues concerning the
(a) Poverty: The poor in any country are society and state and they also prescribe
easily influenced by the false promise alternatives. Through propaganda they
of political leaders and cast their votes educate people on political issues and
subjectively. Sound and objective public garner their support for their policies and
opinion is possible only by alleviating programme.
poverty. There is consistent competition
between the various political parties
(b) Racist and Caste based
and this competition ensures the mature
Discrimination: Sentiments that provoke
functioning of a democracy.
discrimination based on caste, creed
and religion create a divide among the
ACTIVITY
masses that are often manipulated by
political parties for their advantage. Social
disharmony in the country is detrimental Following are the lists of various
to the effective working of a democracy. functions of political parties in a
(c) Freedom of speech and the media: democracy:
 Parties contest in elections
 Parties put forward different policies
and programmes
 Parties make laws for the country
 Parties form and run government
 Parities play the role of the opposition
 Parties shape public opinion
 Parties provide people the access to
government welfare schemes
Unbiased, objective and independent
media as well as respect for individual Follow the newspaper for one month and
freedom of speech and assembly play a collect news items related to the various
very significant role in the formation of functions of political parties
healthy opinion. The vital importance of
an independent and impartial media that
respects peoples freedom and exercises
responsible news reporting are important Quotable
uote
In a democracy public opinion is
criteria for formation of mature and
harnessed through political parties.
responsive public opinion.
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10.4 Functions of Political Parties
In a democracy, political parties A political party is a group

serve as an integral link through which of people who come together to
government and the public can interact. contest elections and hold power in
Political Parties act as a foundation that the government. They agree on some
orients the people towards political policies and programmes for the
initiatives and public experience. Political society with a view to promote the
Parties work to influence political collective good.
thought and opinion with the intention of Types of Party Systems
mobilizing votes. They provide a platform
for political, economic and social activism Different types of party system
have evolved in various parts of the globe
that serves as a training ground for future
depending on the particular elements of
regional and national leadership. In the
democracy practiced. By and large the
long run they hold leaders accountable quality of a democracy is determined by
for their actions through rigorous debate how the government is representative of its
and queries both within the party as well people, how accountable the government is
as through opposition parties. Thus the to its people, how human rights and equality
people are presented with a diverse choice of status and opportunity is guaranteed
of candidates, ideologies and approaches to all citizens and the level of political
participation exercised by the people. The
to various issues governing the nation.
various types of party system address these
Their confidence in democracy is thus
issues in different ways, thereby determining
reinforced in the knowledge that they can the quality of democracy practiced.
bring about change and transformation
should a majority of the population desire
a transformation in the way they are
governed. One Party
System
The Party System Types of Party

Systems
The party system helps to operate Two Party Multi Party

and stabilize governments and they are System System
particularly relevant for the effective
functioning of democracies. The party A. One Party System
system provides a system of checks and
In a one party system, a single
balances against the government’s policies.
political party exercises its right to form
By soliciting popular support among
the government, which is often derived
the masses and providing a structure for from a written or unwritten constitution.
leadership and dialogue within the party In most cases under a one party system,
according to specific party objectives and there is less participation and weaker
agenda, it helps sustain good governance. accountability. Examples: Communist
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Party of China, (CPC) the Peoples` Action opposition party in two-party systems.
Party (PAP)in Singapore, Korean Workers The Two-Party system has far greater
Party, (KWP) North Korea, Communist accountability by the political leaders and
Party of Vietnam (CPV) Vietnam, greater political participation. The threat
Communist Party of Cuba (CPC) Cuba. of being voted out by the opposition hangs
The single party system does not provide as a ‘Damocles sword’ on the incumbent
adequate space for democratic expressions thereby guaranteeing a higher degree of
and not provide scope for alternative. For
responsible conduct and action. However
example in the 1920s fascist movements
since the political atmosphere is heavily
advocating nationalistic militarism,
polarized, drastic changes can happen
captured power in Germany under Hitler,
in Italy under Mussolini and in Spain once a party loses power which may
under General Franco. They prevented prove detrimental to national interests.
other political parties to emerge. Examples of the two-party system include
USA –Democrats and Republicans and
B. Two Party System
UK Conservatives and Liberals.
In the two party system, two
However, in either country there is
political parties, with distinctly different
no constitutional restriction on number
interests have equal opportunity to attain
a majority and form the government. of parties. The constitutional procedures
The majority party is the governing and peoples’ political maturity led to the
party and the minority party forms the emergence of two party system.
Winner -Take - All

rules
Existing parties make
rules to perpetuate Only one winner
their power (loser gets nothing)
How the two-party

system perpetuates
itself
Fewer parties flourish Strategic voting and
the "wasted vote"
Voters choose not to sup- theory
port parties that they do
not view as viable
Lack of voters support
discourages formation of
minor parties
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C. Multi-Party system social-economic progress. While single

party system may have greater flexibility
In the Multi- party system,
towards quicker decisions making and
multiple political parties are capable of
cohesive action, these decisions may not
garnering popular support and forming a
represent mass opinion and thus it would
government, either as a majority party or in
create greater opposition and dissent for
coalition with many non-majority parties
the government.
with similar political objectives. In this
system, the political leaders are constantly
The Role of Political Parties in a Democracy
observed and checked by checks and What are political parties?
balances by their coalition partners. They
are also subject to rigorous accountability  They recruit and run candidates for
to the people. The multi-party system public office under the party level
offers the electorate the multiple avenues  They try to organize and coordinate
of political participation and the ability the activities of government officials
to bring about political change for greater under the party name.
national development. Many political scientists believe that
The proportional representation parties are essential to democracy
system in France and Italy results in  The political party is seen by some
multi-party systems and coalition cabi- as the main instrument of popular
nets. sovereignty and majority rule.
Examples of countries with  When political parties are working
multi-party systems include Canada, properly they can be essential tools
France, Germany, India and Sweden. of popular sovereignty
ACTIVITY In the dual party system due to the

nature of the party structure and
THINK – PAIR – SHARE leadership, this usually result in public
Topic for Pair :Why is one party system policies and decisions blocked in political
not considered a good option? polarization rather than collaboration.
While in Multi party systems, the
performance is on the basis of deliberation
10.5 Role of Political Parties in a
and negotiation between coalition
Democracy
members, and issues are mostly settled by
The existence of political parties is reaching a mutually derived consensus
largely responsible for ensuring the quality after debate and discussion. Thus, political
and effectiveness of a democracy. In a parties are the drivers of a democracy that
federal multicultural and plural societies are necessary to safeguard the rights and
such as the United States of America and freedoms of the people. Through effective
India, the maintenance of peace, unity Citizenship training and greater civic
and communal harmony are vital for participation, youth in democratic nations
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can play a greater role in political parties on the anti slavery platform and gained
thereby fostering more mature and wider pre-dominance with Abraham Lincoln as
democratization in countries. President of USA. Since the United States
settled for the Two-Party system, the
Quotable
uote Republican and Democratic parties have
dominated the American political scene,
Political parties are the drivers of a
democracy. though third party candidates have been
floated on and off.
Politicians exercised oratorical and
leadership skills to create public Two Party System
opinion.  R
are around the world
 E
venly balanced national at
10.6 Modern Party system National and local level
A. Party system in the United Kingdom  E
lectoral system
In the United Kingdom, polarization  W
inner take all
of opinions on issues relating to the status  W
asted vote
and role of monarchy led to the emergence  P
riority system
of two parties:  B
road coalitions form before
A. Tories or Conservatives and election
B. Whigs or liberals.  O
pinion of voters
 D
ifficult for third parties to get
In the 20th century labour party
on ballot
became a major force eclipsing the liberals.
B. Party System in the USA C. Party system in Europe:

After the French Revolution (1789),
N
The founding fathers of the United

W E
S
States wanted to steer clear of political democratic forces gained strength in

parties and the ensuing factional conflict European Nations, and political parties
between them. Nevertheless, after emerged. Political parties in Continental
American Independence, the first parties Europe were largely divided into
in the newly constituted nation under the Conservatives, Liberals, and Christian
Presidency of George Washington were Democrats. By the 19th century socialist
the Federalist Party supporting a strong movements gained popularity and social
national government and the Democratic democratic or labor parties emerged
Republican Party supporting state which became popular and gained trade
autonomy. union support.
In 1828, the democratic Republican In Soviet Russia, the Bolshevik

Party was renamed as the Democratic Party Party, was responsible for the Communist
which championed state rights. In 1854, Revolution in 1917 which created
the Republican Party established itself the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist
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Republics), popularly called the Soviet Congress began to demand absolute

Union. The COMINTERN (Communist political freedom. In the 20th century,
International) was established with the the parties with communal agenda have
task of encouraging world communist also come up i.e. The All India Muslim
revolution by supporting Communist League in 1906 and Hindu Maha Sabha in
parties in other countries. After the end 1916. In the Madras Presidency the South
of the Cold War era, the Communist Indian Liberal Federation (Justice Party)
party lost its popularity in Russia, though was formed to project their interest of the
some minor communist parties still Non-Brahmins (Dravidian)
influence governmental policies within Justice party was formed with the
democratic states. Communist Parties demand that political opportunities
however continue to control authoritarian and political positions should not be
governments in China and North Korea. monopolized by one particular small
social segment and these must be fairly
D. Party System in South Africa distributed among all communities.
In African countries, political
The Constitution of parties
were at first However, the Indian National
Southformed
Africa to secure Congress represented the urban, upper
decolonization.
 Universal adultIn suffrage
many decolonized
vote at 18
African countries, political parties caste elite, mostly western educated and
 A national common voters roll are provided a platform for negotiations
struggling
 Regularhardelection
against militarism.
with the British government. Gradually
 A multi-party system of
the Indian National Congress evolved to
democrate government to ensure play a pivotal role in the development of
accountability, responsiveness and India’s political party system. After the
openness partition of Bengal in 1905, the Indian
National Congress was divided between
E. Party System in India the Moderates and the Extremists. The
formation of the Muslim league in 1906
The party system in India emerged resulted in the era of conflicting political
along with the rise of nationalism and out bargaining, reflected the true beginnings
of the freedom struggle against British of the Indian party system.
rule. While Indian politics today represent
a multi-party system, for long periods
in Indian political history, one party has
dominated the political stage. The Indian
National Congress (INC) was established
in 1885 by A. O Hume, as the indigenous
base for the political participation of
Indians in legislative and political wings. The entry of Mahatma Gandhi into the
It demanded political reforms in gradual political scene with his moral-ethical focus
stages. After the non-cooperation on non-violence as a political ideology and
movement (1921-23) Indian National strategy, transformed the Indian National
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Congress to represent all sections of Indian representative of the multicultural social

society- the poor agriculturalists and lower nexus and diversity that is observed in
caste people. Other parties that also emerged contemporary India. It is observed that old
representing specific goals which included parties became obsolete and defunct, and
the Swaraj Party formed by Chittaranjan Das new parties have emerged that represent
in 1922, the Congress Socialist Party, formed and seek to address the trans formative
in 1934 by Acharya Narendra Dev and challenges faced by various diverse
Jayaprakash Narayan and the Communist sections of the people. Since the 1990’s
Party, formed in the 1920’s by the efforts of M. we see a federalization of politics with
N. Roy were the other major political parties. regional parties gaining greater influence,
There were a number of political representative of regional aspirations
parties which carry on political campaigns against the dominance of the Centre.
and propaganda, but do not contest
elections, they function as pressure
groups. Till 1977, the Communist Party,
the socialist parties, and the right wing
Janasangh and Swatantra Party were the
mentionable opposition parties at the
national level. Until 1977, no single party
could become an alternative to Indian
National Congress at national level. Hence,
a number of so called national parties,
under the stewardship of Jayaprakash In the present period, regional
Narayan, merged to create a large national alliances indicate a growing trend towards
alternative party known as Janata Party. coalition governments that form an
In 1977, it captured power at the centre. effective voice in favour of federal polity.
Yet this party lacked cohesion and unity This fragmentation is largely due to the
and became shattered after 1980. The regionalization of politics, with parties
Jana Sangh was revived with a new name having high support base in specific areas.
Bhartiya Janata Party, Meanwhile Kanshi Regional Parties
Ram’s Bahujan Samaj Party emerged as
Shiromani Akali Dal in the Punjab,
national level party with social justice as
Samajwadi Party in the Uttar Pradesh,
its main plank. After a spert as Communist
Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh,
Party. The Communist Party of India
Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) in Bihar,
(Marxist) became very powerful in a few
Trinamool Congress in West Bengal,
states like Kerala,West Bengal and Tripura.
Telangana Rashtra Samithi in Telangana,
The 1990s was the period of an Asom Gana Parishad in Assam, Shiv Sena in
increasing quest towards coalition Maharastra, National Conference, People
governments in Indian politics. The Democratic Party in Jammu & Kashmir,
Indian Political System became more Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam(DMK)
competitive, more democratized and more and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra
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Kazhagam (AIADMK) in Tamil Nadu

Trinamul congress in Bengal are some of
the major regional parties.
While there is growing political
awareness among the electorate, there is
also greater mobilization along lines of
regional, social and religious identities.
There is a widespread difference in the
composition of political groups, and
The Party System in Tamil Nadu is
characteristics of political and social
a pioneer model of the pre-eminence of
groups between one region and another.
the regional parties in state politics of
Party System in Tamil Nadu independent India. There are very clear socio-
In Tamil Nadu, like most Indian economic, cultural and historical reasons
states, the early independence period was for this development. The long history of
dominated by the Congress party. rationalist and social justice movements
However, issues of caste hierarchy, and the from the colonial era and the mobilization of
rising North South divide eroded the Dravidian consciousness since the beginning
popularity of Congress leadership in the of 20th century have fundamentally
state. The Dravidian movement transformed the nature of politics and the
regenerated in Tamil Nadu under Periyar future of party system in state politics. The
E.V Ramasamy and garnered popularity past 52 years Dravidian parties have been at
on assertion of Dravidian Rights and the helm of affairs in Tamil Nadu.
Dignity and through an anti-North, anti-
10.7 R
ole of Political Parties in a
Hindi, anti-Brahmin social agenda.
Democracy
For the effective functioning of
N a democracy, the existence of political
E
W
parties that represent conflicting interests
S
is mandatory. While they advocate
various interests and policies, largely
political parties adopt Rightist ideology
(conservative, traditional and capitalistic)
or Leftist (pro-equality, liberal and labour
interests). While it is true that political
parties are essential for attaining the
democratic ideal, the rise of individual
parties with non-democratic agenda
and authoritarian leadership is a critical
challenge to Democracy. This is very
relevant in the case of a multicultural,
Map not to scale multilingual, multi religious and
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economically diverse country like India, techniques with various public policy
only political parties can truly represent issues and are therefore called pressure
the multidimensional interests of people groups. Professional pressure groups may
from every corner of the country. It include business interests, trade unions,
is vital in a democracy like India that Farmers, Teachers and Students, Doctors,
political parties exercise maturity and culture groups, and institutional groups.
maintain a secular position, the precious Pressure Groups play an important role in
and precarious unity and stability of India the Indian political system by acting as a
cannot be maintained. It is in the interests link and source of communication between
of the nation, that responsibly and the masses and the political parties.
principled parties show a level of maturity They sensitize the public towards vital
and responsibility in exercising their socio-economic issues and through their
duties and functions for the sustainability lobbying, influence both the government
of democratic institutions. and the administrative policies.
Role of Opposition in a Democracy "Leadership and learning
The relationship between party system are indispensable to each
and democracy will be incomplete without other."
the discussion of the role of opposition John F. Kennedy
parties in democracy. Democracy has no
meaning without an effective opposition Psephology
party or parties in the country. The nature Psephology deals
of democracy is not only determined by with the study and
the strength of ruling party alliance but statistical analysis
also in the role and functioning of the of elections and
opposition party alliance. In fact, the polls. Public
leader of the Opposition party enjoys the opinion polls play
status and privileges of the rank of cabinet an important role in psephology. They
minister. A weak opposition leads to either analyze both Opinion Polls and Exit
a government without accountability or the Polls as well as election results. Opinion
tyranny of the majority. Polls and Exit Polls are both important
Pressure or Interest groups also play indicators of voter’s choice during the
an important role in special issues and elections.
events. These are organized groups, having
common political and social interests, which
influence decisions from outside. Pressure
groups have voluntary membership and
lobby for specific interests. Unlike political
parties, pressure groups do not contest
elections. The Pressure Groups are able to
influence the government through various
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The main difference between the By-election: When a seat in Legislature

two is that opinion poll is conducted becomes vacant between general elections
before the voter actually votes and the exit (often because the incumbent has either
poll is conducted after a voter comes out resigned, defected to another party or died),
after casting his or her vote. Results of exit a by-election is held.
polls are generally considered to be more
Election: The process whereby eligible
trustworthy than that of opinion polls.
persons vote to determine who will hold a
The result of opinion polls may political office.
or may not actually collaborate the Elector: A person who is included in the
actual results. Yet they are important in electoral roll for an electorate.
generating opinions among the unsure
and undecided as well as help to sustain a Election Commission: The Election
balance in voting practices for all parties Commission is an independent autonomous
concerned. entity responsible for the administration
of Parliamentary and State Legislature
Glossary Assembly elections and related works.
Ballot box : The box at a polling place
Political Party: An organization that seeks into which a stamped ballot paper is to be
to achieve political power by electing its dropped.
members to public office Coalition:A Government is formed by more
One-party system: A system in which a than one party when no single party sets
single political party has the right to form the absolute majority.
government, usually based on the existing Electoral roll: The list of all the registered
constitution, or where only one party has electors for a particular electorate kept by
the exclusive control over political power the Registrar of Electors.
Two-party system: A system where only two Electoral System: The general name for
parties or alliances, typically placed either all the rules concerning elections, i.e. the
side of the centre, have a realistic chance of voting system, boundaries, registration of
forming a majority. Other parties are very electors, candidacy, campaign spending,
minor or solely regional. broadcasting, etc.
Multi-party system: A system in which Majority Government; A government made

multiple political parties have the capacity up of one or more political parties is formed
to gain control of government offices, by a political party which has absolute
separately or in coalition. majority in legislature.
Ballot: This piece of paper contains Democracy: Government by the people,

information on the symbols and names of through free, fair and periodical elections.
the candidates contesting in a constituency.
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Evaluation
I Choose the correct answer:

1. A
group of people who come close to each other
to attain their common aim of power is known as
a) Political party c) Interest group
b) Factional group d) Political leadership
2. Which of these is the main component of political party?

(a) Leaders (b) Followers
(c) Active members (d) All of these
3. Which of these are a function of political party?
(a) To contest election (b) To form and run government
(c) To form public opinion (d) All of these
4. Political party that runs the government is ….
(a) Ruling party (b) Interest group
(c) Opposition party (d) Factional group
5. The rise of political parties is directly linked to….
(a) Emergence of representative democracies
(b) Large scale societies
(c) Mechanism of restrain and support the government
(d) All of these
6. System with one party is known as….
(a) Single party system (b) Multi-party system
(c) Bi-party system (d) None of these
7. System of two parties is known as….
(a) Single party system (b) Multi-party system
(c) Bi-party system (d) None of these
8. Which of these countries have Uni-party system?

(a) China (b) North Korea (c) Cuba (d) All of these
9. Which of these countries have Bi-party system?

(a) India (b) England (c) France (d) Pakistan
10. What is the symbol of Congress Party?

(a) Symbol of Lotus (b) Symbol of Hand
(c) Symbol of elephant (d) Symbol of clock
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11. Lotus’ is the symbol of which party?

(a) Indian National Congress (b) Bahujan Samaj Party
(c) Bhartiya Janata Party (d) CPI (M)
12. Public Opinion plays a vital role in:
(a) Democratic system
(b) Dictatorial system
(c) Both democratic as well as dictatorial systems
(d) The smooth working of all types of political systems
13. The two major political parties of U.S.A. are
(a) Independent and Democratic (b) Republican and Democratic
(c) Democratic and Socialist (d) Republican and Communist
14. Psephology deals with
(a) statistical analysis of elections and polls
(b) Opinion Polls and Exit Polls
(c) Public opinion
(d) All the above.
15. A
ssertion: Political parties mobilize public opinion.
Reason: Public opinion influences election results.
Directions: Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
in the context of the two statements which of the following is correct?
1. Define political party.
2. Write a note on Single Party System.
3. Write a short note on Multi-Party system.
4. Make a brief note on regional political party.
5. List out the major political parties in India.
6. Define public opinion.
7. Explain the role of opposition party in India.
1. Explain the role of political parties in a democracy.
2. List out the functions of political parties.
3. Bring out the types of party system.
4. Discuss the merits and demerits of multi- party system.
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1. Elucidate the merits and demerits of bi-party system.
2. Give an account on political parties in India.
3. Write an essay on Public opinion in India.
Reference books
1. Boix, C. Emergence of Parties and Party systems.Oxford handbook of comparative

politics. July 2009.
2. Kothari,R. Politics in India. New Delhi. Orient Longman.2003
3. Mehta, A.K. Political parties and party systems. New Delhi. Sage Publications. 2003
4. Palmobara, J.L & Weiner,M. Eds. Origin and development of political parties.
Princeton, 1972
5. Pandian, M.S.S., Brahmin and Non-Brahmin: Genealogies of the Tamil Political
Present. Manohar: New Delhi, 2007.
ICT CORNER
Unit-10 Public Opinion and Party System

will learn about the structure
of party system in the state
level.
Structure of Party System in The State Level

Steps
1. Use the URL or QR code to open the How the state government works page.
2. An activity window will open, click the navigation key on the bottom right corner of
the activity window.
3. After a small introduction story, an explanation of state government will start.
4. Explore the different aspects of the state government by clicking the forward navigation
button.
Download Link
URL: mocomi.com/how-does-state-government-work/
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UNIT
11 Election and Representation
11.1 Meaning and nature of Franchise Part XV of the

and Representation Indian Constitution
titled “Elections” is of
What is Franchise and Election?
great importance. The
The right to vote in public elections. constitution –makers had been anxious to
The word “Franchise” is of Anglo-French safeguard this political right as an integral
derivation-from Franc, meaning FREE. part of the constitution itself. It is for this
An election is the process of voting to important reason that the subject of
choose someone to be their political elections has been accorded a
leader or representative in government. constitutional recognition in our country.
Part xv, Articles 324-329 deals with

Elections Article 326 of the Indian
Constitution says that the elections
to the Lok Sabha and to the Vidhan
And what is Representation?
Sabha of every state shall be on the
It is nothing but the action of speaking or
basis of Adult Suffrage.
acting on behalf of someone or the state
of being so represented.
Although elections were used in
Learning Objectives
Ancient Athens, Rome and in the selection
 T
o enable the students to understand of Popes and Holy Roman Emperors, the
the meaning of election and origins of elections in the contemporary
representation.
world was in the gradual emergence of
 T
o explain the term ‘Psephology’.
representative government in Europe and
 T
o enable students to understand
North America which began in the 17th
the various methods of election.
century. In a representative democracy
 T
o gain awareness about the Election
Commission of India. elections are extremely important. Voting,
 T
o know the importance of Anti- in elections is the best way to make your
Defection Law. voice heard. One fact that makes elections
 T
o enlighten about the need of free more important is when political parties
and fair elections. try to suppress voting with the use of
 T
o bring out the role of youth in laws to disallow people to vote. Election
politics. and representation is the core for the
formation of government.
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Democratic Electoral System What makes an Election Democratic?

Let us study the most essential features of  Everyone should be able to choose.
a democratic electoral system. A This means that everyone should
democratic electoral system can be said to have one vote and every vote should
be one where… have equal value.
 There should be something to
choose from parties and candidate
should be free to contest elections
and should offer some real choice to
the voters.
 The choice should be offered at
regular intervals. Elections should
be held regularly after every few
years.
 The candidate preferred by the
Features of a Democratic Electoral System people should get elected.
Why do we need Elections ?  Elections should be conducted in a

free and fair manner where people
Election is a mechanism by which
can choose as they really wish.
people can choose their representatives
at regular intervals and change them if An election is a formal decision
they wish to do so. This mechanism is making process by which a population
called Election. Therefore, elections are chooses an individual to hold public office.
considered essential in our times for any Elections fill offices in the legislatures,
representative government. Hence in sometimes in the executive and judiciary
most democracies, people rule through and for regional and local government.
their representatives.
11.2 Types of Representation/
In an election the voters make many Reservation of Constituencies
choices:
Election Systems-Plurality/Majority
 They can choose who will make laws for
Systems
them
 They can choose who will form the What are Plurality / Majority
government and take major decisions Systems? The principle of plurality/
 They can choose the party whose majority system is simple. After votes have
policies will guide the government and been cast and totalled, those candidates or
law making. parties with the most votes are declared
the winners. However, the way this is
Psephology is the study of achieved in practice varies widely. Five
results and other statistics relating to types of plurality/majority systems can be
Elections… identified.
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B. Block Vote (BV)

ACTIVITY
The Block –Vote is common in
Do you know when the last countries with weak or non-existent
Assembly Election was held in your political parties. The Cayman Islands,
State? Which other elections have taken The Falkland Islands, Guernsey, Kuwait,
place in your locality in the last five Laos, Lebanon, the Maldives, Palestine,
years? Write down the level of elections the Syrian Arab Republic etc use Block
Vote electoral systems.
(National, Assembly, Panchayat etc.)
When were they held? Find out the
details of the MLA/MP who got elected Block Vote is a plurality/majority
from your area. system used in multi-member
districts. Electors have as many votes
A. First Past The Post (FPTP) as there are candidates to be selected.
The candidates with the highest vote
B. Block Vote(BV)
totals win the seats. Usually voters
C. Party Block Vote(PBV) vote for candidates rather than parties
D. Alternative Vote(AV) and in most systems may use as many,
E. Two-Round Systems(TRS) or as few,of their votes as they wish
A. First Past The Post (FPTP)
The Block Vote is often applauded
The First Past The Post system is the for retaining the voter’s ability to vote for
simplest form of plurality/majority individual candidates and allowing for
system, using single member districts and reasonably-organized geographical districts
candidate-centered voting. FTPT systems while at the same time, increasing the role
are found primarily in the UK and those of political parties compared with FPTP and
countries historically influenced by strengthening those parties which demonstrate
Britain. Along with the UK, the other most coherence and organizational structure.
countries are Canada, India and the USA. C. Party Block Vote (PBV)
FPTP is also used by a number of PBV is simple to use, encourages
Caribbean countries, Bangladesh, Burma, strong parties and allows for parties to put
India, Malaysia, Nepal and small island up mixed slates of candidates in order to
countries of the South Pacific. facilitate minority representation. It can be
used to help to ensure balanced ethnic
representation. Dijibouti, Singapore,
FPTP is the simplest form of
plurality/majority electoral system. Senegal, Tunisia use the PBV method.
The winning candidate is the one
who gains more votes than any other Party-Block Vote is a plurality/
candidate, even if this is not an majority system using multi- member
absolute majority of valid votes. The
districts in which voters cast a single
system uses single-member districts
party-centered vote for a party of
and the voters vote for candidates
rather than political parties. choice, and do not choose between
candidates
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D. The Alternative Vote (AV) Various Methods Of Minority

This system enables voters to express Representation
their preferences between candidates rather
Proportional
than simply their first choice. Hence it is Representation
known as ‘Preferential Voting’. AV is used in
Australia, Fiji and Papua Guinea. By
Limited Vote Cummulative
transferring ballots, it enables the votes of Vote System
System
several candidates to accumulate, so that
diverse but related interests can be combined
to win representation. Separate Joint Electorate
Electorate with Reservation
System of seats
The Alternative Vote is a

preferential plurality system that voters Is it good to have political competition?
use in single member districts. Voters Elections are all about political
use numbers to mark their preference competition. This competition takes
on the Ballot paper. various forms. The most obvious form is
the competition among political parties.
E. The Two- Round System (TRS) At the constituency level, it takes the form
The central feature of the Two-Round of competition among several candidates.
System is as the name suggests: it is not one If there is no competition, elections will
election but takes place in two rounds, often a become pointless. Though an electoral
week or a fortnight apart. This system is used competition leads to a sense of disunity
to elect national legislatures and are most and factionalism in every locality, regular
common methods used worldwide for the electoral competition provides incentives to
direct election of Presidents. TRS is used by political parties and leaders. They know that
the Central African Republic, Congo, Gabon, if they raise issues that people want to raise,
Mali, Mauritania, Haiti, Iran, Vietnam, their popularity and chances of victory will
Tajikistan, Uzbekistan etc.
increase in the next elections. But if they
fail to satisfy the voters with their work they
The Two-Round System is a plurality/ will not be able to win again.
majority system in which a second What is our system of Elections?
election is held if no candidate or party After five years the term of all the
achieves a given level of votes, most
elected representatives comes to an end. The
commonly an absolute majority (50
Lok Sabha or Vidhan Sabha stands dissolved.
percent plus one), in the first election
Elections are held in all the constituencies
round. A TRS may take a majority –
plurality form where more than two at the same time, either on the same day or
candidates contest the second round within a few days. This is called a general
and the one who wins the highest election. Sometimes election is held only for
number of votes in the second round is one constituency to fill the vacancy caused
elected regardless of whether they have by death or resignation of a member. This is
won an absolute majority or not. called By–Election.
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Electoral Constituencies Legislative Assemblies. They may not

have the required resources, education
The people of Tamilnadu electing 39
and contacts to contest and win elections
lok sabha MPs. In our country we follow
against others.If that happens our
an area based system of representation.
Parliament and Assemblies would be
The country is divided into different
deprived of a significant section of our
areas for the purpose of elections. These
population. That would make our
areas are called Electoral Constituencies.
democracy less representative and less
The voters who live in an area elect one
democratic.
representative.
For Lok sabha elections, the country ACTIVITY
is divided into 543 constituencies.
What is the status of women
The representative elected from each
reservation bill in the Parliament of
constituency is called a member of
India?
Parliament or an MP. One of the features
of a democratic election is that every So, the makers of our Constitution
vote should have equal value. That is thought of special system of reserved
why our constitution requires that each constituencies for the weaker sections.
constituency should have a roughly equal Some constituencies are reserved for
population within it. Similarly each state is the people who belong to the Scheduled
divided into a specific number of assembly Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST).
constituencies. In this case the elected This system of reservation was extended
representative is called the Member of later on to other weaker sections at the
Legislative Assembly or a MLA. Each district and local levels.
Parliamentary constituency has within
itself several assembly constituencies. Delimitation
The same principle applies for Panchayat The division of each state into as
and Municipal elections. Each village or many constituencies as in the Loksabha
town is divided into wards that are like from that state and State Legislative
constituencies. Each ward elects one Assemblies is done primarily on the basis
member of the village or the urban local of population census. As far as practicable,
body. Sometimes these constituencies are geographical area of constituencies were
counted as Seats, for each constituency to be delimited taking into account
represents one seat in the assembly. physical features, existing boundaries
of administrative units, facilities of
Reserved Constituencies communication and public convenience.
Our Constitution entitles every Delimitation Acts
citizen to elect its representative and to be First Delimitation Commission Act, 1952
elected as a representative. In an open
Second Delimitation Commission Act, 1963
electoral competition, certain weaker
sections may not stand a good chance to Third Delimitation Act,1973
get elected to the Lok Sabha and the State Fourth Delimitation Act, 2002.
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Voters’ List opportunity to choose representatives

irrespective of diﬀerences. In our country,
Once the constituencies are decided,
all the citizens aged 18 years and above can
the next step is to decide who can and
vote in an election. Every citizen has the
who cannot vote. This decision cannot be
right to vote, regardless of his or her caste,
left to anyone till the last day. In a
religion or gender.
democratic election, the list of those who
are eligible to vote is prepared much It is the responsibility of the
before the election and given to everyone. government to get the names of all eligible
This list is officially called the Electoral voters put on the voters’ list. Names of those
Roll or the Voters’ List. who move out of the place or those who are
dead are deleted. A complete revision of
Like in Panchayat should we not list takes place every five years. In the last
have at least one-third seats in the few years, a new system of Electoral Photo
Parliament and assemblies reserved for Identity Card (EPIC) has been introduced.
WOMEN? The voters are required to carry this card
when they go out to vote. Not compulsory,
This is an important step for, it is for voting, the voters can show many other
linked to the first condition of democratic proofs like the Aadhar Card, Ration card or
election that everyone should get an equal Driving License.
ACTIVITY
Time Sequence
Arrange the different election related activities mentioned in the left side of the table
given below in a time sequence, beginning with the first activity and ending with the last.
Disorder Order
Releasing election manifesto
Preparing the voter’s list
Counting of votes
Election campaign
Declaration of election results
Filing nomination
Ordering of re-poll
Casting of votes
Announcing election schedule
Electoral Process In India  Filing of nomination papers by the

 Delimitation of Constituencies intending candidates
 Notification of the Election  Verification and the acceptance or
 NotificationbytheElectionCommission rejection of the nomination papers
regarding Nomination and withdrawal  Election campaign
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 Polling process
 Counting of votes and announcement Which Amendment Act reduced
of Election Results the Voting age of Indian citizens from
21 to 18?
Provisions Regarding Elections in India
Every person who wishes to fill

ACTIVITY
a ‘nomination form’ has to give some
Find out the importance of the following: money as security deposit. According to
 Representation of people’s act 1950 the direction of the Supreme Court, every
and 1951 candidate has to make a legal declaration,
 Representation of people’s act 1966 giving full details of:
 Delimitation commission acts 1962
and 1972  Serious criminal cases pending against
the candidate
Nomination of Candidates  Details of the assets and liabilities of
In a democratic election the people the candidate and his or her family
should have a real choice. This happens  Educational qualifications of the
only when there are no restrictions on candidate
anyone to contest an election. This is what This information has to be made
our system provides. Anyone who can be public. This provides an opportunity to
a voter can also become a candidate in the voters to make their decision on the
the elections. The only difference is that basis of the information provided by the
in order to be a candidate, the minimum candidates.
age is 25 years, while it is only 18 years for
being a voter. Political parties nominate
Election Campaign
their candidates who get the party symbol
The main purpose of election is
and support. Party’s nomination is often
to give people a chance to choose the
called as party ‘ticket’.
representatives, the government and
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the policies they prefer. Therefore it If they do so, their election can be
is necessary to have a free and open rejected by the court even after they have
discussion about who is a better been declared elected. In addition to the
representative, which party will make laws, all the political parties in our country
a better government or what is a good have agreed to a model Code of Conduct
policy. This is what happens during for election campaigns. According to this
election campaigns. no party or candidate can:
In our country such campaigns take  U
se any place of worship for election
place for a two week period between propaganda
the announcement of the final list of  U
se government vehicles, aircrafts and
candidates and the date of polling. During officials for elections
this period the candidates approach  O
nce elections are announced,
their voters, political leaders address Ministers shall not lay foundation
election meetings and political parties stones of any projects, take any big
mobilise their supporters. This is also the policy decisions or make any promises
period when newspapers, social media, of providing public facilities.
televisions are full of election related 11.3 Free and Fair Elections
stories and debates. Election campaign
The true test of any election system
is not limited to these two weeks only.
is its ability to ensure a free and fair
Political parties start preparing for
electoral process. If we want democracy to
elections months before they actually take
be translated into reality on the ground,
place.
it is important that the election system is
In election campaigns, political impartial and transparent. The system of
parties try to focus public attention on election must allow the aspirations of the
some big issues. They want to attract the voter to find legitimate expression through
public to that issue and get them vote for the electoral results. Elections in India are
their party on that basis. In a democracy basically free and fair. The party that wins
it is best to leave political parties and an election and forms government does so
candidates free to conduct their election because people have chosen it over its rivals.
campaigns the way they want to. But This may not be true for every constituency.
it is sometimes necessary to regulate A few candidates may win purely on the
campaigns to ensure that every political basis of money power and unfair means.
party and candidate gets a fair and equal But the overall verdict of a general election
chance to compete. still reflects popular preference.
According to our election law, no
Challenges of Indian Elections to our
party or candidate can:
attention.
 B
ribe or threaten voters
 C
andidates and parties with a lot of
 A
ppeal to them in the name of caste or money may not be sure of their victory
religion but they do enjoy a big and unfair
 U
se government resources for election advantage over smaller parties and
campaign independents.
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 C andidates with criminal connection

have been able to push others out of First General Elections In India:
the electoral race and to secure a ticket
All You Need to Know…..
from major parties
 S ome families tend to dominate The first general election of
political parties; tickets are distributed 1951-1952 elected the first Lok sabha
to relatives from these families. since India became independent. The
 V ery often elections offer little choice Congress had won 364 out of 489 Lok
to ordinary citizens, for both the major sabha seats. Its vote share was 45 percent.
parties are quite similar to each other The CPI was the second party with just
both in policies and practice. 16 seats.Jawaharlal Nehru became the
 S maller parties and independent Prime Minister , the first of independent
candidates suffer a huge disadvantage India. The voters’ turnout was 67.6
compared to bigger parties. percent. 54 parties had contested this
These challenges exist not just in India election. Elections took around four
but also in many established democracies. months; October 25, 1951 to February
These deeper issues are a matter of concern 21, 1952. Election was held in 26 Indian
for those who believe in democracy. Hence states and 401 constituencies.
citizens, social activists and organisations
have been demanding reforms in our 11.4 Election Commission of India
electoral system. In a democracy, the For the conduct of free, fair and
electoral process has a strategic role. Every regular elections, Article 324 of the
ordinary man of this country would have Indian Constitution provides for a single
basic elementary right to know about Election Commission which is entrusted
a candidate who is to represent him in with the superintendence, direction and
Parliament where laws to bind his liberty control of all elections to Parliament,
and property may be enacted. state legislatures and to the offices of the
The right to get information in President and Vice –President of India.
democracy is recognised all throughout
and it is a natural right flowing from the Election Commission - An independent body.
concept of democracy. Article 19(1)(a) of
The Main objective of the
Indian Constitution provides for freedom
constitution of Election Commission
of speech and expression. Voters’ speech
of India is to have a permanent and
or expression incase of election would
independent election machinery, which is
include casting of votes, that is to say,
free from political pressure of the party in
voter speaks out or expresses by casting
power and the executive of the day, and
vote. For this purpose, information about
which could be entrusted with the task
the candidate to be selected is must. The
of holding free and fair elections to the
ordinary man may think over before
parliament and the state legislatures and
making his choice of electing law breakers
to the offices of the President and Vice-
as law makers.
President of India.
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Election Commission of India-Structure
Multi- hief Election Commissioner

 C
member body wo other election commissioners
 T
Appointment  B y the President of India

and term of  6 years or 65 years of
office age(whichever is earlier)
hief Election Commissioner-

 C
Removal from Impeachment
Office ther Election -Commissioners-
 O
Recommendation of CEC
Details of Legislative Assembly Elections Conducted in Tamilnadu
No. of Duration of
Election Dates
Elections the Assembly
1 1952-1957 1952 January 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 16, 21 and 25 (9days)
2 1957-1962 1957 March 1, 4, 6, 8 and 11 (5 days)
3 1962-1967 1962 February 17, 19, 21 and 24 (4 days)
4 1967-1971 1967 February 5, 16 and 21 (3 days)
5 1971-1976 1971 March 1, 4 and 7 (3 days)
6 1977-1980 1977 June 12 and 14 (2 days)
7 1980-1984 1980 May 20 and 31 (2 days)
8 1985-1986 1984 December 24 (1 day only)
9 1989-1991 1969 January 21 (1 day only)
10 1991-1996 1991 June 16 (1 day only)
11 1996-2001 1996 April 27 and May 2 (2 days)
12 2001-2006 2001 May 10 (1 day only)
13 2006-2011 2006 May 8 (1 day only)
14 2011-2016 2011 April 13 (1 day only)
15 2016-ongoing 2016 May 16 (1 day only)
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 The Election Commission of India

DEBATE advises the President of India or
the Governor of the concerned
Have a critical debate on social media. Is state regarding all electoral matters
social media an effective electoral tool? including questions relating to
Teacher can conduct a debate on disqualifications of members.
positive and negative aspects of Social  Settles disputes and petitions referred
Media in the election campaign. to it by the President of India or the
Governor of a state.
Powers and functions of the Election
 Decides disputes pertaining to election
Commission of India
symbol in the event of a split in the
 Preparation of the electoral rolls political party.
 Revision of electoral rolls  Has power to impose ceiling on the
 Allotment of seats election expenses of the contestants.
 Conduct of elections  Entrusted with the task of collecting
 Superintendence, direction and affidavits from the contestants to the
control of all matters pertaining to the elections regarding their assets.
elections  Has the power and duty to disqualify a
 Granting of recognition of political candidate if he/she fails to submit election
parties returns within the prescribed period.
 Allotment of symbols  It issues a notification after the
 Ensuring fair and free elections election is over, that the house is duly
constituted.
SUPREME COURT’’s Landmark Verdict To Cleanse the Polity

In a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court held on July 11,
2013 that a person, who is in jail or police custody ,cannot
contest elections to legislative bodies. A day earlier, on July 10,
2013, the same Bench had held that charge-sheeted Members
of Parliament (MP’s), Members of Legislative Assembly(MLA’s)
and Members of Legislative Councils (MLC’s), once they are
convicted for the offences, will be immediately disqualified
from holding office. The Bench struck down Section 8(4) of
the Representation of the People’s Act, which allowed convicted
MP’s and MLA’s, a three-month period for filing their appeal to Ravi Lalanth
the High Court.
Chief Electoral Officer(CEO) union territory subject to the overall

superintendence, direction and control
The chief electoral officer of a
of the election commission. The Election
state/union territory is authorised to
commission of India nominates or
supervise the election work in the state/
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designates an officer of the government of India, in consultation with the state/

of the state / union territory as the chief union territory government, appoints
electoral officer in consultation with an officer of the government or the local
the state government/ union territory authorities as the Electoral registration
administration. officer. One or more Assistant electoral
District Election Officer(DEO) registration officers to assist the Electoral
registration officer are appointed by the
Subject to the superintendence, Election commission of India.
direction and control of the chief
electoral officer, the district election Presiding Officer (PO)
officer supervises the election work of The Presiding officer with the
a district. The Election Commission of assistance of Polling officers conducts
India nominates or designates an officer the poll at a polling station. The district
of the state government as the district election officer appoints the Presiding
election officer in consultation with the officers and the Polling officers. In the case
state government. of union territories, such appointments
Returning Officer (RO) are made by the returning officers.
The returning officer of a

Election Observers (EO)
Parliamentary or Assembly constituency
is responsible for the conduct of elections The Election Commission of India
in the Parliamentary or Assembly nominates officers of government as
constituency concerned. The Election Election observers (general observers
Commission of India nominates or and election expenditure observers)
designates an officer of the government for Parliamentary and Assembly
or a local authority as the returning officer constituencies. They perform such
for each of the assembly or parliamentary functions as are entrusted to them by the
constituencies in consultation with commission. They report directly to the
the state government/union territory commission.
administration. In addition, the election
commission of India also appoints one 11.5 Electoral Reforms, Anti-Defection Law
or more assistant returning officers for and Committees related to Electoral
each of the assembly or parliamentary Reforms
consituencies to assist the returning officer
in the performance of his functions in
connection with the conduct of elections.
Electoral Registration Oﬃcer(ERO)
The Electoral registration officer is
responsible for the preparation of electoral
rolls for a parliamentary/ assembly
constituency. The Election commission
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Based on the recommendations made by  I n 1998 a provision was made whereby

the above committees and commissions, the employees of local authorities,
various reforms have been introduced nationalized banks, universities, LIC,
from time to time in our electoral government undertakings and other
system. Let us have a look at them. government aided institutions can
 L
owering the voting age from 21 to 18 be requisitioned for deployment on
through the 61st amendment act of election day.
1988.  I n 1999, a provision was made for
voting by certain classes of persons
 O
fficers, and staff engaged in
through postal ballot.
preparation, revision and correction
of electoral rolls for elections to  I n 2003, the facility to opt for voting
be on deputation to the Election through proxy was provided to the
commission. service voters belonging to the armed
forces and members belonging to a
 I ncrease of number of proposers to
force to which provisions of the Army
10% of the electors of the constituency
Act apply.
or 10 electors, whichever is less.
 I n 2003, the Election commission
 I n 1989, a provision was made to
issued an order for the declaration of
facilitate the use of electronic voting
criminal antecedents, assets etc.
machines in elections.
 I n 2003, Rajya Sabha elections were
 I n 1989, a provision was made for
reformed by removing the domicile of
adjournment of poll in case of booth
the contesting candidate and further
capturing.
introduction of open ballot system
 L
isting the name of candidates as was introduced.
candidates of recognised political  I n 2003, an exemption of travelling
parties, candidates of registered– expenditure from being included in
unrecognized political parties and the election expenses of the candidate
other(independent) candidates. was made.
 P
rohibition on the sale of liquor within  F
ree supply of electoral rolls by the
a polling area during the period of 48 government.
hours ending with the hour fixed for  I n 2009, restrictions were imposed on
the conclusion of poll. conducting exit polls and publishing
 O
n the death of a contesting candidate, the results of exit polls.
the party concerned would be given an  I n 2009, a provision was made for the
option to propose another candidate disqualification of a person found
within 7 days. guilty of corrupt practices which
 T
he registered voters are entitled for a provided for a three month time limit
paid holiday on the polling day. within which the specified authority
will have to submit the case of the
 P
rohibition of arms.
person found to be guilty.
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 A
ll officials have to be included in party after the expiry of six months from
corrupt practice. the date on which he takes his seat in the
 I ncrease in security deposit. house.
 A
ppointment of appellate authorities B. Exceptions:
within the district. Disqualifications on the ground of
 V
oting rights to citizens of India living defection does not apply, if a member goes
abroad were provided in 2010. out of his party as a result of a merger of
 C
eiling on election expenditure was the party with another party; if a member,
increased in 2011. after being elected as the Presiding officer
of the house, voluntarily gives up the
Anti-Defection Law membership of his party or rejoins after
he ceases to hold that office.
The 52nd Amendment Act of 1985
provided for the disqualification of the C. Deciding Authority:
members of Parliament and the State
Any question regarding
legislatures on the ground of defection
disqualification arising out of defection is
from one political party to another.
to be decided by the Presiding officer of
For this purpose it added the Tenth
the house.
Schedule to the Constitution. This act is
often referred to as “Anti-defection law”. D. Rule making power:
Later the 91st Amendment Act of 2003
The Presiding officer of a house is
made one change in the provision i.e.,
empowered to make rules to give effect
disqualification on ground of defection
to the provisions of the tenth schedule.
not to apply in case of split.
All such rules must be placed before
Provisions of the Act the house for 30 days. The house may
approve or disapprove them. Further he
A. Disqualification: may direct that any willful contravention
A member of a house belonging to any by any member of such rules may be dealt
political party becomes disqualified if he with in the same manner as a breach of
voluntarily gives up his membership or if privilege of the house.
he votes or abstains from voting contrary Evaluation of the Act
to any direction issued by his political
party without obtaining prior permission A. The tenth schedule of the constitution
of the party. is designed to prevent the mischief of
political defections motivated by the
An independent member of the house lure of office or material benefits
becomes disqualified to remain a member
of the house if he joins any political party B. It is intended to strengthen the fabric
after such election. of Indian Parliamentary democracy by
A nominated member of the house curbing unprincipled and unethical
gets disqualified if he joins any political political defections
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C. It provides for greater stability in the Why did India adopt the FPTP System?
body politic by checking the propensity The reason for the popularity and
of the legislators to change parties success of the FPTP system is its simplicity.
D. It facilitates democratic realignment The entire election system is extremely
of parties in the legislature by way of simple to understand even for common
merger of parties voters who may have no specialized
E. I t gives a clear cut constitutional knowledge about politics and elections.
recognition to the existence of political There is also a clear choice presented to
parties. the voters at the time of elections. Voters
Let us learn about the Rajya Sabha have to simply endorse a candidate or a
Elections…… party while voting. Depending on the
Transferable Vote System is followed nature of actual politics, voters may either
for Rajya Sabha elections. Every state has give greater importance to the party or to
a specific quota of seats in the Rajya the candidate or balance the two.
Sabha. The members are elected by the
respective State Legislative assemblies. The FPTP system offers voters a choice
not simply between parties but specific
The voters are the MLAs in that state.
candidates too. In other electoral systems,
Every voter is required to rank candidates
especially Proportional Representation
according to her or his preference. To be
Systems, voters are often asked to
declared winner, a candidate must secure
choose a party and the representatives
a minimum quota of votes, which is
are elected on the basis of party lists. As
determined by a formula:
a result, there is no one representative
who represents and is responsible for one
{ Total votes polled
Total number of candidates to be
} +1 locality. In constituency based system like
the FPTP, the voters know who their own
elected + 1 representative is and can hold him or her
For example if 4 Rajya Sabha members accountable. The FPTP system generally
have to be elected by the 200 MLAs in gives the largest party or coalition some
Tamilnadu, the winner would require extra bonus seats, more than their share
(200/4+1=40+1) 41 votes. When the votes of votes would allow.
are counted, it is done on the basis of first
Thus this system makes it possible
preference votes secured by each candidate;
for Parliamentary government to function
If after the counting of all first preference
smoothly and effectively by facilitating
votes, required number of candidates fail to
the formation of a stable government.
fulfill the quota, the candidate who secured
The FPTP system encourages voters from
the lowest votes of first preference is
different social groups to come together
eliminated and his/her votes are transferred
to win an election in a locality. The FPTP
to those who are mentioned as second
system has proved to be simple and
preference on those ballot papers. This
familiar to ordinary voters.
process continues till the required number
of candidates are declared elected.
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B. In the short –term, state funding may

be given only in kind, in the form of
Open Ballot is a system of certain facilities to the recognized
choosing the representative by raising political parties and their candidates.
one’s hands!!
The committee has recommended
Secret Ballot is a system in
the creation of a separate Election Fund
which the voter casts his vote without
with an annual contribution of Rs.
the knowledge of anyone into a Ballot
600 core by the centre and a matching
Box or uses an Electronic Voting
amount contributed by all state
Machine!!
governments together. The committee has
suggested that in order to be eligible for
11.6 State Funding of Elections
state funding, political parties and other
What is state funding? candidates should have submitted their
 State funding of elections is a concept income tax returns up to the previous
designed to reduce corruption by assessment year.
funding elections with government
money as opposed to individual 11.7 Role of Youth in Politics
campaign contributions
What is NOTA?
Indrajit Gupta Committee on state
funding of Elections, 1998 None Of The Above - A voter’s right to
reject a step towards electoral reforms.
The Indrajit Gupta Committee on
In its efforts of cleansing the political
State Funding of Elections, 1998, backed
system, the Supreme Court of India upheld
the idea of state funding of elections on
the right of voters to reject all candidates
principle, stating that “The committee
contesting the elections. The apex court
see full jurisdiction constitutional,
directed the Election Commission to have
legal as well as on the ground of public
interest, for grant of state subvention to
political parties, so as to establish such
conditions where even the parties with
modest financial resources may be able
to compete with those who have superior
financial resources.
It added two limitations

A. Such funds could not be doled out
to independent candidates, and only
to national and state parties having
granted a symbol and proven the an option of “None Of The
popularity among the electorate Above”(NOTA) on the electronic voting
machines (EVMs).
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Quotable
uote Glossary
NOTA is the option at the end of the
Candidates’ List, on the EVMs Election : A formal and organised choice
by vote of a person for a political office or
other position.
Do you know that there was a Representation : The action of speaking or

similar provision before NOTA? acting on behalf of someone.
It was called Negative Voting.
Franchise : The right to vote in public
elections.
Before the NOTA option was
introduced, people who wanted to cast Voting : Go to the polls, mark one`s ballot
negative votes, had to enter their names in a paper
register and cast their vote on a separate
Electoral system : The way in which
ballot paper. Under Section 49(O) of the
votes can be translated into elected
conduct of election rules, 1961, a voter
representatives
could enter his electoral serial number in
the form 17A and cast negative vote. Psephology : The statistical study of
elections and trends in voting.
Plurality : Number of votes cast for a

candidate who receives more than any
other but does not receive an absolute
majority
Panchayat : A village council in India
Minority representation : The number

of elected candidates supporting the
ACTIVITY minority positions.
Find out how 49(O) and NOTA are Factionalism : Arguments or disputes
different? between two or more small groups from
within a larger group.
Democracy : A system of government by

the whole population, typically through
Countries which allow NOTA are… elected representatives
Columbia, Ukraine, Brazil,
Delimitation : The act or process of
Bangladesh, Finland, Spain, Sweden,
fixing limits or boundaries of territorial
Chile, France, Belgium and Greece. USA
constituencies in a country or a province
also allows it in few cases. The state of having a legislative body.
Texas permits the provision since 1975.
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Electoral Roll/ voters`list : Grouping of Anti-defection law : Law passed in 1985

candidates for election which disqualifies elected members on
Nomination : The act of officially the grounds of defection to another party.
suggesting someone or something for a Constituency : A group of voters in a
position. specified area who elect a representative
Election campaign : A time when a to a legislative body.
politician or party try to persuade people Secret ballot : A voting method where
to vote for them voter`s choices are confidential
Electoral reform : A change in electoral Voters` turnout : Percentage of eligible
systems to improve how public desires are voters who cast a ballot in an election
expressed in election results
Evaluation
1. The word ‘Franchise’ is of _____ origin.

a. Anglo-French b. Anglo-Indian
c. Anglo-German d. Anglo-Italian
2. Part XV of the Indian Constitution deals with _______.

a. Elections b. Citizenship
c. Fundamental rights d. DPSP
3. Psephology is the study of _______.

a. Elections b. Constitution
c. State d. Rights
4. _________ is the simplest form of plurality/majority electoral systems.

a. FPTP b. Block vote
c. Party block vote d. Limited vote system
5. The first delimitation commission act was passed in the year ______.
a. 1952 b. 1963
c. 1973 d.2002
6. The list of eligible voters is called as _____.

a. Electoral roll b. Campaign roll
c. Polling roll d. Nomination roll
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7. Which Amendment Act reduced the voting age of Indian citizens from 21 to 18?
a. 61st b.42nd
c.91st d.73rd
8. Which Article of the Indian Constitution provides for a single Election Commission in India?
a. Art 324 b. Art 256
c. Art 370 d. Art 360
9. The 52nd Amendment Act of 1985 deals with _____.
a. Anti-Defection Law b. Election Methods
c. Electoral Reforms d. Election Campaign
10. Election due to death or resignation of a member is ________.
a. By-Election b. Re-election
c. Null-Election d. Ward-Election
11. _____ seats are reserved for women in Panchayat bodies.
a.1/3rd b. 1/4th
c. 2/3rd d. 3/4th
12. The Chief Election Commissioner of India is appointed by the _______.

a. President of India b. Chief Justice of India
c. Prime Minister of India d. Chief Secretary of India
13. The Indrajit Gupta Committee 1998 deals with_________.
a. Electoral Reforms b. Anti-Defection
c. FPTP system d. Secret ballot
14. First general elections in India took place in the year _____.
a. 1952 b.1951
c.1950 d. 1947
15. State funding of elections was backed by ______ committee.

a. Indirajit Gupta Committee c. Vohra Committee
b. Tarkunde Committee d. Tanka Committee
16. A
ssertion: Indian Parliament has a bicameral legislature.
Reason: Loksabha is the lower house and Rajya sabha is the upper house.
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1 What is Franchise?
2. Define Psephology.
3. Expand the term FPTP.
4. What are electoral constituencies?
5. Explain Voters’ List.
6. What is election campaign?
7. What is Anti-Defection Law?

1. What are the features of a democratic electoral system?
2. Mention the various methods of minority representation?
3. Explain the Delimitation of constituencies.
4. What are the committees related to electoral reforms?
5. Why did India adopt the FPTP system?
6. Explain about open ballot and secret ballot.

1. Explain the various types of representation.
2. Explain the need for free and fair elections.
3. Bring out the powers and functions of Election Commission of India.
4. Bring out the various electoral reforms in India.
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Reference books
1. J.C. Johari, Indian Polity, Lotus Press, New Delhi.
2. R.C. Agarwal, Political Theory, S. Chand and Company, New Delhi.
3. B.S. Raman, Indian Constitution, United Publishers, Mangalore.
4. Subash C Kashyap, Our Constitution, National Book Trust , India.
5. The New International IDEA Handbook
6. Democratic Politics-II, Class X Political Science Textbook.
7. Democratic Politics-I, class IX Political Science Textbook
8. Lakshmikant, Indian Polity, Tata Mcgraw and Hills.
ICT CORNER
Unit-11 Election and Representation
Right age to know who the

representatives were so far.
Shall we check and learn?
Steps
1. Click the URL or scan the QR code to launch the “indiavotes” page.
2. For, Lok Sabha Elections Select “year”, “states” and Click “GO”. For Legislative
Assembly elections (State Elections), Select “State” and “Year” to know the details.
3. On having accurate details, Go for “Advanced search” and give in the details to fetch
the data.
4. Click “Election Maps” on the home page to check the same with maps by feeding in
the required on the left of the window.
Download Link
URL : http://www.indiavotes.com/
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UNIT
12 Local Governments
attend to any emergency

Learning Objectives situations, birth or
 This chapter provides insights in to death of persons in the
the local governments in India and village or town. The local
as well as in Tamil Nadu state. governments are the
 It also provides the significance of institutions, which issues
local self government today certificates of proof of residence, birth,
 This chapter would explain the scope death and incomes etc to the residents in
of the Local Self government in the that area. In total, the local governments
lives of the people today. are the institutions which are responsible
 This chapter would throws light for all such local needs of the people. They
on historical development and the are the lowest unit of administration
major changes that have been made in the administrative structure of the
in powers and functions of local
government. The local government has
government since independence.
council, which is normally elected by the
 Students would learn the structure,
people of the village or town concerned,
functions, elections, sources of
revenue and issues in the rural and which is responsible for the representing
urban local governments in India. the problems of the citizens in the council
and find solutions to the problems. The
12.1 Meaning, Nature and Importance council representatives are elected once in
of Local Government five years, or four years, depending upon
the law in operation in the country.
Local Government means, the
government which manages services and The local governments are
amenities in our villages, towns and cities representative institutions, representating
with focus on local problems. The local people in the council. There are legally
governments normally functions within mandated to discuss and give solutions
a specified limited territory of a village, a to the problems of the people of that area
town, a city and also a large metropolitan and also represent the problem to the
city. The local governments function higher levels of the government such as
as the basic link between the people in state. Since the local governments are
a village or town with the government. established on the basis of democratic
As and when people have problems process, all the problems discussed by the
such as road repairs, water stagnation council of the local governments should
in the streets, non functioning of street go through the process of discussion,
lights and construction of small water debate and deliberations and unanimously
bodies recreation parks, etc. The local accepted by the council. The members of
governments have the responsibility to
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the council are given freedom to discuss facilitated only through effective local
and also to take decisions at same time self-government. “I shall work for an India
within the framework of the fundamental in which the poorest shall feel that it is
law of the land called Constitution. their country, in whose making they have
Therefore, local governments are an effective voice.” Gandhi time and again
the institutions created for the purposes emphasized need for power in the hands
of solving the local issues and addressing of the people in India through the
the local level problems. The local Panchayat Raj model. Gandhi said, “The
governments normally consist of elected greater the power of the people, the better
representatives drawn from the local for the people.”
population representing the local people For Ambedkar, those
and they represent the local issues in the villages were nothing
council and try to find solutions to the “but a sink of localism,
problems. The local governments are the a den of ignorance and
important channel of flow of resources and communalism.” The
programmes to the people at the lowest dominant and influential
levels normally called “grassroots” level. communities would
No country today afford to ignore local make villages their Ambedkar
governments because of the fact that local monopoly and that would render other
issues at present becomes global issues. communities voiceless. The result was
With development of Information and that the Constitution that was drafted
communication Technology (ICT), the under his Chairmanship did not mention
whole world have become global village. a word about Panchayati Raj.
Panchayati Raj: Gandhi Vs Ambedkar: Many Gandhians persuaded the
committee to have a provision for the
Gandhi wanted the Central
village panchayats in Part IV of the Indian
Government to have minimal power, and
Constitution titled Directive Principle of
he wanted the villages to rule themselves
State Policy vesting the responsibility in
traditionally with village chiefs and
State legislatures. Article 40 states that the
councilors. According to Ambedkar,
State shall take steps to organize village
village possessed a cruel reality of
panchayat and endow them with such
communalism and caste system; thus it
powers and authority as may be necessary
will lead to the cornering of minorities.
to enable them to function as units of self-
My idea of Gram Swaraj is that it is a government.
complete republic, independent of its
neighbours for its own vital wants and 12.2 Classification of local government
yet interdependent for many others in
which dependence is necessary. institutions
- Mahatma Gandhi
Local governments are classified as
Rural and Urban based local governments.
Gandhi, through his social and
The Rural and Urban divide is made based on
political initiatives, made the country
the nature of the occupation of the residents
realize that the power of people could be
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viz; agriculture based or non-agriculture Planning Committees and Cantonment

based occupations. The agriculture based Boards. For example, in India the
occupation means that almost or most urban local governments are classified
of the residents of an area are engaged in into various types such, Municipal
agriculture related occupation and the nature Corporations in metropolitan cities,
of the functions normally would be farming, Municipalities in small towns, Townships
dairying, poultry, and other similar types in industrial towns, Cantonment Boards
in military establishments.
of activities. Whereas, in urban areas the
citizens would engaged in industrial, trade The Municipal Corporations are
and business and other activities. established in metropolitan cities with
population with 1 million plus cities. The
The urban areas are the places increase in the number of the population
where the people’s livelihood is based on in metropolitan cities due to migration
occupations in industry, trade, commercial of people from rural and other small and
institutions and administration like medium towns and other metropolitan areas
government offices and private company
over the years make these cities mega polis.
offices. The urban areas are the link
between the outside world to the local The Municipalities are established
villages. The local governments formed in small and medium cities and town
in rural and urban areas are called rural with population of less that 1 million.
local governments and urban local The Municipalities too are reclassified as
governments respectively. Class I, Class –II etc., depending upon
the number of the population and also
Local Government range of the revenue collection. The
grades of the Municipalities are reviewed
periodically by the higher levels of the
Urban Rural governments to facilitate the classification
of the municipalities.
• Municipal Corporations • District Panchayat
• Municipalities • Panchayat Urban The Townships and the Notified
• Town Panchayats • Village Panchayat Area Committees are emerging urban
• Cantonment Boards • Ward
areas, where the new industries are
In India, the rural local governments established, the changing occupations
have given general name “Panchayati Raj” of the residents of that area from farm
which means the system of Panchayat employment to non-farm employment.
institutions, that is, the institutions The Cantonment Boards are
which does the panchayat, (deliberate, established in military establishments,
discuss, and deliberate). The Urban local where the defense establishments such as
governments in India are classified in to Training institutes for defense personnel,
various types depending upon the political defense industry etc. Both the Rural and
and economic basis of the formation of
Urban local governments are lowest tier
the urban local governments such as,
in the government hierarchy.
Municipal Corporations, Townships, Area
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In various countries of the world,

rural and urban local governments are
organized differently. However, the basis ACTIVITY
and principles of which local governments
are being established are almost same. Local Find out the various kinds of taxes
governments are being established for the (property tax, water tax, drainage tax
local people with revenue predominantly etc.,) people pay to the government by
derived from local resources. The upper talking to a salaried person, a person
layer of the governments normally does the running own factory or business and a
function of supervision and monitoring shopkeeper. Share your findings in the
the local bodies classroom.
ACTIVITY
"Corporate cleanliness can only be ensured if there is a corporate
conscience and a corporate insistence on cleanliness in public places"
Today on 2nd October, we pay homage to the father of our National
and work towards his vision of providing basic sanitation facilities to
the poor.
Towards Total Sanitation

 Revised Guidelines of Integrated Low Cost Sanitation (ILCS) Scheme with the
goal of eradication of manual scavenging by 2010 and increased subsidy for urban
proof for conversation of dry latrines to water sealed systems.
 Basic servces (Water, Sanitation, Sewerage, Electricity, Health, Social Security,
Affordable House) in all slums under Jawaharlal nehru National Urban Renewal
Mission (Basic Services to the urban Poor and integrated Housing and Slum
Development Programme) and Propased Rajiv Awards Yojana(RAY) with
individual water sealed toilets in each home.
 Emphasis on upgrading sewage, sanitation and soild waste management under
JNNURM (Urban Infrastrcture & Governance and Urban Infrastructure
Development Scheme for Small & Medium Towns).
 Total Sanitation Policy announced by Government.
12.3 Local Government around the Governments in various countries of

world the world show us that large or small,
Local Governments are as old developed or under developed, some
as that of human civilization and in form of Local governments exist to deliver
many countries around the world local amenities and services at local level.
governments are the foundation upon However they differ widely in
which the modern state is established. their structure, powers, functional
A preliminary reading about the Local domain, fiscal resources etc. In many of
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the European countries there has been In the South Indian peninsula,
efforts on the part of the government to the existence of the local self governing
decentralize the powers and functions, institutions could be traced well before
which were otherwise centralized. The the period of the Christian calender. The
question of devolution of finances, the historical period can be grouped in to
jurisdictional issues in policing, transport early Chola period, Kalabira period, and
and inter-state commerce are some of the later Chola period, the emergence of
the pending and irritants in the case of Vijayanagara empire, entry of Muslims
the developed countries. Whereas in the and Moghuls and the British. There were
developing countries, there is more and very little evidence available about the
more attempt on the part of the central system of local governance in the early
or federal governments to centralize the Chola Period(which dates back to Before
powers and financial resources. In India the Christ) and the Kalabira Period.
constant pressure is being exerted on the But there were some account of
central government for more devolution existence of local governments during the
of administrative and financial powers to times of Pandyas (rulers of deep south
state as well as local governments. India) and the Pallavas (rulers of mid
South india). But Cholas (rulers who ruled
12.4 O
rigin and development of Local
Mid Tamil country) period witnessed a
Governments in India
well developed local self governments.
In tracing the origin and development The inscriptions of Paranthaka Chola–I
of local governments in India, one finds (919.ADCCE – 922ADCCE) from
the evidences of the existence of local Utthiramerur in Kanchipuram district of
governments even before the times of Tamilnadu state, give detailed account of
Christ (BCE). The period between 600 local self government. They inform that
BCE to C.E. 600 witnessed the rise and each village had an assembly consisting
fall of republics. During this period, there of all adult males and their involvement in
emerged Mahavira (founder of Jainism) general matters. These assemblies are of
and Buddha (founder of Buddhism). two types, the “Ur” and the Mahasabha”.
Villages were classified according to The third kind was the nagaram (town)
size and mode of habitation in Jain and confined to mercantile towns(trading
Buddhists literature. centers) and the fourth was the “nadu”.
Hence two types of institutions were
The religious orders founded by
mentioned one nadu (village and other
Buddha and Mahavira observed highly
areas) and nagaram (urban centers).
democratic procedures in arriving
at decisions. Kautilya’s Arthshastra In general there is little information
(Treatise)gives a comprehensive account on the functioning of any village
of the system of village administration assemblies prior to the 9 century. Both
th
prevailing in his time In the days of “nadu” and “Nagaram” were concerned
Maurya the village and the district were about the control and regulation of land
units of administration. holdings, management of irrigation works,
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temples, collection and remission of taxes, first step in the ascendency of the British
floating of loans for capital works and the rule in India. The rural and the other urban
management of charitable institutions. trading centers during the British East
The “ur” and the “mahasabha” were the India company rule, was not under any
two institutions that assisted the officers control or supervision, except the three
in executing the orders of the king. Presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay
and Madras. The District administration
It has been found that Raja Raja
under the charge of the district collector
Chola, the First, ordered the “mahasabha”
was the king pin in the British control
of the Viranarayana Chaturvedi Mangalam
over vast rural areas.
to confiscate the property of traitors.
Many historians such as Sir Charles The important mile stone during the
Metcalfe, Sir George Bird wood and company rule was the establishment of the
Eliphinstone opined that a strong system Municipal Corporations , as mentioned
of local government existed in Ancient earlier at Calcutta (Kolkata), Bombay
and medieval South India. But doubts are (Mumbai) and Madras (Chennai).
expressed by some of the historians about Viceroy Lord Rippon in 1882 brought
the elaborate existence of the local self out a resolution, proposing a smaller unit
government in ancient and medieval South for constituting rural local boards, a sub
India. The Mahasabhas and Kudavolai division, tehsil (taluk) and district boards
were confined to Brahmin settlements to supervise.
During the Moghul period A.D
(C.E.)1500 to A.D (C.E.)1777), the Lord Ripon’s resolution emphasized
fundamental principles of central local that the institutions he proposed should
relationships hardly changed with change have a majority of non-officials who
of kingdoms. When the Mughal Empire should be elected wherever it was feasible.
was at its zenith of glory, it was divided Nearly 500 rural boards were created with
into provinces (Subhas), and Provinces a two third majority of non officials who
into sub divisions (Sarkars), and Sakars depended upon the district magistrate
into union of villages (Paraganas). At (district collector) for the favour of
each level the government is organized nomination. The main activities of the
and the officials were appointed by the district boards till 1909 were police, public
Emperor. In the Twilight of the Mughul works, education and village sanitation.
Empire, the self governing institutions in
The rural local government introduced
rural areas had been severely damaged at
by Lord Ripon faced many criticisms and in
vital points, but they had withstood the
the A.D (C.E.) 1907, the British government
onslaughts with remarkable tactics.
appointed a commission to enquire into the
After the Battle of Plassey in A.D question of administrative and financial
(C.E.) 1757, the British East India Company relations between the Government of India,
derived land taxing rights (Diwani rights) Provincial governments and subordinate
from Bengal ruler (Nawab), which was the authorities under them so as to simplify
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and improve the prevalent system through Thus Article 40 came to be

devolution or otherwise. With the passing incorporated in the Constitution, as part
of Government of India Act, 1919, the local of the Directive Principles of the State
governments were entrusted with the elected policy (Part –IV) of the Constitution of
elements of the provincial government India adopted on Nov. 26th 1949. The Art.
under the diarchy system of government. 40. States that, “ the state shall take steps
to organize village panchayats and endow
The number of the village bodies in them with such powers and authority
Tamilnadu increased from 1417 in 1926 to as may be necessary to enable them to
6250 in 1937. There are three tier system function as units of self government”
of rural local bodies viz; District Boards,
Taluk Boards, and Village Boards. The In compliance with the provisions of
District and Taluk boards have undergone the Directive Principles of the State Policy,
changes by 1923, the non-official chairman an ambitious rural sector initiative, the
in all provinces replaced official chairman. Community Development Programme
In Tamilnadu, most of the District Boards was launched in 1952 with main focus of
came to be dominated by Justice Party securing social- economic transformations
members, which stood at 545 in 1927. From of village through people’s own democratic
1937 upto 1947, the rural local authorities and cooperative organizations with the
faced many challenges including the government providing technical services,
national freedom movement. supply and credit. This programme was
extended to most of the blocks as National
After Indian Independence in 1947, Extensions Service aimed at transferring
an attempt was made to revive local scientific and technical knowledge to
governments in India. Mahatma Gandhi agricultural, animal husbandry and rural
argued for the decentralized administrative craft sectors. In 1956, under the Second Five
system in India entrusting responsibility Year Plan, (1956-1961), it was recommended
of governance with the village panchayats that village panchayats should organically
(self sufficient Gram Swaraj). Shriman link with popular organizations at higher
Narayan with blessings of Gandhiji levels and in stages, the popular body should
published a blue print of the Gandhian take over the whole administration. In 1957,
Constitution for Free India wherein Government of India appointed a Committee
panchayats are the basic institutions for on Plan Projects under the Chairmanship of
organizing social, economic and political Balwant Rai Mehta. The Mehta Committee
activities of the citizens. In addition to the recommended two points namely, the
civic, political and administrative roles, administration should be decentralized and
the Panchayat was to play the economic the administration should be placed under
role of organizing production and the control of local bodies.
distributing resources in such a way that Secondly, the community
the village communities became self development blocks should be designed
sufficient for meeting most of their basic as administrative democratic units with
needs. an elected Panchayat Union to operate
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as a fulcrum of developmental activity A number of committees were

in the area. It also recommended for formed between 1978 and 1986, to look
the formation of District Development into various aspects of strengthening the
Councils (Zila Parishad) at the district local self government institutions, such
level consisting of all the Presidents of the as, C.H.Hanumantha Rao Committee,
Panchayat Unions (Samities), Member G.V.K Rao Committee and L.M.Singhvi
of legislative assemblies and Members of Committee. Only minor changes were
Parliament with district level officers of suggested by these committees from the
the public health, agriculture, veterinary Ashok Mehta committee, The next land
and education departments as members mark was the introduction of 64th and
and the collector as the chairman. The 65th Constitutional Amendment Bills, in
district body is only an advisory body. The July 1989 by Rajiv Gandhi government,
recommendation of the Mehta Committee which could not be passed in the Council
were generally welcomed and Panchayati of States (Rajya Sabha).
Raj legislations were enacted and by 1960s
about 90 per cent of the population were After many attempts, in 1992,
covered by the Panchayati Raj bodies. incorporating important features of earlier
exercises on this subject, government
In 1977, the Government of
drafted and introduced the 73rd and
India formed a committee under the
74th Constitutional Amendment bills in
chairmanship of Ashoka Mehta to go in to
Parliament in 1992 which was passed by
the working of the Panchayati Raj bodies
the Indian Parliament in 1993. The 73rd
and suggest measures to strengthen it. It
and 74th Constitutional Amendments
recommended that Panchayati Raj should
introduced new parts IX and IXA in the
emerge as the system of democratic local
Indian Constitution containing Articles
government, discharging developmental,
243to 243 ZG.
municipal and ultimate regulatory
functions. Hence the first recommendation 12.5 73rd Constitutional Amendment –
was to set up district Panchayat (Zilla implementation and implications.
Parishad) as the directly elected body. As (Panchayat Raj Act)
a temporary arrangement, the committee
Article 243 B of the Constitution
recommended continuation of the
which was inserted into the Constitution
Panchayat union at the block level. Not
under the 73rd Constitutional Amendment,
as a unit of local self government but as a
envisages that states and union territories
nominated middle level support arm for
except those with population not
the District Development Council. The
exceeding 20 lakhs, will have to constitute
Ashoka Mehta Committee submitted it's
a three tier system of Panchayat ie, village,
report in 1978, which was well received and
intermediate and district levels. While
led many states to introduce appropriate
the district has been defined as a normal
amendments in their Panchayat Acts such
district in state, the jurisdiction of village
Karnataka, Maharastra Andhra Pradesh,
and intermediate levels have not been
West Bengal and Gujarat.
specifically defined in the Act.
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The territorial area of a village (a) The Village Level

Panchayat can be specified by a public
(b) The District Panchayat at the district
notification by the Governor of the
level
state, and may consist of more than one
village. Similarly, the intermediate level (c) The Intermediate Panchayat which
which can be a Taluk or Block is also to stands between the village and district
be specified by the Governor through a Panchayats in the states where the
public notification in this regard. This population is above 20 lakhs
provides a certain amount of flexibility
to the States in constituting Panchayats at All the seats in a Panchayat shall be
the lower and middle levels. filled by persons by direct election from
territorial constituencies in the Panchayat
A new schedule, Eleventh Schedule
area. The electorate is named as “Gram
was inserted in to the Constitution of
sabha” consisting of persons registered
India, which provided for obligatory and
in the electoral rolls relating to a village
discretionary functions of the Panchayats
comprised within the area of a Panchayat.
at three levels,
Eleventh Schedule (Article 243 G)

Agriculture, including agricultural
 Non-conventional energy sources

extension Poverty alleviation programme

L and improvement, implementation
 Education including primary and

of land reforms, land consolidation secondary schools
and soil conservation Technical training and vocational

Minor irrigation water management
 education
and watershed development Adult and non – formal education

Animal Husbandry, dairying and
 Libraries

poultry Cultural activities

Fisheries
 Market and fairs

S ocial forestry and farm forestry
 Health and sanitation including

Minor forest produce
 hospitals, primary health centres
Small scale industries, including
 and dispensaries
food processing industries Family welfare

Khadi, village and cottage industries
 Women and child development

Rural housing
 S ocial welfare including welfare

Drinking water
 of the handicapped and mentally
Fuel and fodder
 retarded
Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries,
 Welfare of the weaker sections and

waterways and other means of in particular of the scheduled castes
communication and the scheduled tribes.
Rural electrification, including
 Public distribution system

distribution of electricity Maintenance of community assets.

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The Chairperson of each Panchayat “Government or state”, The Panchayats that

shall be elected according to the law passed by have acquired substantial legitimacy are
a State and such State law shall also provide recognized as an instrument of the
for the representation of Chairpersons of Government and have created participatory
Village and Intermediate Panchayats in structure of grass roots democracy for the
the District Panchayat, as well as members rural people. Creation of constitutional bodies
of the Union and State legislature in the like the State Election Commissions and the
Panchayats above the village level. State Finance Commissions have also given
Hence, the new Amendment permanency and stability to these institutions.
Act provided for participation of However, most Panchayats continue to be
Members of Parliament and Members of treated as agencies of the state for
Legislative Assemblies in the Panchayat implementation of prescribed schemes, even
Union Councils and also in the District though essential services such as provision of
Panchayats. The Amendment Act also drinking water, rural sanitation, preventive
provided reservation of seats in the three health and primary education are accepted as
tiers for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled their legitimate core functions. The structure
Tribes and not less than one third of the of district administration under the control of
total seats for women. The tenure of the the Collector, characteristically by a command
Panchayats shall be five years. structure and lack of horizontal coordination
at the grass roots level, has become somewhat
The law provides that any person anachronistic in the modern democratic
who is eligible to be elected to the state framework of out polity. In order to make
legislature shall be qualified to be chosen local administration more responsive
as a member of a Panchayat. The transparent and accountable to citizens there
responsibilities of the Panchayats are is a need to have a representative government
clearly laid down in the Eleventh Schedule. not only in the Union and States but also at the
(Box.1). Like the National Finance District and Village levels with an equitable
commission, the Constitution Amendment division of functions among them.
Act also provided for the State Finance
commission for recommending the
formula for transfer of the financial aid to Panchayati Raj (1959 – 2009)
local governments from the states. Golden Jubilee Year – on 2nd
October 1959, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
laid the foundation of Panchayati
There are around 2,50,000 village Raj in Nagaur, Rajasthan; the most
panchayats in India as per 2011Census revolutionary step in the context
of governance of rural India. The
journey which commenced with
Consequent to the 73rd Constitutional the commitment of comprehensive
Amendment as well as the Supreme court’s development of villages and to put
rulings which effectively mandate that local power in the hands of people.
authorities are also to be treated as
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class – III Municipal Committees. Town

Three tier Panchayati Raj system Area Committees were semi municipal
under 73rd Constitutional committees constituted for small towns
Amendment(1993) by a separate act of the state legislative
 D
istrict Panchayats assembly.
(Elected and nominated)
After passing the Constitution
 P
anchayat Union Councils (Elected)
(74th
Amendment) Act, 1992, the
 Village Panchayats (Elected) Government of India notified the
 G
ram Sabha (All Voters in a village) Amendment in June 1993. The Act of
(Advisory Body) 1992 provided for a period of one year
from the date of its commencement, the
states were required to change amend
The Grama Sabha meetings are or modify there legislations in order to
held four times in a year ie. January, incorporate the Central Amendment.
26 (Republic Day), May, 01 (May Day) Various states and union territories have
August, 15 (Independence Day) and enacted legislations for the governance of
October, 02 (Gandhi Jayanthi). the urban local bodies in their respective
jurisdictions. For example, the Punjab
government enacted the Punjab Municipal
12.6 74th Constitutional Amendment Bill, 1998 to replace the Punjab Municipal
Implementation and Implications Act, 1911.
(Nagarpalika Bill)
A three tier structure of urban
Under the 74 Constitutional th local bodies were proposed in the
Amendment, the urban areas comprise 74th Constitutional Amendment act
different types of municipal bodies namely, Nagar Panchayat or Town
constituted with reference to character, Panchayat, Municipalities and Municipal
size and importance of different towns Corporations. We shall discuss briefly
and cities. Municipal Corporations, the details of the above three urban
Municipal Committees, Notified Area local bodies established under the 74th
Committees, Town Area Committees, and Constitutional Amendment Act.
Cantonment Boards are the usual types
of municipal bodies and while the first Nagar Panchayat or Town Panchayat
four types were created under the state
A Nagar Panchayat or Town Panchayat
municipal laws, the Cantonment Boards
is constituted for a transitional area, ie. , an
owed their origin to the Central Act called
area in transition from a rural area to an
the Cantonments Act, 1924.
urban area. The population of such an area
In most of the states, all these types is 5000 or more but less than 15,000 and
of urban local bodies existed except the revenue generated from tax and sources
the Town Area Committees, which had exceeds such amount per capita per annum
since been abolished and converted into as many be specified by the government
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from time to time. Every Nagar Panchayat as water supply, drainage, clearing the
is a body corporate and has a perpetual streets etc. Every town panchayat shall
succession and a common seal with power have an executive officer appointed by the
to acquire and hold, or dispose of properties state government
and may sue and sued.
Municipal Council
A Town panchayat shall consist of
such number of elected members not A Municipal Council or municipality is
less than 9 or not more than 15, as the constituted for a small urban area with a
state government may determine by population of 15,000 or more but is less
rules. The members of the legislative than 3 lakhs and the revenue generated
assembly representing the constituencies from the tax and other sources exceeds
comprising transitional area or any part such amount per capita per annum as
of thereof, and two members nominated may be specified by state government
by the state government from amongst from time to time.
persons having special knowledge or
experience in municipal administration. Municipality Grade Population
The nominated members shall not have Class A 1 Lakh or more
the right to vote in the Town panchayat 50,000 –
meetings. The term of a Town Panchayat Class –B
less than one lakh
shall be 5 years. Class – C Less than 50,000
The government shall divide a A Municipal Council or Municipality

transitional area (town panchayat area) in for example in Class-A, not less than 20
to a number of territorial constituencies and not more that 50 elected members;
known as wards and each ward shall Class-B 15-30, and Class-C, 10-15. The
elect only one member. Out of the total members of State Legislative Assembly
number of seats in Town Panchayat to be representing the constituencies lying
filled by direct election, seats are reserved within the municipal area are “Ex-Officio”
for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled members of the Municipal Council. Not
Tribes (ST) in the same proportion of the more than 3 members are nominated by
population of SCs and STs to the total the state government. The nominated
population of that town panchayat area. In members do not have the right to vote in
addition, one third of the total number of the elections of the chairpersons and vice
seats of that area are reserved for women, chairpersons. The members are elected
including the seats reserved for SCs and through secret ballot.
STs. The town panchayat members shall
The whole municipal area is
be elected from amongst its members,
divided into wards, as per the number
One President and one Vice President
of councilors to be elected , say 15 or 30
in a meeting convened by the Deputy
or 10 . The electoral rolls of the legislative
commissioner. Every Town Panchayat
assembly in relation to municipal area
shall perform obligatory functions such
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are generally taken as the voters list. The Vice- President. The Municipal Council
candidates contesting in the elections with the increasing load of work, elects
are allotted symbols. The symbols of the subcommittees comprising councillors
recognized political parties are allotted from amongst itself to study a problem
only to the candidates sponsored or in depth and make recommendation for
adopted by the them. its solution. The sub committees are of
two types statutory committees and, non-
The Deputy Commissioner has to call statutory committees. Municipal bodies
the meeting of the elected members within also appoint special sub committees for
14 days of the notification of the election certain specific purposes and follow the
results to administer the Oath of office and same procedure for their election as it
to hold the election of the President and Vice- adopts the constitution of standing sub
President. As that of Town Panchayats, seats committees.
are reserved for the SCs and STs according to
the proportion of the population of SCs and A Municipal Council elects
STs to the total population of the municipal its President from amongst members
area. In addition, 30 per cent of total seats within one month of the constitution
are reserved for women including the SCs of Municipal Council. The Municipal
and STs seats. Council is constituted after elections
are held. The President is elected for a
The 74th Amendment provide the
period of 5 years. The Municipal Council
constitution of ward committees consisting
also elects one or two Vice- Presidents.
of one or more wards within the territorial
The Presidents of the municipalities in
area of a Municipality, having a population
various states draw monthly salary in
of 3 lakhs or more. A member of a
addition to travelling allowance . The
Municipality representing a ward with in the
President convenes and presides over
territorial area of the ward committee shall
the meeting of the Municipal Council. He
be a member of the ward committee. The
/ She is empowered to take disciplinary
Standing Committees shall be constituted
action against offending councilors. The
for each Municipality consisting of the
President is the chief spokesperson of the
President, senior Vice-President, and Vice
Municipal Council and represents it at
president and 4 other members in the case
official functions and also with regard to
of Class- A, 2 in the case of Class-B from
correspondence with the government.
among the elected members for a period
of 2 and half years. The term of office of The state government in every
Municipality is five years. The elected municipality appoints an Executive
municipality can be dissolved if it is not Officer. The Executive Officer is the
performing as per the provisions of law. principal executive authority and all
municipal staff is sub-ordinate to him/
The Municipal Council meets
her. He/ She is the important officer to
at least once in a month, presided over
execute, supervise monitor and report
by the President or in his/her absence
the activities of the Municipalities to
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Twelfth Schedule of the constitution: Powers and

Responsibilities of Municipalities
 Urban Planning including town  Slum improvement and up gradation
planning  Urban poverty alleviation
 Regulation of land use and  Provision of urban amenities and
construction of buildings facilities such as parks, gardens and
 Planning for economic and social play grounds
development  Promotion of cultural, educational
and aesthetic aspects
 Roads and Bridges
 Burials and burial grounds, cremations,
 Water supply for domestic purposes, cremation grounds and electric
 Public Health, sanitation conservancy, crematoriums
and solid waste management  Cattle ponds, prevention of cruelty to
 Fire services animals
 Urban forestry, protection of the  Vital statistics including registration of
environment, and promotion of births and deaths
ecological aspects  Public amenities including street
 Safeguarding the interests of weaker lighting , parking, bus stops and public
sections of society, including the conveniences
handicapped and mentally retarded  Regulation of slaughter houses and
tanneries
the council. The Municipal Council is development plan for the district as a
the governing body of the Municipality, whole. The Committee shall consolidate
responsible for Municipal Administration. the plans prepared by the panchayats
It makes by laws the governing place and and municipalities in the district. The
time of council meetings, the manner of composition of the District Planning
giving notices, the conduct of meetings. Committee as provided in the Act of 1992,
consists of that not less than 4/5th of the
The councilors are expected to keep
total members of the committee. They
themselves in touch with the citizens and
shall be elected by and from amongst the
enquire about their grievances against
elected members of the Panchayats at the
municipal staff, and bringing to the notice
district level and of the municipalities
of the appropriate administrative head or to
in the district, in proportion to the ratio
raise the matter in the council meetings. The
between the population of the rural areas
powers and responsibilities of municipalities
and of the urban areas in the district.
are enshrined in the Twelfth Schedule of the
Constitution. (See Box-2) The Municipalities have been
The 74 Constitutional Amendment
th provided with the power to raise revenue
provided the constitution of committee for discharging its duties and performing
for district planning, to prepare a draft its functions such as the taxes, duties and
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fees which could be levied and collected Municipal Corporations

by the Municipalities (For example: tax
on lands and buildings, scavenging tax The Municipal Corporations
on octroi, a tax on advertisements, a fire constitute the highest or the top most
tax, toll on roads and bridges etc) the 74th form of urban local government in India.
Amendment Act made it obligatory for They are created for big cities by the
the state governments to Constitute State enactments of the State Legislatures or
Finance Commission within one year of the Parliament in the case of Union
from the commencement of Act. Territory. The various categories of the
cities are determined by its population,
The State Finance Commission shall make area or revenues. Municipal Corporations
recommendations regarding: in the early period were established in
(i)
Distribution between the state three Presidency towns viz; Bombay,
government and municipalities of Madras and Calcutta. A Municipal
the net proceeds of taxes, duties, Corporation is based on the democratic
tolls and fees to be assigned or principle of management of local affairs
appropriated by the state; by the representatives of the people of
the city concerned, who are to be elected
(ii) Allocation of share of such proceeds
periodically on the basis of universal
between the municipalities at all
adult franchise with reservation of seats
levels in the states;
for SCs and STs in proportion to their
(iii)
Determination of taxes, duties population and also for women. The
tolls and fees to be assigned or Municipal Corporation is marked by
appropriated by the municipalities; statutory separation of deliberative and
(iv) G
rants-in-aid to fund the state; executive wings.
(v)
Measures needed to improve The Corporation Council and
the financial position of the the Standing Committees Constituted
municipalities. the deliberative wing and the executive
wing. The Council, consisting of elected
However in practice, the
representatives and a few nominated
Municipalities in our country undertake
members, is responsible for the exercise
only such functions which have been
of legislative powers. The Standing
specifically assigned to them by respective
Committees function as an auxiliary
state legislative enactments. This restrictive
of the Corporations. All the matters to
approach to municipal functions no longer
be passed by the council pass through
and holds good in the changed political
it after it considers the proposals
context and needs of the country. There
and recommendation made by the
has been increasing tendency on the part
Municipal Commissioner. The Municipal
of the state government to take over more
Commissioner is the chief executive and
and more local functions either directly or
implementing the decisions taken by the
by creating special purpose agencies.
council.
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Municipal Corporations in India Amendment Act, the 74th Amendment Act

are generally structured on the pattern also provided for a committee planning
of Bombay Municipal Corporation. The metropolitan area.
tenure of the Municipal Corporation is
5 years. The 74th Amendment provides The Committee consists of not less
wards committees, which shall be than 2/3rd of the members who shall be
considered for one or more wards within elected by and from the elected members
the territorial areas of the Corporation. of the Municipalities and chairpersons of
The chairperson shall be elected for one the panchayats in the metropolitan area
year and shall be eligible for re - election. in proportion to the ratio between the
A ward committee supervises provision of population of Municipalities and of the
water supply, pipes and sewage, drainage Panchayats in that area.
connections to premises removal of All Municipal Corporations are
accumulated water on streets or public provided with the office of the Mayor
places due to rain or other, collection and and Deputy Mayor. Mayor in some states
removal of solid waste, provision of health are directly elected by all the voters with
immunization, services for the civic in the metro city. In some states, Mayor
services in slum and lighting, repair of is elected from amongst the elected
roads, maintenance parks drains and etc.,. councilors. The Mayor presides over
council meetings, guide its deliberations
A Municipal Corporation shall have
to maintain decorum and exclude any
a Standing Committee constituted by it,
objectionable portion from the record
consisting of Mayor, the senior deputy
of the proceedings of the council. He/
Mayor and other councilors elected
She is also empowered to expel and even
by the councilors of the Corporation
suspend members for gross misconduct
from amongst the members. The Mayor
or disorderly behaviour. In case of a tie
shall be the chairperson of the Standing
he/she exercises his /her casting vote.
Committee. The Municipal Corporation
also constitutes committees to deal with
The Municipal Commissioner
subject matters such as water supply,
is the chief executive officer of the
sewage etc.,. Each subject committee
Corporation. Normally the commissioner
shall consist of not less than three and not
is being appointed from officers in I.A.S
more than five members.
(Indian Administrative Service) cadre.
The term of the subject committees The commissioner’s appointment vested
is one year. The Municipal Corporations in the state government, has been a
have been provided with financial subject of great controversy. The term of
resources to carry out its duties assigned the commissioner is three years, which
to it by the 74th Amendment. A list of 18 can be extended by the state government.
functions to be performed by Municipal He/she is one of the statutory municipal
Corporations has been given in the 12th authorities to carry out the provisions of
Schedule of the Constitution. Like the 73rd the Corporation Act.
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ACTIVITY
Cities Face Five Systemic Challenges

A. Lack of modern contemporary framework of spatial planning of Cities and
design standards for public utilities such as roads, footpaths, bus stops and other
underground utilities.
B. Weak finances, both in terms of financial sustainability and Financial accountability
of cities.
C. Poor Human Resource Management, in terms of number of staff, Skills and
competencies of staff, organization design among others.
D. Powerless mayors and city councils and severe fragmentation of Governance across
municipalities, parastatal agencies and state departments.
E. Total absence of platforms for systematic citizen participation and lack of
transparency in finances and operations of cities.
Source : Annual Survey of India’s City Systems (ASICS)
Courtesy : The New Indian Express, 15.3.2018.
12.7 The case of Tamilnadu Under the 74th Constitutional
Amendment Act, devolution of more
The Tamilnadu State Election
functions and taxing powers; revenue
Commission established under the 73rd
sharing with state governments; regular
and 74th Constitutional Amendments,
conduct of elections; reservation of
gives a brief account of the status of local
seats for SCs and STs and for women;
government in the state of Tamilnadu.
uniform composition of the urban bodies
As stated by the Tamilnadu State Election throughout the country were provided.
Commission, under the 73rd Constitutional
Following 73rd constitutional
Amendment Act (Rural Local Bodies) the
amendment the Tamilnadu Panchayats
government of Tamilnadu as a constitutional
Act was passed in 1994, which replaced
obligation has taken into account important
the earlier Tamilnadu Panchayats Act,
points including: formation of Gram Sabha
1958. The Tamilnadu Panchayats Act,
in every village with powers of general
1994 was amended in 1996. The Act of
supervision over the elected village Panchayat
1996 provided as far as Panchayats are
and the power to grant approval to the
concerned : to plan for their developmental
annual plans of the Panchayats; formation of
needs, constitution of District Planning
three tier Panchayats i.e., District Panchayats,
Committee; constitution of State
Panchayat Unions and Village Panchayats
Election Commission and constitution
made obligatory; reservation of seats for
of State Finance Commission. In the first
weaker sections of society like SCs, STs
elections under the 1994 Act, 1,17,000
and Women; powers to impose taxes and
representatives were elected for the three
provision for grants , assignments etc., from
different tiers of local government across
government funds through constitution of a
Tamilnadu.
State Finance Commission.
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Third, urban local bodies are

entrusted with many functions out of
The State of Tamilnadu has 12,620
which many of them are connection with
village panchayats, 385 panchayat
the state government departments.
unions and 30 district panchayats.
In sum, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Urban Local Governments Amendment Acts brought reforms in local
As far as urban local bodies are concerned, government in India. The rural and urban local
the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, paved bodies prior to the reforms were the creation of
the way for setting up urban local bodies in the British. Many new and innovative changes
various states. Elections were held to the rural were brought in the amendments. So far only
and urban local bodies in Tamilnadu in 1996, 18 states in India have ratified or approved the
2001, 2006 and 2011. amendments in their legislative assemblies,
which is required as per the law. In addition,
12.8 Contemporary Issues
many state government even after enacting
There are many issues which are the amendments and ratified them, have not
highlighted by the experts in the field of put in to operation many provisions, because
local governance from time to time. The of the issues mentioned above. Unless these
main issues brought out by the experts are issues are resolved, the objectives for which
provided in the following section. First there the 73rd and 74th amendments were made,
is considerable expansion in responsibilities could not realized.
of local governments, which were previously
state government responsibilities.
There are 15 Municipal
Corporations, 152 Municipalities and
Panchayati Raj (1959 – 2009) 561 Town Panchayats in Tamilnadu as
The Tamilnadu Municipal Laws urban local bodies.
(Fourth Amendment) Bill, 2018 and
the Tamilnadu Panchayats (Second
Amendment) Bill, 2018 – for extending Glossary
the tenure of the special officers of
the urban and rural local bodies for a
Municipal Corporation: Municipal
period of six more months.
Corporation is the legal term for a local
governing body. A Municipal Corporation
Taking into account the capacities of or city corporation is a local government
the levels of government and the line of in India that administers urban areas with
control, throughout government apparatus a population of more than one million.
should be considered and reclassification
Municipality: A Municipality is usually a
of list is needed. Second, maintenance of
single urban or administrative division having
village courts is also an important issue,
corporate status and powers of self-government
where the policing is state wise centralized,
or jurisdiction as granted by national and state
which can not entrusted practically to the
laws to which it is subordinate.
local governments.
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Cantonment Board: A Cantonment Board Gram Sabha: Gram Sabha is a body

is a civic administration body in India under consisting of all persons whose names
the control of the Ministry of Defence. The are included in the electoral rolls for the
Board comprises elected members besides Panchayat at the village level.
ex-officio and nominated members as per Mayor: Mayor is a person who is elected
the Cantonments Act, 2006. or chosen to lead the group who governs a
Town Panchayat: A town panchayat is town or city
a small town of approximately 20,000 to Ward: A ward is a local authority area,
25,000 inhabitants. It is formed under the typically used for electoral purposes.
panchayati raj administrative system. Nagar Palika: In India, Nagar Palika, is an
Panchayati Raj: Panchayati Raj generally urban local body that administers a city of
population 100,000 or more
refers to the system of local self-
government in India introduced by a Councillor: A member of a council
Constitutional Amendment in 1992, Dyarchy: Government by two independent
authorities (especially in India 1919–35).
Evaluation

1. When was the Madras (Chennai) Municipal Corporation established ?
(a)1870 (b)1882
(c)1687 (d)1992
2. When was the Lord Rippon’s Resolution adopted ?
(a)1992 (b)1858
(c) 1882 (d) 1870
3. The dyarchy system was established for the first time under
(a) Government of India Act, 1909 (b) Government of
India Act, 1919
(c) Government of India Act, 1935 (d) Government of India Act, 1958
4. The Nagarpalika Bill was passed in the year

(a) 1989 (b) 1990
(c) 1991 (d) 1992
5. W
hat is the percentage of reservation of seats in local bodies for women under 73rd
and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts?
(a) 45 (b) 50
(c) P
roportionate to the percentage of (d) 20
population of women in the constituencies
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6. State Finance Commission is the organ responsible for

(a) R
ecommend to the state government about sharing of taxes between state and
the local bodies
(b) Recommend to the state governor on the issue of elections
(c) R
ecommend to the President of India on issues connected with financial
emergencies
(d) R
ecommend to the chief Minister about the law and financial situations in the
state
7. District Planning Committee is provided under
(a) 93rd Constitutional Amendment Act
(b) 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act
(c) 89th Constitutional Amendment Act
(d) 94th Constitutional Amendment Act
8. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana is a programme
(a) To provide employment guarantee
(b) To get loan from Public sector banks
(c) To construct housing units
(d) To get employment abroad
9. The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) was set up on 30 December 1957 under
(a) An act of Delhi Assembly
(b) An executive order of the President of India
(c) An Act of the Parliament
(d) The order of the Leivtenant Governor of Delhi.
10. W
hich of the following election has no place for political parties?
(a) Municipal Corporation Mayor Election

(b) Municipal Council Election
(c) Panchayat President and Panchayat Ward Member Election
(d) District Councillor Election
11. who is considered as the father of Local self Government in India ?

(a) Lord Mayo (b) Robert Clive
(c) Warren Hastings (d) Lord Rippon
12. Who conducts Local body elections in states?

(a) State Election commission (b) Election commission of India
(c) Chief election commissioner (d) The State Government
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13.which are the Articles in the Constitution of India that deals with Local Government?
(a) Art. 40, Art. 243 to 243 O , Art. 243 p to 243 ZG
(b) Art. 300, Art. 300A
(c) Art. 3A , Art. 43 A
(d) Art. 31 , Art. 117 (1)
14. Arrange the Three tier Panchayati Raj System as per the Constitutional Provisions
(a) Village Panchayat – Intermediate Panchayat – District Panchayat
(b) Panchayat Union – District Panchayat – Village Panchayat
(c) District Panchayat – village Panchayat – Intermediate Pachayat
(d) V
illage Panchayat – Town Panchayat – District Pachayat – Intermediate
Panchayat
15. A
ssertion: 73rd Amendment Act brought rural local bodies
Reason: Democracy reached grass root level through local governments
in the context of the two statements, which of the following is correct?
1. What is the lowest unit of the Panchayati Raj system in Tamilnadu?
2. What are the days the Gram Sabha meets in a year?
3. What is the term of office of a Mayor of Municipal Corporation.
4. Describe the powers and functions of the State Finance Commission.
5. Which committee recommended the establishment of Panchayati Raj
Institutions?
6. What are the sources of revenue of a village Panchayats?
7. Give at least two reasons for the need for the PRI institutions in India?
8. How many municipal corporations are there in the state of TamilNadu?
9. Who is levying and collecting Entertainment Tax?
1. Give at least three salient features of the Panchayati Raj Institutions.
2. Define an urban area
3. Explain the concept of local self government
4. What are the main problems of big cities in India ?
5. Explain the organization of Mahasabhas.
6. What were the major changes brought by the British in local administration?
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1. Explain the system of Panchayati Raj in India .
2. Describe the functions and powers of the Mayor of a Municipal corporation
3. Trace the developments in Local governments in India after passing of the 73rd
and 74th Constitutional Amendments.
4. Trace the origin of the local self government in India
Reference
1. Basu, Durga Das., 2013. Introduction to the constitution of India.
2. Pardeep Sachdeva. 2011. Local Government in India. Delhi: Pearson.
3. Burton Stein. 1994. Peasant State and society in medieval south India. Oxford and
New York : Oxford University Press.
4. Nirvikar Singh . 1997. Issues in local government in India. Department of Economics,
University of California.
5. TamilNadu social development Report 2000.
ICT CORNER
Unit-12 Local Government
Let us learn about the

villages in Tamil Nadu.
Local Government
Steps
1. Click the URL or scan the QR code to launch the “Village maps” page and learn
the name of the districts and number of villages in the district.
2. “Click any “district” (For Example: Cuddalore) to know the sub districts of the
district and number of villages in it and click the “Map” on the right side to
have satellite view.
3. Click any “Sub-District” (For Example:Virudhachalam) to know the number of
villages pertaining to the sub district and click the “Map” on the right side to
have satellite view.
4. Click any “village” (For Example:Nallur) to know the map of the village.
Download Link
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the
page.
URL: http://villagemap.in/tamil-nadu.html
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UNIT
13 Social Justice
The dominant groups

Learning Objectives activate racial, religious,
This Social Justice chapter – caste, lingual and cultural
Provides insights into feelings and intend to
 Several dimensions of the concept misuse the social rights of
of Social Justice other groups that may end in permanent
 Significance of Social Justice hostility between different groups. The
 The meaning and importance of struggle that is undertaken by the weaker
distributive justice. -Impact of groups in order to react for establishing
Social hierarchy equal society is known to be Social Justice.
 John Rawls perspective of fair and Background of Social Hierarchy
just society
 Social Justice Movements in Tamil The ancient Indian
Nadu. civilization had evolved
 The concept/political principle with the “Varnashrama
of Affirmative Action/Positive Dharma” which kick-
Discrimination. started the principle of
 Caste discrimination and its hierarchy i.e. Upper and
consequences Lower strata. The Varna
 Egalitarian society system is also called as “Four Varna System”
 Reservation policy and its by which people were divided as Brahmins,
essentiality Kshatriyas, Vysyas and Shudras.
 Government’s role in upliftment Those sections who have been beyond
 Privileges and its impact these Varna classification were categories
as scheduled castes and scheduled
13. 1 What do you mean by Social Justice? tribes. During the colonial period these
The negative values which are made depressed communities were classified
by the society results in inequality and as panchamas who were victims of
cleavation among people. Social power is untouchability. This division on the basis
the dominant phenomenon which leads of birth has been inculcated and socialized
to cut-throat competition and ends in along different phases of civilization from
absolute control of the subjects. It is in order which inequalities surfaced in the society.
to protect the social identity, the dominant Article 15 (4) of Indian Constitution
communities endeavor to capture the power Article 29 (2) may not act as an
sector. Among different communities in obstacle in making special policy decisions
a plural society, dominance of a single for socially and educationally backward
group is considered as unfair and unjust. communities or SC/ST people.
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Article 16 (4) of Indian Constitution special arrangements for the marginalized

This will not prevent any sort of sections. Equal opportunity is the process
appointment or reservation among and social arrangement by which social
backward communities, if sufficient democracy can sustain and pluralism will
representation is not provided. India is a be strengthened. In such a society different
sub-tropical, sub-continent with varied groups of religion, race and other factors
geographical atmosphere. People speak can live with their social identity, tolerance
different languages and follow unique and shared power.
hereditary values. Albeit of these factors, Economic condition and status
inequality is existing due to the Varna is one among the reason for the wedge
System. It is in order to advance and created in the European society. Whereas
develop the socio-economic conditions in India, the division is on the basis of
of the downtrodden communities; Indian purusasvktha of Rigveda and particularly
Constitution is having its ideal guidelines Four Varna System. This Varna System
with strong structural foundation. prevents individuals from their exercise
According to Indian Constitution, of rights and values. Indian Constitution
States which are having low technological in this regard is implementing all its
development or inadequate natural supervisory mechanisms and also is
resources can make their own special policies delivering distributive justice which is
for holistic advancement. In accordance the motto of the largest democracy. This
with the existing constitutional provisions, justice intended to weed out the caste
the downtrodden and underprivileged distinction (Varna System) and to establish
communities were provided with special equal society in India. The democratic
laws and privileges in all the states. values in Indian Constitution protects and
delegate power to all the people equally to
Ideas like all inclusive development develop themselves in the socio-economic
and self-sufficient societal growth highly sectors. Sticking on with this constitutional
hinges upon social justice along with provisions may lead to social development
Race, religion and lingual minorities UN proclamation – December 18, 1992.

Salient Features
1. All minorities are having equal right without any discrimination and intervention
to exercise their freedom in following hereditary values, to cling with religion, to
propagate and to use their language.
2. All minorities can make their own organization and are having every right to
maintain it.
3. Minorities should have right to upgrade their knowledge related with their history,
conventions, language and other hereditary values. They should also be provided
with opportunity to learn about entire society to which they belong to.
4. This declaration may not affect the basic freedom which is stipulated in the existing
rights declaration.
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and further give place for social freedom of caste, gender, religion and other
and justice. Hence, vibrant social justice differences, people should be provided
in India protects National Integration from with appropriate opportunities to prove
which distributive justice and democratic their talent and capacities in the individual
values are concretized. life. In socio- political theories, the
distinction between the difference among
I3.2 Equality is essential for Social individual and socio-cultural differences
Justice exiting among them is considered as an
People accept equality as an essential important aspect. Individuals should
phenomenon but still inequality and receive respect and reputation on the
discrimination are serving as distributing basis of their achievements and talents.
factors. Inequality prevails in almost It should not be on the basis of social
all spheres like opportunities, comforts identities. Inequalities and discriminatory
and working atmosphere. This kind practices which prevail in the society are
of inequality and discrimination are artificial and are known as prejudices.
permanent and unavoidable in our life, 13.3 Just Distribution
is it so? What we are going to do for the
people, who do not have opportunities to Governments can and will enact
work for the development of our nation? laws to facilitate the just distribution of
How far cultural values are responsible for resources to individuals with in a society.
this kind of inequality. Laws simply pave the way for the fair
distribution of resources. Law enforcing
This is not only happening in India, agencies may have to monitor the process
but also at global level which creates stir of the distribution itself.
in the minds of the people. It is for this
reason, social equality stood in primary
place in the Socio-political principles.
Equality as a principle indicates what?
What do you mean by “equal society”.
How do we assure equality? With that
assurance, what we are going to achieve?
Do we try to resolve inequality only in our
income? What type of equality has to be
established? To whom we have to provide A country like ours where socio-
equality? cultural inequalities are well entrenched,
a law for fair distribution will not
Need of special privileges
automatically ensure just distribution
We give our voice for justice. We have of resources. Governments will have to
to understand the reasons. If opportunity ensure a level playing field in order to
is denied along with social identity, that is establish Justice. In other words, before
absolute injustice in a society. This creates the law brings us together, people should
inequality among the people. Regardless enjoy some basic equality of life conditions
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and opportunities. This attempt to create becomes the most significant resource
a level playing field must be seen as a and employment in government sector
necessary condition for each person to remains a major source of livelihood,
pursue his/her objectives in life. Since our the concept of level playing ground or
constitution has abolished untouchability equal opportunity was advocated and
and other caste based discriminatory subsequently this idea became an integral
practices, both the State and the legislature part of our constitutional apparatus.
would have to ensure the creation of such
There are several opinions in this
a level playing field. Thus, the government
regard. How should we distribute the
which swears in the name of protecting
resources and ensure equal opportunity/
our constitution has the obligation of
fair access to education and jobs to all
ensuring one of the finest promises of our
especially to the disadvantaged groups.
constitution itself – bringing in equality
Many especially people from the so called
to our society. Therefore, it is legal,
upper echelon of the society tend to think
constitutional and moral on the part of
of treating people differently in order
the government to create a level playing
to ensure just distribution effectively
ground for all its citizens especially those
amounts to discrimination. This opinion
who have been historically denied basic
slowly and steadily invokes strong passion
rights.
and at times results in violence too. The
This level playing field or what we fear of losing educational and employment
popularly call ‘equal opportunity’ must opportunities among the privileged
not be treated either as charity or as communities was steadily growing as
philanthropic gesture of the government. the government planned to ‘reserve’
It is the obligation on the part of the seats for people from marginalized and
government to treat people differently in underprivileged communities as part of
order to ensure Justice; more importantly its equal opportunity plan.
it is a fundamental right enshrined in the The idea of ‘merit’ would be
constitution for disadvantaged people invoked by the privileged sections of
to seek legal, constitutional remedy. our country to argue that any attempt
Similarly, level playing ground is aimed to ‘reserve’ seats for the underprivileged
at creating equal opportunity only in people would strongly damage merit
education and employment opportunities based output of our education system;
for the disadvantaged communities. thus it would subsequently affect the
In many realms of our everyday lives, professional abilities of the candidates.
there is virtually no demand from the But as students of political theory, we
marginalized sections to provide a level must be able to dispassionately examine
playing ground. the issues involved in our quest to
understand Justice. Do you first of all
This clearly conveys the meaning agree that some interventions are required
of what is the aim of providing equal to help the marginalized, underprivileged
opportunity. When modern education people? What would be the outcome if the
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privileged section retains all the resources B. Common Ownership Theories

including education and employment These theorists argue that a fair
opportunities with themselves even after distribution means each person in the
we become an independent country and initial stages must have the same amount of
a republic? Should we opt for an inclusive land or other valuable resources. It clearly
nation or an exclusive mob? What kind means there are no major differences in
of social Justice we would eventually terms of an individual’s preferences and
emulate? abilities. All individuals are endowed
with equal amount of abilities.
DEBATE
C. Entitlements Theory
 Do people ask the Government to
It defines just distribution when land
provide a level playing field in sports?
 Does anyone seek similar or any other resources disbursed must be
intervention from the government in historically justified. Individuals who have
Private sectors, Armed forces? never had the ownership of land or other
 Does anyone demand that people resources can appropriate it by voluntary
must be treated differently in our transfer between and among themselves.
criminal procedural system? Transfer of resources, for them, must be
absolutely voluntary.
13.4 Distributive Justice and Retributive
Justice All these perspectives as it is evident from
the brief description do focus on both
The substantial point of debate while resources and human ability. Resources
studying the concept of Justice would be could be for example, land as well as
how the resources would be distributed knowledge; human ability also plays a
to all section of the society. In order to vital role for some theorists. There is a
understand this point more clearly let us grand consensus that Justice in a society is
dwell upon a few important perspectives possible only when it becomes distributive
on the issue of Justice. Equality of rather than retributive. How do we define
Resources, Common Ownership theories retributive justice?
and Entitlements are often referred while
discussing Justice. D. Retributive Justice
A. Equality of Resources The concept of retributive justice
This perspective defines distribution Can be understand the framework of
of resources to be just; that is to say, if this form of justice by following certain
every individual has the same effective principles.
resources that amounts to Justice. If, for
i). Those who have committed wrongful
some given work, each person obtains the
acts, serious crimes do deserve harsh
same amount of wage or reward, that is
punishment quite proportionate to
how we must realize Justice.
their crime.
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ii). It is morally good; when the legitimate action/attribute of an individual that does
punisher gives the culprit a stern not benefit all actually signifies inequality
punishment what that person deserves; and unfair/unjust character of a society.
no matter whether the punitive action This perspective compels us to have a
against wrong doers is compared more comprehensive understanding of
with others or not, the punishment is Justice itself.
necessary as moral good.
iii).
It does not encourage punishing
Impotant works of John Rawls
 Theory of Justice - 1971
the innocent intentionally and
 Die Idee Des Politischen
also disapproves inflicting large liberalismus - 1993
punishments on wrongdoers  J ustice as fairness - 1985
disproportionately.  The law of People - 1993
Even though, the idea of retributive
justice played vital role in theorizing The ethics of reason will create, for
punishment and Justice for some time, Rawls, a new political structure in which
some of its pivotal features such as people will think of polices not to optimize
proportionality, normative status of their self interests but rather envisage society
suffering and the ultimate justification for as a whole. This comprehensive and holistic
retribution become highly contentious. perspective embedded in Rawls’ framework
Retributive justice as a modes makes it highly pertinent while debating on
operandi to establish justice was firmly Justice. That is to say, it would be in the
rejected in our constitution itself. The interest of all sections of the society as a
architects of our constitution firmly whole must benefit from the policies and
believed that violent methods will not rules; not for an exclusive section of a society.
bring in peaceful and enduring solutions Such fairness would be the outcome of
to our problems nor does it establish rational action not benevolence or
sustainable Justice in our society. generosity. John Rawls theory premises
upon the arrival of quintessential modern,
13.5 John Rawls Theory of Justice rational beings to realize the spirit of Justice
John Rawls is considered as one of in our society; a society like ours wherein
the finest political philosophers of 20th non-rational identities and sentiments play
century. He developed the theory of Justice a major role in organizing the society, may
based on the paradigm called Justice as have to toil to truly understand the spirit of
Fairness. His framework treats all personal Justice as emulated by John Rawls.
attributes as being morally arbitrary;
therefore Justice for him demands equality.
Migrated people are also having
For him ‘all social values including liberty,
certain rights in the alien nations. Refugees,
opportunity, income, wealth, self-respect
migrated and exiled are also exercising
are to be distributed equally. In other
vital rights. The member nations of UN
words, injustice is ‘simply inequalities
recognized those vital rights.
that not to the benefit of all’. If/when any
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13.6 Socio-Cultural Equality Further, by calculating number of people

In the diversified society, people under poverty line, we may draw strong
from different groups may practice their inferences and resolutions. This kind of
cultural values, habitual factors and identification is widespread among all
improve individual talents. For this to the nations. But certain discriminations
happen, equality in society is an essential on the basis of culture and historical cum
criterion. Every individual should be habitual practices, may create precarious
assured of fair opportunity in the society. issues in the concerned society. Radical
To a large extent, unequal atmosphere reformers during different phases of
should be wiped out for attaining liberal history, has made wide awareness about
society. these untoward and unethical happenings
to the people.
To put it in a nutshell, actions must "Humans respected on the basis of
be taken at least to reduce the unequal caste which he belongs to, is barbarian
circumstances. For instance, a good and anti-human thinking", exclaimed
healthcare, education, nutritious food E.V.Ramaswamy alias Periyar in
stuffs, minimum emoluments are the Tamilnadu. He out- rightly condemned
basic needs to be provided to all without the cultural practices, habitual follow-ups
discrimination. Without these basic and other so called values which refutes
facilities, we may not call a society as equality in all its aspects. Periyar also was
egalitarian one. against “Patriarchal Chauvinism” which
What are the main issues of our Nation? subjugated women all along the history.
Beliefs and practices on the basis of That society is best which got rid
caste and religion are dastardly obstacles. of caste, religion, gender and suppressive
In many parts of India, the status of women habitual practices”, lamented Periyar.
is at lower level - education, employment, Modern society cannot be sanctified by
right to property are refused to women. the people who cling towards the language
If this situation extends and established and discriminatory cultural practices.
as our culture, a major catastrophe may Apart from Periyar, various saints, seers
not be averted in India. If inequality and and philosophers took strenuous efforts
discrimination is stamped as our cultural to have egalitarian society. People who
value, the path of equality may be at cross enjoyed all kind of privileges on the basis
roads and cannot be attained at all. of dynasty, birth and descent so far has to
come to end. Determining an individual’s
Economic Equality capacity on accordance with the birth is
Economic equality can be the primary and precarious feature of the
identified by individual’s income and unequal society.
the value of property, he possess in a All are equal and individual’s
society. Otherwise, the gap between capacity, if decided on the basis of merit,
rich people community and poor may is the first step towards equal society. So
indicate the status of economic equality. far, number of modern nations refused to
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provide voting rights for the poor people. breach these practices will be punished
There are nations which restricts women by the king. Mistakes and related
education and public offices in the 21st punishments are quite natural in all the
century. countries.
In India, lower strata people are

permitted to work only in the clerical and
other benefit-less offices. They were not
permitted to occupy higher positions,
because of their caste identity. Individuals
and organization for the past centuries
made onerous efforts to curb out in equal Greek philosopher Plato and his
menace from the society. disciples often debate and discuss about
There some human communities justice and its practices. Discourses and
which needs special attention, since they teachings of Socrates consists of anti-
were totally ignored and exploited by the justice people and their impact in the
upper strata people. Truthful equality can society. Justice and fairness may do only
be identified only in those rare occasions. good things in a society.
Injustices unleashed in the past must be If justice do favour for certain
identified to know about what real or fair individuals, that may not be considered
equality is. and called as justice. Justice is all about
Reservation policy is a good initiative the entire development and advancement
from the part of government in delivering of a society. Fair justice is applicable
equal justice. People, who were denied of to all the people in a society, claimed
education and employment opportunities Socrates. We may infer from the above
so far, were provided with reservation for said arguments that reservation is the fair
uplifting the condition and status. justice provided to the people, who were
Discriminatory practices which were hitherto discriminated and exploited.
followed for long time in the historical Proportional Justice
phases may not be curbed out in a short
The social justice provided by our
span. Expecting the change within one
Indian Constitution to the depressed
or two generations is an utopian faith,
and downtrodden communities is a
stated researchers. If reforms happened
helping hand for their development and
in short time, it will be a good sign for the
advancement. But how much and to whom
development of the entire nation.
are the major questions?
Social Justice and Equality
Caste hierarchy is the primary reason
All civilizations were equipped with for inequality in our nation. Hence on the
the awareness of their practices. The basis of the caste hierarchy, social justice
accepted practices are “Dharma” and the has to be maintained/must be maintained.
negative is “Adharma”. Those people who In categorization, we are having backward
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caste, most backward caste, scheduled and economically disadvantaged people.

caste and scheduled tribe for whom, Often, these people are disadvantaged for
government’s policies are distributed historical reasons, such as oppression or
accordingly. slavery. Support for affirmative action has
sought to achieve a range of goals, bridging
inequalities in employment and pay,
First Commission for backward increasing access to education, enriching
community was established on 1953. state, institutional, and professional
Kaka Kalelkar was the first head of leadership with the full spectrum of
this Commission in Independent society, redressing apparent past wrongs,
India. harms, or hindrances and in particular
addressing the apparent social imbalance
13.7 Discrimination-Social Basis Theory left in the wake of slavery and slave laws.
As socio – psychologists describes,
Human beings identify themselves as part For example, a 2017 study found that
of their group. They felt prestigious and affirmative action in the United States of
energetic only when they are recognized America "there is an increase in the share
as a part of their own group. What of black employees over time, in 5 years
discrimination means is that out grouping after an establishment is first regulated."
their own members from the membership
United States of America
of their group or ban their members from
accessing natural resources. Indeed, wealth Though there were developments
is an important matter. Someone of the in Liberty, Economy and Technology in
group’s eligibility and self – respect indirectly United States of America, still there were
defends of someone getting wealth. sustained discrimination on the basis of
Empirical studies confirm that colour till the later period of Twentieth
persons with a low sense of social century. This raised Civil Rights agitations
recognition display more out-group there. Following this Affirmation Action
devaluation and group-focused enmity was introduced by John F.Kennedy in
based on an ideology of human inequality. 1960s in the United States of America.
Negative attitudes toward different out- This was called as Executive Order 10925.
groups (ethnic and religious minorities, Through this order, Govt requested
women, and people who are disabled or the employers not to discriminate their
homeless) are strongly correlated with employees or candidates on the basis of
each other, indicating the unspecific race, creed, colour, or national origin.
nature of discrimination. This order was replaced by another
13.8 Affirmative Action order 11246 in the year 1965. By this the
Federal Government commit "to promote
The principle of affirmative action the full realization of equal employment
is to promote societal equality through opportunity through a positive, continuing
the preferential treatment of socially program in each executive department
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and agency". In the U.S., affirmative China

action's basic purpose was to pressurize China followed some sort of
institutions into compliance with the affirmative action in education for
nondiscrimination mandate of the Civil minority nationalities.
Rights Act of 1964. Affirmation Action
Russia
was extended to women in 1967.
Quota systems existed in the USSR
United Nations for various social groups including ethnic
The International Convention on minorities, women and factory workers
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial for access to university education, offices
Discrimination stipulates that affirmative in the former Soviet union.
action programs may be required for all New Education – New Requisites
countries that ratified the convention, in
order to rectify systematic discrimination. It The educational system which we had
states, however, that such programs "shall in in Ancient India was discriminatory. People
no case entail as a consequence of unequal were permitted to undergo education on the
or separate rights for different racial groups basis of their own caste. After the introduction
after the objectives are achieved." of new education system in modern India, the
marginalized communities are not allowed in
The United Nations Human Rights the main stream.
Committee states that "the principle of
equality sometimes requires State parties In south India, new or modern
to take affirmative action in order to education was introduced by Christian
diminish or eliminate conditions which missionaries of European nations. In
cause or help to perpetuate discrimination the initial part of 19th century, British
prohibited by the Covenant. established more number of Christian
missionaries in many parts of India.
Social Justice laws in South Africa
Many communities, who were denied
Following the transition to democracy educational opportunities, utilized the
in 1994, South Africa chose to implement choice for their development.
affirmative action through legislations to
correct previous imbalances. As such, all 13.9 Status in Madras Presidency
employers were compelled by law to employ
During the same period, Chennai
previously disenfranchised groups (blacks,
presidency came under the direct rule of
Indians, and Coloured). By this the companies
British Empire. Laws like ‘Ryotwari’ were
employing more than 50 people have to
made. Moreover, tax collecting system
design and implement plans to improve the
was introduced. Further, military forces
workforce demographics, and report them
were also instigated. In 1835, English was
to the Department of Labour. Employment
declared as official and administrative
Equity also forms part of a company's
language in India. Indians were appointed in
Black Economic Empowerment scorecard.
the British Indian military forces. Majority
Moreover, the Supreme Court has ruled that
of the people who joined in military were
in principle blacks may be favoured.
non-Brahmins and deprived communities.
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Although colonial British regime checked-out of their lands and also their
appointed Indians in military forces, it children denied admissions in the schools
hesitated to permit Indian languages in the and other educational institutions.
educational institutions. This untoward Preferential Rights for the Downtrodden
situation remained same until the end of
In 1885, Madras Presidency
the 19th century. People who are fluent in
Government declared financial assistance
English were appointed in these services.
policies for the downtrodden communities
Apart from the Europeans, Anglo- Indians
and also the government oriented new
and Brahmins were appointed in all
schools for the lower caste people.
government services.
In the meantime, Tremancre,
Due to the establishment of collector of Chengalpet district submitted
‘Jamindari’ and ‘Ryotwari’ system in the a report on the downtrodden communities
initial part of 19th century, ‘Landlords’, of Chengalpet. Those excerpts are: People
‘Zamindars’ and other dominant groups of downtrodden community were at low
spearheaded in entire India. All the level in all aspects, particularly social-
above said are “Caste Hindus”. “Caste economic, educational spheres. Lands are
Hindus” domination in all villages greatly denied for them. They were not permitted
affected the villages and particularly, the to build houses for their own. Educational
downtrodden communities were kept opportunities were rejected. They are sold
aside from the lands in all villages of India. as slaves. Lots of lands are kept barren.
Due to this, income for the government
has been diminished. To increase the
income of the government, lands can be
distributed to the people.
There were so many
recommendations present in the officers’
report. In 1892, this report was considered
In this connection, a British officer and accepted by the government.
‘Francis Ellis’ was appointed to submit the Accordingly 12 lakh acres were distributed
status report regarding ‘Ryotwari System’. to the lower caste groups. These lands are
In similar way, another officer, ‘Thomas called as “Panchami.” Schools for lower
Munro’ also submitted a report related to caste groups are called as “Panchamer
the ‘Ryotwari System’. According to the School”.
reports, ‘Lands which were tilled by lower
strata people, were illegally occupied and “Panchamer” means people who
acquired by ‘Zamindars’ and ‘Landlords’ are out of Varna System or excluded
and thus caused quality-less farming and communities. ‘Ayothidasa’ and
low level of yields. It is also reported that ‘Singaravela’ opined that “Panchamer
Land Income Tax was also affected due to Schools” can be called as “Adidravidar”
this acquisition. Moreover, the deprived schools. Since it is the traditional name
and downtrodden communities were carved to the category.
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In 1854, court delivered direction jobs for Non-Brahmins. Almost

that there may not be any restriction to simultaneously in the Mysore kingdom
admit children who belongs to lower the ‘Miller Committee’ recommended
caste groups. The Caste Hindus and communal distribution of jobs.
other dominant communities, however, Those people who demanded for
didn’t obey the judgment of the court appropriate representation are Ayothidasa,
proceedings. In 1865, Secretary of state Singaravelar, Rettamalai Srinivasan, Pitti
for India in British Parliament ordered Theagarayar, Raja of Panagal and many
for admission of children who belong others. Demands put forth by these people
to lower caste groups but the condition were accepted in 1922. Community based
remains unchanged. representation order was issued in all
British India in the end part of 19th departments of Madras Presidency. This
century supported Brahmin development order is called 128(2). The order has to
in all spheres, whereas minorities were be implemented in all parts of Chennai
denied opportunities in education, Presidency, declared the government.
society, power and employment sectors. The efforts taken towards “education
The Non-Brahmins, and minorities to all” in Tamilnadu also spread over to
(lower caste) who studied in the modern other states of India. Leaders like Jyotirao
educational institutions were dissatisfied Phule, Savithribai Phule took onerous
with the government’s biased stand. They efforts in Maharastra for educating the
demanded representation for lower caste depressed and downtrodden communities.
groups in government services.
In 1891 the natives Travancore

Kingdom submitted the Malayalee
Memorial demanding adequate Justice Party
opportunities for native in employment. There were
In 1896, ‘Ezhava Memorial’ demanded more applications
adequate opportunity for ‘Averna’ forwarded in 1913 to
(backward communities, in employment Royal Commission
and education. Narayana Guru took which was headed by
intense efforts to organize victims of caste Alexander Cardow.
system and instated educational institution Apart from Madras
for them. Even before such movements Presidency, Rangoon Thravi Association
arose in extreme son. In 1902, Kolhapur and others also submitted their application
Raja Chatrapati Sahu for the first time with demands to the commission. All
introduced reservation in governments applications emphasized for appropriate
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representation in employment for First Communal Representation Order

backward, downtrodden and religious During the rule of Justice Party
minorities. Dr. Natesan, Pitti. Theagarayar, in Chennai Presidency, the demand
T. M. Nair tried to submit and a report on for communal representation reflected
the burning issue of the minorities and in vigorous manner. The prolonged
low caste groups. P. Theagarayar has struggle for communal representation by
written and published it as "Non-Brahmin Justice Party and wide support from the
Manifesto" in December, 1916. people propelled the central government
to make resolution in this regard in 1921.
This resolution, later on was called as
Communal Representation Decree.
It is the red lettered day in Indian
history, lower caste groups, who were
suppressed and deprived of Social and
Economical condition for many centuries
In 1916, Pitti. Theagarayar, T. had fullest confidence to lead their life with
M.Nair and others started South Indian self-respect and dignity by this decree.
Liberal Federation for the welfare of A resolution was submitted by
the Non-Brahmin communities. A Munusamy the member of legislative
magazine “Justice” was also published by assembly in Chennai. The Resolution
this Federation to express their thoughts reads; "Non-Brahmins with minimum
and ideas. Later on, this Federation was educational qualification should be
popularly known as “Justice Party”. provided with employment opportunity.
Non-Brahmins specifically, Christians,
This movement spread out Muslims and lower caste groups to be
“communal representation for Non- appointed in all government services. For
Brahmin in education, and employment this, a permanent order should be legalized.
sectors. In 1915, Justice Party submitted If salary is above Rs.100, this order should
a petition in which it condemned the be implemented for 7years until it reaches
domination of English and Sanskrit in 75% of the population". With regard to
higher education. Further they demanded this resolution, R.K.Shanmugam stated
to include Tamil and other languages in that “If this historical and land mark
higher education. resolution is implemented, the future
generation may really appreciate our
In 1917, 54 Associations met the truthful efforts towards emancipation”. In
representative members of British empire supporting this view, Dr.C.Natesan voiced
and demanded “Fair Representation” for that “If fair representation is not provided
Non-Brahmin communities and other for our people, we will not pay taxes”.
minorities. Moreover, “Communal Periyar, EV.Ramaswamy, a staunch
Representation” was demanded during supporter of congress party also eulogized
multiple conferences. the ideas of Justice Party, he expressed the
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same demand in Congress Party. In 1925, Constitution. Due to this, backward

during the Kanchipuram Congress Party and other communities retained the
Conference, Periyar passed a resolution opportunity of reservation.
regarding communal representation in
According to articles 15 and 16
education and employment. Periyar came
of Indian Constitution, "Socially and
out of congress party, since his resolution
economically backward people can be
was rejected by the high command. In
provided with special privileges". This
1928, during the leadership of R.Muthiah,
provision made Nehru to come with First
(Justice Party), Communal representation
Amendment in the Indian Constitution.
was passed and implemented in all the
government departments. Accordingly, sub-sections 15 (4) and
16 (4) were included in the constitution.
First Amendment After the Amendment, from 1951
In the aftermath of the effective onwards Backward Communities receive
implementation of Indian Constitution, 25% and Lower Caste 16% respectively
in 1951, Mr. Senbagarajan filed a suit in due to reservation policy.
the High Court; related to the denial of
Expansion of Reservation
Medical Seats. He also mentioned that,
communal representation is the reason for Under the
the denial of his seat. The High Court gave Chief Ministership
its Verdict that Communal representation of M.Karunanidhi,
decree is against the constitution and to be a commission was
abandoned. In addition to that, Supreme constituted under
Court also sided with the same Verdict. the Chairmanship
Reservation Policy on the basis of caste of Sattanathan to take into account on
was abandoned due to the Verdict. the welfare of backward community. It
is on the basis of the recommendations
of Sattanathan commission, backward
community got 31% and SC/ST received
18% as reservation in 1971.
In 1979, Social Welfare Department
State wide protests erupted in of Tamilnadu Government issued an
Tamilnadu against the Verdict. E. V. order (MS No.1156, Dated 02.02.1979).
Ramasamy, demanded for an amendment According to this order, annual family
in the constitution. It is due to efforts of income of backward community was fixed
Periyar, Tamilnadu congress committee as Rs.9,000/-. Later on, that order was
President Kamaraj, Prime Minister repealed. A new order was issued, in which
Jawarharlal Nehru and Ambedkar, an reservation for backward community was
amendment was made related with the increased from 31% to 50% and for SC/
extension of Reservation Policy. This ST it is 18%. To sum-up, 68% reservation
was the first Amendment in the Indian came into effect in Tamilnadu.
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In continuum with this, in 1989, Moreover, the highest ceiling of 50% can
another suit filed in Supreme Court with also be discharged.
regard to allotment of separate reservation
Thus the Judgment says
for Scheduled tribe (ST) community.
In this case, Supreme Court of India “Although 50% is the ceiling fixed
delivered the verdict by which, backward for the reservation in central government
community, most backward, scheduled services, it may be changed, taking into
caste and scheduled tribes received 30%, account the diversified communities and
20%, 18% and 1% respectively. The entire abnormal situations of this nation”.
reservation was changed combinedly and “People who are distant, those who
69% came into effect in Tamilnadu. could not mingle with the mainstream
Reservation in Central Government: society or without opportunity, unique in
Mandal Commission culture may be exempted from this ceiling
fixed by the Supreme Court. 50% of the
The central government under
ceiling may be exempted, said the same
the Prime Ministership of V.P.Singh
judges who delivered the famous verdict
consented with the recommendations of
in this sensitive case.
Mandal Commission. The Government
issued an order which confirmed 27% That said, a member of consumer
reservation for Backward Community in trust, K.N. Vijayan from Tamilnadu filed a
Central Government Services. suit stating, 69% reservation in Tamilnadu
is given against the Supreme Court
Verdict. Supreme Court, however, in its
Verdict mentioned that Engineering and
Medical Colleges should not be provided
reservation more than 50%. It also issued
Interim prohibition for the reservation.
It was similar with the untoward
In opposing this order, Indira
happenings during 1951, which prompted
Sawhney, filed a suit stating the order
the state government
breaches the constitutional provisions.
under J.Jayalalitha who
She also added that reservation policy
passed a bill in the state
overrides the principle “All are equal
assembly by citing the
before Law”. Supreme Court delivered
reference from directive
a clear verdict that 27% for backward
principles of state policy
community in Central government
(Article 31(c)).
services can be legalized. Further it states,
“the reservation should not reach beyond The bill on 30.12.1993 was given
50%”. consent by the President of India on
19.07.1994 by which 69% reservation
The Supreme court of India fixed 50%
received fullest legal protection. To avert
as ceiling for reservation policy, whereas
further filing of suit against Tamilnadu
it was not mentioned in the constitution.
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Government, it endeavored to incorporate 1. Kaka Kalelkar Commission

reservation policy in IXth schedule of the Kaka Kalelkar Commission was
Indian Constitution. the first one constituted in 29.01.1953.
Parliament passed the 76th There were 11 members including the
Amendment in which reservation policy of Chairman Jawaharlal Nehru who tabled
Tamilnadu Government was incorporated the report submitted by this commission
in IXth schedule of Indian Constitution. in the Parliament. But the report was not
Further it came into retrospective effect adopted.
from November 16, 1992.
2. Mandal Commission
Reservation for different
communities is a temporary effort to get Central Government under the
place in power sector. To attain social Prime Minister-ship of Morarji Desai
change and social ideals, caste hierarchy constituted Subindeswari Prasad Mandal
has to be demolished and eternal equality Commission on 20.12.1978. This is the
to be established. One among the means second such Commission established
to attain permanent equality is “Inter- for the backward community. S.S.Gill
Caste Marriages”. Marriages happening was appointed as the Secretary of this
within caste may further strengthen caste Commission.
system and serve as an obstacle for the It is in order to identify the condition
equal society. Casteless marriages and of backward community; a group was
lateral cum ideal thinking are the best constituted under the leadership of
contrivances for making radical social B.B.Mandal in 1978. The group travelled
change. all over the nation. This Commission on
Backward classes Commission the basis of 11 basic reasons identified
According to article 340 of Indian 3743 castes which comes under backward
Constitution, President of India can community. Castes were identified on the
appoint backward classes commission to ground of peoples’ status in education and
identify socially and educationally society.
backward groups and also to submit
Mandal has written in the preface
recommendation related to their standards
of the report which reads, “Madras is a
and states.
pioneer state in communal representation.
It has given representation for backward
classes”. We may infer that Tamilnadu is
the birth place for Social Justice and serve
as a great pioneer for all other states.
52% of the backward communities

in India has to be provided with 27%
Hitherto, the Indian government
reservation, remarked Mandal Report.
has constituted the backward classes
This reservation was implemented by
commission.
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V.P.Singh Government on 13.08.1990 in Those who have been benefitted

all Government (Central) Services. Due extensively by the philosophy of ascriptive
to this order, backward communities who status (status based on birth) must realize
are backward in social and educational that such status cannot be part of a modern
sectors entered into central services. world; to be a modern person what is more
Promoting Social Justice important is to have the consciousness
In order to achieve social justice, it of being equal to everybody around us.
is often suggested that reservation policy Unfortunately ‘modern’ is being equated
is an important tool. We must realize that with latest electronic items and luxury
reservation in education and in jobs is one items we possess. Having latest gadgets will
of the methods to achieve ‘Social Justice’ not make us modern. For India to become a
and not the only method. Social Justice modern nation, this radical transformation
must necessarily premise upon the idea is required more than anything. That is why
of egalitarian philosophy that no one is the social justice is organically embedded
inferior or superior to anyone by birth. in the idea of modern India.
The Government of India appointed the 2nd Backward Classes Commission

in 1979.It was headed by B.P.Mandal. Hence it was popularly known as Mandal
Commission. It was asked to determine the criteria to identify the socially and
educationally backward classes in our country and recommend steps to be taken for
their advancement. One of the recommendations was that 27 per cent of government
jobs be reserved for the socially and economically backward classes.
It was in December 1980 members of Mandal Commission submitted their
report to Zail Singh, the then Home Minister. After submitting the report B.P.Mandal
said, “I know much labour has gone into the writing of this report. But let me tell you
that today we have performed its immersion (visarjan) ceremon.”
Next ten years, the report lay in the Home Ministry’s office. Report was dusted
up by the then National Front Prime Minister Vishwanath Pratap Singh (1931 – 2008)
for implementation in 1990. Mandal Commission report became the single-most
burning topic of controversy and heated discussion. There was total confusion in the
national political arena and V.P. Singh was accused of indulging in the worst form
of opportunism. No major political party supported the implementation of Mandal
Commission recommendations.
Some section of people and associations opposed to this order filed a number of
cases in the court. Eleven judges of the Supreme Court heard arguments of both sides
and by a majority, the Supreme Court judges in 1992 declared that this was valid.
At the same time the Supreme Court asked the government to modify its original
order. It said that well-to-do persons among the backward classes should be excluded
from getting the benefit of reservation. Accordingly, the Department of Personnel
and Training issued another Office Memorandum on September 8, 1993. The dispute
thus came to an end and this policy has been followed since then.
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Indira Sawhney V. Union of India AIR 1993 SC 477

 Also known as Ma n d a l Commission Case.
On January, 1979 under the Chairmanship of B.P.Mandal, the second Backward

Classes Commission under Article 340 was appointed by the Union Government
headed by Prime Minister Morarji Desai.
One of the major recommendation made by the commission was that, besides

the SCs and STs, for other backward classes which constitute nearly 52% of the
population, 27% government jobs are be reserved so that total reservation for all,
SC,ST and OBCs, amount to 50%.
No action was taken on the basis of the Mandal Report for long after it was

submitted, except that it was discussed in the Houses of Parliament twice, once in
1982and again in 1983.
On August 13, 1990, the V.P.Singh Government at the Centre issued an office

memorandum accepting the Mandal Commission recommendation and announcing
27% reservation for the socially and educationally backward classes in vacancies in civil
posts and services under the Government of India.
Glossary
Fraternity - Universal brotherhood which Plural society - Varied on the basis of

is stipulated in the Indian constitution culture
Exploitation – Misusage of resources Social change - Change which creates
Egalitarian society - Society without behavioral variation
stratification Civil rights - Rights provided by the
Privileges - Special schemes or rights for government to live in a society
particular human communities Political rights - Rights of the people in
Injustice - Activities which are against the the political sector
will of people Economic equality - Less cleavage between
Social identity - An indicator which people in terms of economic condition
locates the people in a society Dharma - Do’s and Don’ts
Apartheid - Suppression of one race by the Landlordism - Exploitation by land owners
other Deprived - Economically and socially
Varna system - Divisive phenomenon in exploited and exhausted
the society Panchamer - people who are out of the
Minorities - people who belongs to a Varna system
group at less number in population Justice - Fair distribution of authoritative
Reservation - Policy which helps people allocation of values
for upliftment
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Evaluation
I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Survival of the fittest theory was coined by
a) Denim b) Roosevelt
c) Darwin d) All the above
2. Slave Trade means
a) Women trafficking b) Child trafficking
c) Men trafficking d) All
3. Apartheid regime means
a) One race suppressing other b) Blacks suppressing whites
c) Torture d) Affluent society
4. Narayana Guru belongs to which state?
a) Andhra Pradesh b) West Bengal
c) Maharashtra d) Kerala
5. “Vaikom Movement” was spearheaded by
a) Periyar b) Rajaji
c) Nehru d) Gandhi
6. "An inquiry into Wealth of Nations" was written by
a) Keynes b) Adam smith
c) Rousseau d) Bodin
7. “It is not by ballots, but by bullets” exclaimed
a) Castro b) Mao
c) Netaji d) Bagatsingh
8. Reservation policy is to
a) Upliftment b) Advancement
c) Justice d) All
9. Caste system is at high level in
a) Hinduism b) Islam
c) Christianity d) Zorastrianism
10. Ambedkar at the end phase converted to
a) Christianity b) Hinduism
c) Buddhism d)Jain
11. Just society means
a) No discrimination b) Casteless
c) Religion less d)All
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12. Mandal Commission uplifted

a) SC b) ST
c) OBC d)OC
13 Assertion: Non- brahmins were appointed to government services in British India.

Reason: Communal Representation Decree was passed in the year 1921.
1. Society Government and Caste-Define.
2. Casteless Society-Define.
3. What do you mean by caste discrimination?
4. What is equality?
5. What is exploitation?
6. Define about caste violence.
7. Explain temple entry movement.
III. Answer the following questions shortly
1. Write a note on Reservation policy.
2. Write about Equality in Indian constitution.
3. Give a brief account on Caste organizations.
4. Write about caste discriminatory practices in India.
5. Communal decree - Explain.
6. Explain the recommendation of Mandal Commission.
IV. Answer the following questions in detail
1. Discuss the basic tenets of equal society.
2. Give a brief account on political ideas of Periyar.
3. Discuss about various leaders’ role in equality.
4. Write a note on leadership of the modern movements.
5. Explain about new social movement.
Reference Books
1. Gauba. O.P, ‘Dimension of Social Justice’, National Publishing Co, New Delhi, 1983.
2. Rawls, John, ‘A Theory of Justice’, Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt, Ltd, Delhi.
3. Rao, Priya, ‘Development & Social Justice - A Legal Perspective’; Kalpaz Publications,
Delhi, 2012.
4. Purohit . B.R; ‘Social Justice in India’, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 2003.
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UNIT
14 Political Developments in Tamilnadu
Diary of Events
1914 - Birth of Dravidian Association

1916 - South Indian Liberal Federation was formed
1917 - Justice Party
1919 - Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
1925 - Periyar founded Self Respect Movement
1937 - Congress Ministry formed under the leadership of Rajaji
1937 - Anti-Hindi Agitation
t Salem conference the Justice Party was renamed into
A
1944 -
Dravidar Kazhagam (DK)
T.Prakasam of Congress formed Government in Madras
1946 -
Presidency
1947 - O.P.Ramaswamy became the Chief Minister
1949 - P.Kumaraswami Raja formed his ministry
1949 - Birth of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)
1952 - First General Elections took place
1956 - States Reorganization Act
1965 - Anti-Hindi Agitation.
ravida Munnetra Kazhagam formed government under the
D
1967 -
leadership of C.N.Annadurai.
1969 - Madras State was renamed as "Tamilnadu"
1969 C.N.Annadurai passed away.
1969 - M.Karunanidhi became the Chief Minister of the State
1972 - AIADMK was founded by M.G.Ramachandran (MGR)
1974 - State Autonomy Resolution was passed in the Assembly
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Learning Objectives
 To understand the nature of political discourses that took place in Madras
presidency during the 1900s.
 To unravel the emergence of Non-Brahmin movement and how it had paved the
way for the Dravidian parties rule in the state of Tamil Nadu.
 To explore the nature of centre-state relations during the rule of various political
parties in the state.
 To study the welfare policies of the Dravidian parties and its significant impact on the society.
 To examine whether any state level political will has any impact on national politics.
 The chief aim of the study is to understand various dimensions of the social welfare
policies of successive governments in the state.
 To explore the reasons for the fragmentation in Dravidian politics and in consequences.
14.1 Political History of Tamil Nadu employment in industries, commercial

Compared with rest of India, Tamil enterprises etc., Significant but a portion
Nadu has had a healthy administrative of non-Brahmin caste groups migrated
and political culture, more or less stable from rural areas to urban pockets of the
economic life, and continuity of traditions Presidency and wanted to ascertain their
from the hoary past to the present. Madras identity as ‘Dravidian’ and ‘Tamils’ and
Presidency of South India came into gradually challenged the monopoly of
existence due to the administrative and powers and privileges enjoyed by the
political needs of the British. The Madras Brahmins in politics, administration and
Presidency was formed in A.D (C.E.) society.
1801. The Presidency, as it existed during The word ‘Dravidian’ was used by
the 19th and 20th centuries, comprised scholars and non – Tamils to identify non-
of the present states of Andhra Pradesh, Aryan Tamil speaking people. At the same
Malabar region of Kerala, Southern time Brahmins were identified as “Aryans”
Karnataka, Southern most part of Odisha and the custodians of Sanskrit civilisation
and Union Territory of Lakshadweep. where as non-Brahmins were considered
Madras Presidency politics in the as “Dravidians” and the custodians of
early part of 20th century was dominated Tamil language, culture and civilisation.
by the "Brahmin – non – Brahmin conflicts". 14.2 E
mergence of Dravidian
Scholars and political thinkers believed Movement
that understanding the conflicts between
these two groups, (the Brahmins and non – In order to protect and promote the
Brahmins), is necessary to understand the Tamil identity, culture, socio-political
South Indian Politics and society. and economic interest of non-Brahmins,
Madras Presidency a movement called ‘Dravidian Movement’
Simultaneously a few members was started in Madras Presidency by a
of Non-Brahmin caste groups sought group of non – Brahmins.
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Dravidian and Non-Brahmin Identity and Dravidian cultural heritage led to

assertion of Dravidian identity among the
In 1801 Madras Presidency was
Non-Brahmin.
formed by the colonial regime as a
multilingual province (Tamils, Telegus, Two factors (1) Brahmins claiming
Malayalees, Kannadigas and Tulus). superiority over Non-Brahmins and (2)
India’s diversity could be noticed in the Brahmins monopolizing educational and
political developments of the Madras employment opportunities transformed
Presidency. In Bengal and in the rest of the Dravidian identity into Non-Brahmin
North India a Sanskrit and Vedic centered identity. (In Maharashtra too Mahatma
Indian culture was projected, besides an Jyotiba Rao Phule launched a Non-
Indo-Aryan or Indo-German group of Brahmin movement on similar lines). in
languages were acknowledged. Non- the middle of 19th century Dravidian also
Vedic, Non-Sanskrit cultures were not indicated the Non-Brahmins in south
recognized. The deciphering of Brahmi India.
script in 1837 by James Principe and
researches on south Indian languages
(Ellis in 1816 and Caldwell in 1856) came
to establish that Indian culture was not
homogeneous; and there existed a (Non-
Aryans) group of languages and countries.
Ellis is praised by Tamil
enthusiasts as lover of
Tamil, Valluvar, Kural and
so on, without knowing
the colonial and christian Jyotiba Rao Phule
background of him. In
fact, he tried to forge valluvar as Jain, to The Non-Brahmins of the Madras
promote the "thomas myth" in India Presidency had a grievance that the emerging
nationalist leaders paid no heed to non-
Francis Whyte Ellis
brahmin issues. In 1852 Gajulu Lakshmi
Born: May 7, 1814, Narasu Chetty expressed this grievance,
Clady, United Kingdom seceded from British Indian Association and
Died: August 28, 1891, floated his own organization named Madras
Kodaikanal, India Native Association. In the post-mutiny
period, the non-brahmin leaders undertook
Robert Caldwell
social reforms rather than political reforms.
After the introduction of Minto-Morley
Buddhist and Dravidian traditions
reforms in 1909 the non-brahmin leaders
also existed in India. In the south, especially
of Madras Presidency began to protest
in the multi-lingual Madras Presidency,
the inadequate representations to them in
theories on Dravidian group of languages
education and employment.
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Sir Alexander The main objectives of the

Gordon Cardew, Justice Party (JP)
a member of i) To create and promote the Educational,
Governor’s Executive Social, Economic, Political and material
Council submitted progress of all communities other than
statistical details Brahmins of South India.
(1913) to prove that ii) To work for Non-Brahmins upliftment
the Brahmins who formed only three through Constitutional government.
percent of the population cornered most iii) To make the government truly a
of the opportunities. representative government.
14.3 Justice Party iv) To create public opinion infavour of
Non-Brahmins demand.
The major political organization of
that time, Indian National Congress was
dominated by Brahmins had refused to
consider the demands of non-brahmin
members. Thus the non-brahmin leaders
of Madras Presidency began to think of
floating a non-brahmin political
organization. The prospects of political
reforms after the First World War, and the
possibilities of representing institutions
stimulated their move.
In 1916 Dr.T.M. Nair, Pitti

Theagarayar and Dr.C. Natesan founded
the South Indian Liberal Federation
to promote and safeguard the socio-
economic political interests of the non-
brahmin. This South Indian Liberal
Federation (SILF) came to be popularly
known as the "Justice Party" named after
the English journal Justice. Through their
relentless efforts they secured reservation
of seats for the non-brahmin in the
elections to the legislative council. Under
the 1919 Act
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Montagu Chelmsford reforms 1919 depressed classess. For the first time they
introduced dyarchy in the presidencies experimented with “Noon Meal Scheme”
by which a few departments were in a few schools. Knowledge of Sanskrit
earmarked for Indian ministers chosen as the basic eligibility for medical
from the elected members. In the first education was removed which facilitated
elections under dyarchy in 1920, the non-brahmin students gaining entry into
Indian National Congress as a part of the medical education. On an initiative from
Non-Co-operation Movement boycotted Dr. Muthulakshmi and others, Devadasi
the elections, but many congressmen system was abolished in Tami nadu and
contested the elections under different women were enfranchised. Co-operative
banners. The Justice Party won majority societies were promoted. Mirasdari system
of the seats and A.Subbarayalu became was abolished, and a
the First Minister and after his death, Raja number of irrigation
of Panagal became the First Minister of schemes were
Madras in 1921. introduced in 1923.
Annamalai University
and Andhra
University were
founded during their regime. It was the
Justic Party which provided the most
successful government under the Dyarchy
though they were assigned only a few
14.4 Contributions of Justice Party departments.
In spite of the fluctuating fortunes in 14.5 Periyar E.V. Ramasamy:

the subsequent elections, the Justice party
continued to hold power from 1921 to Peiyar E.V. Ramasamy
1937. They introduced a number of considered the
reforms. Through communal Government decision of Rajaji’s
Order they ensured adequate number of government to impose
opportunities to every category of non- Hindi as a compulsory
brahmin communities. They removed subject as a move to
discrimination against Sudras and establish ‘North Indian
Panchamas in public roads, transports, imperialism’ and destroying the Tamil
restaurants and public wells. They language and culture. Periyar, further,
regulated the temple affairs through the maintained that the imposition of Hindi
newly constituted Hindu Religious was a calculated effort to sub ordinate
Endowment Board, earmarked plots of the Dravidians in order to ascertain the
land for the Panchamas (Panchami Land) supremacy of the Aryan Brahmins.
introduced new township and industrial
Madras Presidency has witnessed
estates. Special efforts were taken to
massive anti-Hindi agitations and
provide education for the children of
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Periyar was imprisoned by the provincial and equal status of individuals (including
government. It is significant to note that in women) under the garb of tradition and
fifteen years he went to jail twenty- three religion.
times and got the nickname as ‘jailbird’ The Self Respect Movement ordained
(Siraiparavai). In 1938, Periyar was its members to give up caste surname and
imprisoned for his Anti-Hindi agitation caste-religious identities; it introduced the
and then he was elected as the president of self-respect marriages. It fought against
Justice Party. In the same year, the Justice not only untouchability but even against
Party passed a resolution that Tamil Nadu the caste-system and the caste based
should be made as a separate state loyal disabilities and indignities imposed on
to British government and it should be individuals.
under the direct control of the Secretary
The Self Respect Movement
of State for India.
propagated not merely better treatment of
Periyar E.V.Ramaswamy who played women, but for equal rights, equal status
a pioneering role in the Madras Presidency an equal opportunities for women. Self
Congress, had tried his best to make the Respect Movement’s role in “Women
Tamilnadu Congress Committee adopt Liberation” was unparalleled and for that
resolutions in favour of proportional E.V.Ramaswamy was given the title
representation for the non-brahmins “Periyar” in a women’s conference.
in political arena. He gave an effective Periyar’s journal ‘Kudiarasu’ ‘Revolt’ and
leadership to the Vaikom Sathyagraha and later ‘Viduthalai’ carried on the effective
campaigned against caste-discrimination propaganda of self-respect ideals.
in the Cheranmadevi Gurukula, founded
by congress.
When all his efforts failed to make
Congress adopt his programme, he left
Congress and launched the 'Self-respect
Movement' in 1925. He shunned electoral
politics, instead campaigned for social
reforms, especially for eradication of
caste system, removal of indignities and
gender based restrictions on women, 14.6 Self Respect Movement
and rejection of hereditary priesthood. In 1929 the first Self-Respect
The self-respect movement carried on Conference was held in Chengalpattu.
a vigorous campaign against age old In the crucial elections of 1937 the
superstitious beliefs and practices in Congress party, led by C. Rajagopalachari,
every sphere and questioned the role of won majority of seats. The Congress
religion in justifying and sustaining such party victory was largely because of the
irrational traditions and inequalities. The decline of Justice Party. The Congress
Self Respect Movement campaigned for formed the government and Rajaji became
rationalism, and against denial of dignity the premier of the Madras province.
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Soon after assuming power the in general and the youth In particulars.
Congress government introduced Hindi He advocated Self –Respect marriages,
as a compulsory subject in the schools. a marriage which was conducted in
Periyar launched anti-Hindi agitation. A the absence of Brahmin priesthood,
large number of students have participated discouraged the people from performing
in the agitations organized by Periyar. irrational religious ceremonies and not to
During this period, the Communist employ the services of the Brahmins in
Party (formally launched in 1925) became any of the social events.
active in campaigning for socialist Decline of Justice Party
programme and organized labour
movements. M.Singaravelu, and his By 1929, the Self-Respect Movement
associates were impressed by the social had become a formidable movement in the
reform programmes of the Self Respect Madras Presidency. In 1930’s the Justice
Movement, which in turn extended Party began to face decline in the political
support to the economic programme of sphere of the province. There were three
the communists, and these two movements major factors responsible for this decline.
agreed to work on a common programme Firstly, the party lost its support among
(Erode Plan). the Depressed sections of the society and
minorities. Secondly the Self-Respect
Movement, under Periyar had become
more radical. Finally the elitist and pro-
British outlook of Justice Party had also
contributed significantly for its decline.
14.7 Anti Hindi Agitation
The decline of the Justice Party and
Periyar’s refusal to enter into electoral
Objectives of Self-Respect League politics together with the growing
i) Reforming Dravidian society to make popularity of Mahatma Gandhi, enabled
it truly rational. Indian National Congress to win elections
in the Madras Presidency in 1937 and
ii) To teach the truth of ancient Tamil Rajagopalachari became the premier.
civilization to Dravidians.
He introduced total prohibition (ban
iii) Save the Dravidian society from the
on liquor) and abolished the Zamindari
domination of Aryan culture.
system, and introduced legislations
iv)
Reforming the Hinduism by removing restrictions on temple entry for
eliminating Brahmin influence and the depressed classes. Yet his measures
superstitious practices. leading to closure of many schools and
He wanted to do away with introduction of Hindi as compulsory
indignities on of Dravidians by creating language in schools provoked the admirers
social awareness among the non-Brahmins
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of self respect and Tamil Nationalists like Kazhagam decided to observe 26th January,
Mariamalai Adigal to organize the ‘Anti 1965 as a ‘Day of Mourning’. Many leaders
Hindi Movement’ in 1937. Thousands of the party and its cadres were arrested.
of agitators including E.V.Ramaswamy Tamil Nadu had witnessed a large scale
courted arrest, and a number of agitators of Anti-Hindi agitations. Because of the
died in prison. agitations the cause secured considerable
amount of support among the student
community. On the other hand the Congress
party lost its base and support in the state
of Tamil Nadu. Meanwhile, the Dravida
Munnetra Kazhagam had withdrawn the
demand for ‘Dravida Nadu’ in favour of
prejudicial autonomous and continued to
Salem Conference, 1944 actively participate in the electoral politics
In 1944, at Salem conference under the of Tamilnadu and became a ruling party in
leadership of Periyar, a historic resolution the state.
was moved to change the name of Justice
Party to Dravidar Kazhagam (DK). Periyar 14.8 D
ravidian Movement during
organised ‘Dravida Nadu’ conference and second World War and after:
demanded an independent homeland for In 1939, the
‘Dravidians’. Further, he pronounced his congress protested
very famous slogan ‘Dravida Nadu for the government’s
Dravidians’ at the conference. declaration involving
Apart from separate ‘Dravida Nadu’ India in the Second
demand, the Dravidar Kazhagam wanted World War which led
to establish casteless society, condemned to the resignation of
irrational and demeaning religious rituals, congress ministry. In
traditions and superstitious in Dravidian Madras Presidency Rajaji’s ministry had
society. The Dravidar Kazhagam became resigned but Periyar raised the demand
very popular in many rural and urban of Dravida Nadu on the ground that
masses, especially among the students. independence prior to socio-cultural
Many non-Brahmin leaders and students equality would be injurious to Tamil
have changed their name reflecting Tamil interests. In 1949, Dravidar Kazhagam
Identity. split and Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
Anti-Hindi Agitation 1965 was formed.
In accordance with the provisions
In 1951, the Supreme Court struck
of Article 313 of the Indian Constitution
down communal reservations in higher
Hindi was made as the official language
education. Immediately Periyar launched
of the Indian Union on January 26, 1965.
a major agitation for the restoration of
In order to protest the decision of the
communal reservation.
Union Government the Dravida Munnetra
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S.NO. PREMIER CHIEF MINISTER YEAR

1 A. Subbarayalu Reddiar 1920 – 1921
2 Raja of Panagal 1921-1926
3 P. Subbarayan 1926 1930
4 P. Munusamy Naidu 1930 1932
5 Poppili Raja 1932 -1937
6 P.T. Rajan 1936
7 K.V. Reddy Naidu 1937
8 C. Rajaji 1937 - 1939
(Note: Tamil Nadu was under Governor’s rule from 29 th October 1939 to 30th April 1946)
9 T. Prakasam 1946 -1947
10 O.P. Ramasamy Reddiyar 1947 – 1949
CHIEF MINISTER
11 P.S. Kumarasamy Raja 1949-1952
12 C. Rajaji 1952 - 1954
13 K. Kamaraj 1954-1957
14 K. Kamaraj 1957-1962
15 K. Kamaraj 1962-1963
16 M. Bakthavatsalam 1963-1967
17 C.N. Annadurai 1967-1969
18 M. Karunanidhi 1969-1971
19 M. Karunanidhi 1971-1976
20 M.G. Ramachandran 1977-1980
23 Janaki Ramachandran 1988
24 M.Karunanidhi 1989-1991
25 J. Jayalalithaa 1991-1996
26 M.Karunanidhi 1996-2001
27 J. Jayalalithaa 2001
28 O. Panneerselvam 2001-2002
29 J. Jayalalithaa 2002 -2006
30 M. Karunanidhi 2006 - 2011
31 J. Jayalalithaa 2011
32 O. Panneerselvam 2012 (Interim)
33 J. Jayalalithaa May 16, 2016 – Dec .5 2016
34 O. Panneerselvam Dec 2016 – Feb 2017
35 K. Palanisamy Feb 2017 - till date
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more accessible to poor and rural children.

Law and rules are only for the Kamaraj also introduced the noon-meal
people. People are not for the scheme for school children.
law and the rules
- Kamaraj
Consequently, the first constitutional

amendment Act was passed in the
Parliament facilitating reservations for
socially and educationally backward
classes.
In 1963, Kamaraj resigned (Kamaraj
14.9 Rajaji Regime (1952-54)
Plan) his chief ministership to become the
The politics of Madras President of Indian National Congress and
State in India witnessed M.Bhaktavatchalam took over the reins
the continuation of of the government. The Food shortage
struggle between and anti-hindi agitation caused the un-
statusquoists and reformists. popularity of his ministry.
C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) who led the
first elected ministry in the Madras, Dravidian Parties Rule
under the Republican Constitution, again
In the general elections of 1967,
reduced the number of schools, attempted
the congress party was defeated. The
to impose Hindi in schools and Modified
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam formed the
Scheme of Elementary Education which
government.
provided for part time learning of
hereditary occupations popularly known
as kulakalvi.
Dravidian leaders launched a

statewide protest against movement. Even
a section of Congress leaders resented
Rajaji’s proposals which led to change in
Chief ministership.
14.10 Kamaraj Era (1954-1963)

Kamaraj abolished the Modified
Scheme of Elementary Education,
increased manifold the number of schools,
built a number of dams for improving
irrigation, provided more industrial
estates and ensured astonishing industrial
growth in the state. He made education
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and to overcome newly amended electoral

In 1956, through 'states laws. It won a majority in 1967 elections.
reorganization Act' Madras Annadurai ruled for a brief period (1967-
Presidency gave up malayalam regions 69), yet he renamed Madras state as
to Kerala, Telegu region to Andhra Tamilnadu, passed civil marriages act,
Pradesh and Kannada regions to rejected three language policies of central
Mysore. Thus, Madras state became government and enforced a two languages
a state of Tamils. Kamaraj provided a (English & Tamil) policy in Tamilnadu.
stable government.
The provision of affordable universal

housing for poor, precursor to food
security (Rice scheme) and establishment
of Slum Clearance Board have substantially
improved and received support among
the urban poor people also. Significantly,
the government renamed the State from
Madras to Tamil Nadu in the year 1969.
The other major achievements of the
party were:
A. Nationalisation of Bus routes larger

than 75 miles.
B. Waiver of Tuition fee for poor students
of all castes in pre-University and pre- For the first time, he introduced a
technical courses. subsidized rice (one measure one rupee)
scheme. His successor M.Karunanidhi
C. Second World Tamil Conference was continued his legacy. In 1972,
organised. M.G.Ramachandran founded his own
Dravidian Party (All Indian Anna Dravida
D. Supply of subsidised rice for people of Munnetra Kazhagam – AIADMK). He
Tamil Nadu. captured power in 1977 and retained the
same till his death in 1987. Thereafter,
14.11 Dravidian Rule in Post- Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam under
Independence Tamilnadu M.Karunanidhi and Selvi J. Jayalalitha
For the past 62 years Dravidian of All Indian Anna Dravida Munnetra
parties have been ruling Tamilnadu. Kazhagam led ministries in alternative
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam decided to elections. Besides, these two, there are a few
enter electoral politics in 1957 and gave other Dravidian parties like Marumalarchi
up its “Dravida Nadu” demand consequent Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.
to Chinese aggression of Indian territories
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More than, six decades of Dravidian Development Index). Today, Tamilnadu

rule contributed remarkably to the is in prominent position in promoting
development of Tamil. They steadfastly automobile industries, electronics, and
protected the interest of Tamil language, in pharmaceutical industries. it's new
Tamil people and Tamilnadu. A number economic zones are attracting huge
of welfare schemes were introduced to investments. Tamilnadu’s achievements in
alleviate the suffering of common people. infrastructural development are acclaimed
They ensured food security through by all. Roads, harbours, electrification
subsidized and later free rice schemes, and availability of skilled labour facilitate
nutritious meal scheme, free education industrial development.
until under graduate level, free electricity
There has been a manifold increase
for farming, abolition of cycle rickshaws
in the number of schools of different
and manual scavenging , cradle baby
categories. There is a manifold increase
scheme for the abandoned children, and
in the number of universities. Tamilnadu
welfare boards for various unorganized
has exclusive universities for women,
workers, and even for transgender. As a
engineering and technology, law,
remedy to ruinous caste conflicts,
medicine, siddha medicine, sports etc.
‘Samathuvapuram’ and ‘Uzhavarsanthai’
Promotion of Tamil language, through
were created.
tamil university, ulaga tamil araichi
niruvanam, world tamil conference
and ulaga tamil semmozhi conference,
and script reforms, led to all-round
advancement of tamil language.
The Dravidian parties since the days
of Annadurai have been championing the
cause of secularism and autonomy of the
states. The Dravidian parties have also
been contributing substantially to national
politics. Dravidian political stream
continues to be formidable in Tamilnadu.
Glossary
Coalition – A temporary alliance formed

Free electricity was provided to huts,
by political parties especially at the time
slum clearance board met the housing
of Elections.
requirements of slum dwellers. The
phenomenal increase in industrial activity Dravidian – The terminology denotes a
increased the opportunities for youth; as family of languages spoken in southern Parts
a result of these developments Tamilnadu of India, especially Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
registered a high ranking in HDI (Human Kerala, Andhra Pradesh etc., and Sri Lanka.
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E-Governance – Electronic Governance Reservation – It is also called a policy

is the application of information and of affirmative action mainly to empower
communication and technology (ICT) for the marginalized communities in socio-
delivery of public services to people. economic and political arenas.
Populism - Political activities intended to Social Justice – It is a political concept

draw the support of the general public by which holds that all people should have
giving them with welfare measures. equal access to wealth, health, well-being,
justice and opportunity.
Radicalism – People who advocate
their policies and programme through Social Welfare - Services that are provided
aggressive means. by the government to help poor, needy
and marginalized people.
Regionalism – It is a political ideology
that focuses mainly on the interest of the State Autonomy – It is a theory which
region or a particular state rather than the stands for complete autonomy for state
nation. government in political and economic
arenas.
Evaluation
1. In which year the Madras State was renamed as Tamilnadu?

a) 1969 b) 1975
c) 1950 d) 1965
2. The Madras Native Association was established in the year.

a) 1947 b) 1849
c) 1862 d) 1860
3. Who introduced the kulakalvi scheme in Tamilnadu?

a) Rajaji b) Ramsamy
c) Kamaraj d) Karunanithi
4. In which year, University of Madras was established?
a) 1885 b) 1947
c) 1857 d) 1965
5. In terms of population, Tamil Nadu is the _______ largest state in India.

a) 5 b) 7
c) 3 d) 4
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6. The First Premier of the Justice Party was

a) Subbarayalu Reddiar b) Sir Theagaraya
c) P.T. Rajan d) Bobbili Raja
7. The leader who was called Vaikom Hero.

a) K. Kamaraj b) Rajaji
c) Varadarajulu Naidu d) Periyar E.V.R.
8. Founder of the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu is

a) Rajaji b) Thiru-Vi-Ka
c) Kamaraj d) Periyar E.V.R.
9. Matching items
A B
a) Anti- Hindi Agitation - 1949

b) Birth of D.M.K - 1937
c) States Reorganization Act - 1919
d) Dyarchy -1956
10. The Non-Brahmin Manifesto was issued by

a) C.Natesan b) Pitty Theyagarayar
c) T.M.Nair d)Raja of Panagal
11. The South Indian Liberal Federation was later known as

a) Justice Party b) Dravida Kazhagam
c) Tamil Kazhagam d) Dravidian Party
12. A
ssertion: Karunanidhi entered the Tamil Nadu assembly by winning the Kulithalai
seat in the 1957 election.
Reason : Karunanidhi became the Chief Minister of the State.

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13. A
ssertion -E.V. Ramasamy started the Self-Respect Movement.
Reason-The Self-Respect Movement is a movement with the aim of achieving a
society where Non-Brahmin castes have equal human rights

1. Define the term “Dravidian”
2. What were the objectives of South Indian Liberal Federation?
3. Write a short note on Self-Respect Movement.
4. Bring out the significance of ‘Dravida Nadu’ demand.
5. Define the concept of State Autonomy
6. Write a short note on welfare measures for Transgenders .
1. Give an account on the birth of Justice Party.
2. Examine the importance of ‘Non - Brahmin Manifesto’.
3. Discuss the outcomes of the Salem Conference (1944).
4. What do you mean by Triangular Agitations?
5. Describe the social welfare policies of All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
under M.G.R.
6. Write a note on Rajamannar Committee.
7. Explain the populist policies of the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
government during 1991to1996.
1. Find out the reasons for the emergence of Non-Brahmin Movement in Madras
Presidency.
2. Write an essay on anti-Hindi agitations.
3. Describe the circumstances that led to the formation of All India Anna Dravida
Munnetra Kazhagam.
4. Bring out the social welfare policies of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam during 2006
to 2011.
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Reference Books
1. Baker, C.J. (1976). The Politics of South India 1820-1937, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
4. M.S.S.Pandian, Brahmin and Non-Brahmin: Genealogies of the Tamil Political
Present, 2007.
9. V.Geetha, and S.V. Rajadurai, Towards a Non Brahmin Millenium - From
Iyothee Thass to Periyar, Calcutta, Samya, 1998.
11. Hardgrave, R.L. Jr. The Dravidian Movement, Bombay: Popular Prakashan,
1965.
ICT CORNER
Unit-14 Political Developments In Tamilnadu
Let us know the election

results in Tamil Nadu.
Steps Government and Politics of Tamil Nadu
1. Click the URL or scan the QR code to launch the “Tamilnadu maps elections” page.
2. “Scroll the cursor” on the constituency map to know the representatives of that
constituency.
3. On the left window, click “Assembly Constituencies of Tamil Nadu” to know the
boundary of any legislative assembly constituency.
4. On the left window of the homepage, Click “Chief Ministers of Tamilnadu” to know
CM Time period.
Download Link
https://www.mapsofindia.com/assemblypolls/tamil-nadu/election-
results.html
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UNIT
15 Tamil Nadu Political Thought
15.1 Historical Background

The 'Classical Tamil homeland
(Tamizhagam) included
today's Tamil Nadu
besides some parts of
Kerala, Andhra and
Karnataka; Strabo (63
BC(BCE) to c. AD(CE)
24), a famous Greek geographer and historian
observed the early diplomatic history of
ancient Tamil Kingdom of Pandiyas. Naval
Learning Objectives
expeditions of Cheras, Cholas, Pandiyas and
Pallavas inform early maritime power and The students will be able to
influence of Tamils. Ports in the coast of Tamil  Learn about ancient political ideas
Nadu were important centres of trade between in Tamil Nadu.
India and the Mediterranean, and India and  State clearly the political ideas of
southeast Asia, in the period. 200 BC(BCE) Thiruvalluvar.
to 300 AD(CE). The ancient ports of Korkai,  Understand about Nationalism
Poompuhar, Vasavasamudram, Perimula, through Bharathiyar
Arikamedu, Alagankulam, Mamallapuram  Learn about communist ideas
reveal the active trade, commerce and cultural that existed in Tamilnadu through
exchanges with the Southeast Asian countries, Singaravelar's writings on
Sri Lanka, China, Egypt, Greece and Rome. communism.
An established tradition of shipbuilding  Learn and understand Dravidian
combined with rich maritime heritage of Ideology and its impact on the
ancient Tamils are definite indicators of the society, polity and economy
foundations of influential polity, society, in Tamil Nadu through the
culture, trade and commercial ties with the contributions of E.V.R.Periyar
outside world. on social justice, equality and
Sangam literature dated approximately liberation from oppression of
300 BC(BCE) to 300 AD(CE) is another higher caste.
valuable literary source(s) that reflects  Describe clearly the core meaning
society, economy, culture and politics. The of Tamil Movement and Dravidian
classification of Sangam poetry into akam movement and its political
(on love) and puram (on war, good and discourse.
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evil, community, justice and kingdom) is a claims to have destroyed a ‘Tamil federation’
revelation of the Tamil polity. The Sangam which existed for 113 years. Similarly such
literary works have been grouped into a Tamil federation of kings to fight foreign
eight anthologies (Ettuthogai): (1) Natrinai, invasion is also mentioned in ‘Agananooru’,
(2) Kurunthogai, (3) Aingurunooru, (4) a Sangam literature. Hence the idea and
Paditruppattru, (5) Paripadal, (6) Kalitthogai, prevalence of Tamil nationalism is not simply
(7)Agananooru, and (8) Purananooru; and a consequence of colonialism. The roots of
there is a ninth group of poems called the Tamil nationalism are linked to the historical
Patthupattu (Ten Idylls).The early part of the role and significance of Tamil language and
first two books of Tholkappiyam, a work on culture in defining politics that could be
Tamil grammar, belongs to the same period. traced even in the Sangam age.
The famous post-Sangam literature were The concept of State and the idea king
known as the pathenen Kilkkanakku. Besides coincided with the territorial emphasis of
the two epics Silappadikaram also belong polity as the Greek city-state. The classical
to thin period A little later three more epics Tamil country known as Tamizhagam
were return in addition there were five minor covered areas south of Tirupati hills up to the
epics. and Eighteen Minor Works (Pathinen tip of the Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari). The
kilkkanakku, which includes the Thirukkural) land was traditionally classified according
were written during this period. Prabandha to its nature into five geographical regions
literature consists of poetry of various forms: (tinai): the mountainous region (kurinji), the
kovai, in which the verses are arranged forest areas(mullai), fertile plains (marudam),
according to a particular theme (usually about coastal region (neidhal) and arid region
love), and kalambakam, in which the end of (palai).
one stanza/line formed the beginning of the
Tamil speaking areas were divided
next (usually about kings and bravery) and
between the principalities of the Cholas (its
parani. The best illustrations of this tradition
capital at Uraiyur), the Pandyas (Madurai
are the Pantikkovai, Nandikkalambakam, and
as capital), the Cheras in most of present
Kalingattup-parani.
Kongunadu and Kerala and the Pallavas
The ancient Tamil literature of (Kanchipuram as capital). Tamil country
Sangam age, Thirukkural, Silapathikaram, included several kingdoms ruled by kings
Manimegalai etc provide deep insights into (vendhar), major and minor chieftains (vel/
the nature of polity, society and culture. velir) who was less powerful than the crowned
Tamil language formed the core and essence kings. The Sangam poets sang songs of praise
of Tamil identity, culture, customs and about the velirs, especially the Seven Patrons,
traditions. Despite the diversity of land, for their generosity towards the poets. Kapilar
geography, rulers and chieftains spread across and Avvaiyar mention chieftains like, Aay,
the Tamil speaking areas the idea of Tamil Pari, Ori, Malayan, Elini, Pegan and Nalli..
country and confederation of Tamil speaking
The virtues of king did include the ideals
areas did exist. This literary finding(s) is
of Just Ruler with qualities of kindness towards
also substantiated by a stone inscription of
the subjects and bravery in the battlefield
Kalinga King Kharavela (BC(BCE) 165), who
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against enemies. The sabhai or mandram (kanatikan). In flags and coins, the Cholas
was the highest court of justice presided by were represented by the tiger, the Cheras by
the king himself. Every village had its own the bow and arrow the Pandyas by the fish
mandram which met at a common public and the Pallavas by the lion.
place and was involved in organizing village The institution of ‘spy’ was considered as
and community activities. Warriors were a necessary institution and the maintenance of
respected, and a man who died in battle peace and stability in the kingdom depended
would have memorial stones erected in his on the effectiveness of this institution. Though
honour and be worshipped in death. Even if a slavery as a form of institution was absent
warrior dies in battle field with a wound in his yet capturing of slaves after invasions, and
back, it is considered derogatory in ‘Sangam’ slave trade or exchange for gifts did remain
traditions. as practice among the rulers to undertake
Lots of good practices of war find their construction and building works.
mention in sangam literature. Purananooru, a The practice of caste system or jati was
sangam literature, hails the Pandyan king who unknown among ancient Tamils. The idea
announces all the women, children, sick and and concept of class with differences in status
elderly people, cattles, to move to safety zone based on professional distinctions did prevail.
before invading a country. The idea of justice The caste system was alien and unknown to
formed the conscience of State and king. Sangam society. The division of society based
Justice is an essential element in a king’s rule. on class has been revealed by the Sangam
A good king should never sacrifice justice. poets who mention about social categories
Just rule and good deeds always will bring (kudi): tudiyan, panan, and kadamban; or
everlasting fame to the king. An important arasar (rulers), vaishyar (traders), and velalar
political principle that prevailed was that (farmers). Differences in status were accepted
as inevitable, yet varna in the form of caste or
(Despite the nature of political system
jati seems to be little known to Sangam society.
being monarchy) the legitimacy of the king
rests with the consent of the people and Though social stratification did prevail
as long as he enjoyed people’s support and yet legitimization of Manusmiriti or Aryan-
he would loses legitimacy if he lost their Brahminical interpretation of caste as divine
support. Sangam literature (Pattinappaalai) arrangement was not integral to the cultural
speaks about different types of taxations universe or worldview of the ancient Tamils.
like customs duty, income tax, toll tax etc as The beginnings and early inroads of the
specific source of revenue to the State. Tamil Aryan-Brahminical account of caste could
kings and chieftains ruled the land with be traced to later period of Sangam era.
simple administrative structure of council of The ancient religion of Tamils was based
ministers, subordinates and administrative on folk traditions. The worship of nature
officers. There were officers to deal with and natural elements were more common.
foreign trade and customs revenue which The worship of Murugan Seyon among the
was an important part of the budget. Pandya tribes of Tamil Nadu and the cult worship
inscriptions mention about officers for pearl of Murugan as the warrior God was based
fisheries (kalatika) and the chief scribes on folk culture. An earthly composition
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of God is rooted in the Tamil – Dravidian Women were highly respected and
traditions. It was only after the sixth century performed a variety of jobs and duties
AD(CE), inscriptions were written in Tamil including as bodyguards to the kings, yet
as well as Sanskrit. Sanskritisation gradually power and authority rested with men. Women
spread to public space with the evoking of participated in public assemblies but rulers
the doctrines of benevolence to Brahmin(s) and administrators were mostly men. Women
and their divine blessings to the king . formed significant part of social rituals and
The seeking of blessings from the functioned as pivots of the family despite
Brahmin soon became a source of legitimacy the inheritance rights and formal authority
for the Tamil king after this period. Along remained with men.
with the Sanskritisation, Vedic rituals, In narrating the role and status of women
worship and orientation to social (caste) in Tamil society we need to mention about the
system as advocated in Manusmiriti found tradition of Avvaiyar (meaning respectable
their passage to transform the professionally women). More than a name, this was a title,
stratified class structure of Dravidian society literary canon, given to distinguished women
into a hierarchically classified social (caste) who made contributions to Tamil literature.
system with Vedic divine sanctions. There were as many as four to six women who
The State and king were being seen as one held this Tamil literary canon title at different
and the same. The hereditary principle and times based on different sources.
evoking of divine rights with earthly symbols
Avvaiyars of Sangam age and Cholas
were prevalent among the Tamil kings. The
age are best known for their extraordinary
idea of territorial State provided inherent
influence upon literature, culture, moral
reconciliation to the changing dynasties
universe, nature of polity, war, peace and the
and geographical changes as boundaries of
art of diplomacy. Sangam age Avvaiyar lived
principalities were drawn and redrawn. The
during the 1st and 2nd century AD(CE). King
governing principles of power and location of
Athiyaman Neduman Anchi of the Velir
monarchy also moved from culture specific to
Dynasty was her chief patron and considered as
power centric based on authority. Thus in later
contemporary of literary legends Thiruvalluvar
period, during the Post-Sangam era, the king
and Kabilar who made notable contribution of
gradually became the sole source of authority.
verses in Natrinai, Kuruntogai, Akananooru
The Pallavas maintained that as they and Purananooru. She is also credited as the
were the descendants of Brahma, the kingship most gracious and scholarly diplomat who
was of divine origin and was hereditary. The undertook diplomatic missions for King
Pallava period witnessed the penetration of Adhiyaman Neduman Anchi. Avvaiyar, a
the Aryan culture of North India into the poetess and friend of King Adhiyaman, ruler
South as well as the assimilation of some of Tagadur, is supposed to have helped in
of the patterns, ideas and institutions and avoiding war between two kingdom states.
rejection or modification of certain other
aspects. Tamil devotional culture was one of King Thondaiman, ruler of
the results of this interaction as revealed by Kanchipuram, had sent him a note
the themes and dedication of deity at temples. declaring his intention to attack Thagadur
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Avvaiyar spoke “Oh Thondiaman, how general and Tamilnadu in particular.

different indeed are your clean and shiny National political thinkers, Tamil political
weapons from those of Adiyaman, always thinkers, Socialist thinkers, Thinkers of social
stained with blood and under repair.” justice are the different parts of modern
Thondaiman had far less experience in war categorization. In this part we can discuss
and was unlikely to win — she was making about different political thinkers of Tamilnadu
this clear under the guise of praise. Another who made out-standing contribution for the
famous Avvaiyar was from the Cholas age, social changes.
around 10thCentury AD(CE), who wrote
moral universe for children and advocated Political ideologies in Tamilnadu is rich
ethical principles for all. Whilst her works with ideas, beliefs, opinions and attitudes
Aathichoodi and Konraiventhan were towards society, polity and economy. This
written for young children, Mooturai and is evident from the ancient political ideas
Nalvazhi were written for older children. of Thiruvalluvar, whereas Bharathiyar was
a nationalist and Singaravelar a communist.
The definite part of thinkers is as follows: According to Periyar, Dravidian ideology
focuses on social equality. The political
 Being the basis for the social changes and
ideologies in Tamil Nadu are a combination
subsequent events including the change in
of all three left, Right and centre ideologies.
the public minds;
 Having taken political decisions which had 15.2 Ancient Political Ideas
an impact on social turning points;
Thiruvalluvar
 Serving as best brains behind the major
political decisions which has benefitted the
diversified communities;
 To convert social ideas into common which
assisted people’s advancement belonging
to various communities
New political ideas are supported by
the activities of the political thinkers which
kindles interest and rational thinking of the
common people. The interaction of those
thinkers with the contemporary society makes
a new framework for the entire system.New
political decisions which intend to create great
changes for the emerging generations were In Arathupal of Thirukkural, Valluvar
undertaken.The day-to-day life of common was a great enunciator of morals; In
people may be engulfed with many changes by Inbathupal, he has become a poet and
the political decision of the thinkers.At world
in Porutpal, he is known to be a political
level these kind of thinkers made changes
philosopher. The political philosophy of
in the socio-political systems. Such great
Thiruvalluvar is applicable across times
thinkers made their extra-ordinary presence
throughout the past centuries in India in even today.
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Seven Parts in Porutpal Welfare state and King

Porutpal consists of 7 parts, further it To put it in simple words, Valluvar’s
has 70 verses / couplets. They are Politics-25, political system is based on welfare state.
Ministry-10, Defence-2, Wealth-1, Army-2, For instance, in Iraimatchi (Qualities of a
Friendship-17, and citizens-13 respectively. ruler), he says
“படை குடி கூழ்அமைச்சு நட்பரண் ஆறும் முறைசெய்து காப்பாற்றும் மன்னவன் மக்கட்கு
உடையான் அரசருள் ஏறு“ (குறள்: 381) இறையென்று வைக்கப் படும். (குறள்: 388)
“An army, people, wealth, a minister, friends, fort; six things ho guards the realm and justice strict maintains,
W
Who owns them all, a lion lives amid the kings” (381) That king as god over subject people reigns. (388)
Thus, in porutpal, at the first verse itself If a king delivered justice by doing the
valluvar differentiated the six categories duties honestly, he may be regarded as a
essential for a state. Thus, different parts God. Ideal path and welfare – arrived kings
of government are ministry, army, wealth, can be respected and kept on par with divine.
people, friendship and citizens, which This kind of view is not only applicable to
determines the rule of a king. Moreover, monarchical period but it also applicable to
these components are categorized for king present democratic period.
in a separate way, thus contributing a lot
of ideas regarding administration of a state Features of State
and assets for a king. The characteristics of a state is to
Nature of a king – 25 Chapters maintain ethics, the eradication of wrong
doing activity, mandating impartiality of
In porutpal, Valluvar mentioned justice and protection of honour.
about nature of a king in detailed manner
in 25 chapters starting from Qualities of அறனிழுக்கா தல்லவை நீக்கி மறனிழுக்கா
ruler (Iraimatchi – chapter 39) to idukkan மானம் உடைய தரசு (குறள்: 384)
azhaiyaamai (Unfazed in the face of trouble Kingship, in virtue failing not, all vice restrains,
– chapter 63) in 25 chapters, in the name In courage failing not, it honour’s grace maintains.
of “Arasar”, “Vender”, “Nilan Aandavar” (Kural :384)
“Mannavar” he has indicated 46 times about
the king. King’s path is the peoples’ path, king
should act as a guide for his subjects, if he
Ideas on Democracy does harm or evil activities, it may influence
Valluvar lived in the period of all. It is because of his position as a leader,
monarchy. However, his ideas and ideals his discipline and private life will spread
are also applicable for the present leaders of to all in the kingdom. Moral and ethical
democracy. He also indicated the nature of life is quite essential for the ruling kings.
state and government in the king’s rule. The Indicating “Respect” in a broad manner
words of Valluvar regarding government relating it with nation, Valluvar gave priority
and state is applicable and suitable to all for great honour which may be equated with
over the period as well as every organization the courage. He stressed that king must be
in the world. loyal to the nation, it is the honour of nation.
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Ideal State and Welfare of people says Thiruvalluvar. Tears were equated with
In the monarchical rule, the integrity army, thus Valluvar’s visualization stands
and ideal governance for all periods were unique among others.
advocated by Valluvar. People of all regions Autocrats and Dictators like Hitler,
expect rain for their growth; likewise, Mussolini and Czar were the negative
citizens of a nation expect integrity and players for whom, Thirukkural served as a
ideal rule of the king. funeral sound.
வான�ோக்கி வாழும் உலகெல்லாம் மன்னவன் Government’s Budget
க�ோல்நோக்கி வாழுங் குடி. (குறள்: 542)
A king should be an able handed
All earth looks up to heaven where raindrops fall;
administrator in increasing the income of
All subjects look to king that ruleth all. (542)
government. Further he should be an expert
In this couplet Valluvar indicates “Kol” in handling the budget.
as ideal rule which not only applies for
monarchy but also for democracy. In Iraimatchi, he said,
குடிதழீஇக் க�ோல�ோச்சும் மாநில மன்னன் இயற்றலும் ஈட்டலும் காத்தலும் காத்த

அடிதழீஇ நிற்கும் உலகு. (குறள் 544) வகுத்தலும் வல்ல தரசு. (குறள் 385)
Whose heart embraces subjects all, lord over mighty land
A king is be who treasure gains, stores up, defends,
Who rules, the world his feet embracing stands. (544)
And duly for his kingdom’s weal expends. (385)
This means that for a King, who protects
his citizens with love and affection, his feet At first point, a king should search for
will be embraced by his subjects with love. the different sources of income. For this,
This is an everlasting phrase propounded by he calls it as “Iyatral”. Then, the second
Valluvar related to good governance. point is that, all such resources should
Against Tyranny be put together, which is called as “Ettal”.
Third, the resources thus collected must be
In the chapter “Kodungonmai”, (Cruel
protected with all precautionary measures
Scepter) Valluvar explained it in negative
which is called as “Kaathal”
words. The suppressive and exploitative
rule of evil king may kindle unknown and Fourth one, is most important (i.e)
indefinite agonies among the people. Those allotting the resources to various sectors for
tears are most powerful and may annihilate the welfare of the people, this he called it as
the entire kingdom. “Vagutthal”. Thus iyatral, eetall, kaathal and
அல்லற்பட்டு ஆற்றாது அழுதகண் ணீரன்றே vaguthal are the four ways of utilizing the
செல்வத்தைத் தேய்க்கும் படை (குறள் 555) income to be expertise by the king of nation.
It is a primary duty of the king.
His people’s tears of sorrow past endurance, are not they
Sharp instrument to wear the marches wealth away. These innovative and practical ideas
(Kural: 555) were accepted by political and as well as
Sad tears of suffering citizens may economic exponents as the basic idea of
dethrone and destroy the entire government, socialistic society.
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Relevance of Thiruvalluvar The qualities that were indicated by

Valluvar for a king may also apply to the
The Educational qualities that are indicated
citizens. Thus, he used the words “Idukkan
by Valluvar for a king may also apply to the
Ariyamai”, “Kalvi” for “Vazhum Uyirku”,
citizens. Thus, he used the words “Idukkan
“Maandharkku” which is for all the people.
Ariyamai”, “Kalvi” for “Vazhum Uyirku”,
“Maandharkku” which is for all the people. The political ideas advocated by
The political ideas advocated by Valluvar in porutpal highly circumvent
Valluvar in porutpal highly circumvent around morals and noble principles.
around morals and noble principles. “People’s-welfare” is the basic foundation of
“People’s-welfare” is the basic foundation of his contribution.
his contribution.
To put it in a different way, Valluvar’s To put it in a different way Valluvar’s
contribution to politics is applicable to contribution to politics is majorly applicable
the present democratic governance for the to the present democratic governance for
welfare of all the people. the great welfare of all the people.
Thirukkural – A truly secular ethical work

The very first observation about the Kural is the fact that it is a secular book.
During the days of Valluvar many religion existed in India. There were Buddhists,
Jains,Sikhs, Hindus as well as agnostics and atheists. But secularism as a concept was
unknown. Valluvar himself was a believer and he has devoted one chapter to praise
of God. He must have observed a particular religion. But in his book he advocates no
religion, he does not even refer to any religion.
The ancient Indian law-giver Manu and the ancient Greek philosophers Plato
and Aristotle maintained with absolute certainty that human begins were not born
equal. This popular view is accepted in all civilizations over centuries. Valluvar, the
philosopher poet, held a radically different view. He says:
“ All human beings are equal by birth; but differ as regards characteristics
because of the different qualities of their actions.” (Kural 972)
15.3 Nationalism
epithet Mahakavi means a great poet. He is
Subramaniya Bharathiyar
considered as one of India’s greatest poets.
(1882 – 1921)
His songs on nationalism and freedom of
C. Subramaniya Bharathiyar was a India helped to rally the masses to support
poet, freedom fighter and social reformer the Indian Independence Movement in
from Tamil Nadu. He was known as Tamil Nadu.
Mahakavi Bharathiyar and the laudatory
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the liberation of the country. Instead of merely

being proud of his country he also outlined his
vision for a free India. He published the sensational
“Sudesa Geethangal” in 1908.
Bharathiyar's "Panchali Sabatham"

(The vow of Draupadi) is an iconic
work that pictures India as Draupadi,
the British, the Kauravas and the
freedom fighters as Pandavas. Through
ஜாதி மதங்களைப் பார�ோம் - Draupadi’s struggle, he euphemised the
உயர் ஜன்மம்இத் தேசத்தில் எய்தின ராயின் struggle of mother India under British
வேதிய ராயினும் ஒன்றே -
அன்றி வேறு குலத்தின ராயினும் ஒன்றே rule.
We shall not look at caste or religion, Bharathi as a Journalist

All human beings in this land, Many years of Bharathi’s life were spent
whether they be those who preach the in the field of journalism, Bharathi, as a
vedas or who belong to other castes are young man began his career as a journalist
one. and as a sub-editor in “Swadesamitran” in
-Subramaniya Bharati November 1904.“India” saw the light of the
day in May, 1906. It declared as its motto
the three slogans of the French Revolution,
Bharathi: A poet and a Nationalist
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. It blazed
a new trail in Tamil Journalism. In order
“We may have thousand of
sects; that, however, does not to proclaim its revolutionary ardour,
justify a foreign invasion.” Bharathi had the weekly printed in red
paper. “India” was the first paper in Tamil
Significantly, a new age in Tamil Nadu to publish political cartoons. He also
literature began with Subramaniya Bharathi. edited and published 'Vijaya', a Tamil daily
Most part of his compositions are classifiable “Bala Bharatha” an English monthly, and
as short lyrical outpourings on patriotic, 'Suryothayam' a local weekly of Pondicherry.
devotional and mystic themes. Bharathi was It is not surprising therefore that soon a
essentially a lyrical poet. “Kannan Pattu” warrant was waiting at the door of the “India”
“Nilavum Vanminum Katrum” “Panchali office for the arrest of the editor of the magazine.
Sabatam” “Kuyil Pattu” are examples of It was because of this worsening situation
Bharathi’s great poetic output. in 1908 that Bharathi decided to go away to
Pondicherry, a French territory at that time,
Bharathi is considered as a national poet due
and continue to publish the “India” magazine.
to his number of poems of the patriotic flavour
Bharathi resided in Pondicherry for sometime
through which he exhorted the people to join the
to escape the wrath of the British imperialists.
independence struggle and work vigorously for
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In Madras, in 1908, he organised a

mammoth public meeting to celebrate
‘Swaraj Day’. His poems ‘Vanthe
Matharam’, ‘Enthayum Thayum’, ‘Jaya
Bharath’ were printed and distributed
free to the Tamil People.
Subramaniya Bharathiyar was born on 11th December 1882, in a village called

Ettayapuram in Tirunelveli District in Tamil Nadu and his childhood name was Subbiah.
His father was Chinnaswamy and his mother was Lakshmi Ammal.
At the age of seven, he started writing poems in Tamil. When he was eleven, he wrote
in such a way that even learned men praised him for his great knowledge and skill. In the
eleventh year, Subbiah felt that he had to establish his credentials. He threw a challenge to
the eminent men in the assembly of scholars that they should have a contest with him in
a debate on any subject without any previous notice or preparation. The contest was held
at a special sitting of the Ettayapuram Durbar at which the Rajah (the ruler) himself was
present. The subject chosen was “Education”. Subbiah efficiently won the debate. This was a
memorable moment in Subbiah’s life. The boy who was till then referred to as “Ettayapuram
Subbiah” came henceforth to be known as “Bharathi”, and later he was respectfully referred
to as “Bharathiar” by nationalists and by millions of Tamil lovers all over the globe.
In June 1897, Bharathi was hardly fifteen when his marriage took place, and his bride
was Chellammal. Bharathi left for Benaras which was also known as Kashi and Varanasi.
He spent there the next two years with his aunt Kuppammal and her husband Krishna
Sivan. Speedily gaining a fair knowledge of Sanskrit, Hindi and English, he duly passed with
credit the Entrance Examination of the Allahabad University. The Banaras stay brought
about a tremendous change in Bharathi’s personality. Outwardly, he sported a moustache
and a Sikh turban and acquired a bold swing in his walk.
During his exile, Bharathi had the the ten years he spent in Pondicherry. From
opportunity to mingle with many leaders Pondicherry, he guided the Tamil youth of
of the militant wing of the independence Madras to tread in the path of nationalism.
movement such as Aurobindo, Lajpat Rai This increased the anger of the British towards
and V.V.Subramaniam who had also sought Bharathi’s writings as they felt that it was
asylum in the French ruled Pondicherry. The his writings that induce and influence the
most profitable years of Bharathi’s life were patriotic spirit of the Tamil youth. Bharathi
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met Mahatma Gandhi in 1919 in Rajaji’s opposition from his neighbours. But Bharathi
home at Madras. Bharathi entered British was very clear that unless Indians unite as
India near Cuddalore in November 1918 and children of Mother India, they could not
was promptly arrested. Even in prison, he achieve freedom. He believed in women’s
spent his time in writing poems on freedom, rights, gender equality and women
nationalism and country’s welfare. emancipation. He opposed child marriage,
dowry system and supported widow
In his early days of youth he had good
remarriage. Bharathi had a pre-mature death
relations with Nationalist Tamil Leaders
hence could not transform his ideas into a
like V.O.Chidambaram, Subramanya
movement.
Siva, Mandayam Thirumalachariar and
Srinivasachari. Along with these leaders he
used to discuss the problems facing the country
His meeting with Sister Nivedita,
due to British rule. Bharathi used to attend the
Swami Vivekananda’s disciple, added
Annual sessions of Indian National Congress
women’s rights to his already wide
and discuss national issues with extremist
repertoire of social issues from caste
Indian National Leaders like Bipin Chandra
to Independence to spiritualism. He
Pal, B.G. Tilak and V.V.Subramaniam. His
took up the symbolism of Shakthi as
participation and activities in Benaras Session
the image of modern women; powerful,
(1905) and Surat Session (1907) of the
strong, independent and equal partners
Indian National Congress impressed many
to men.
national leaders about his patriotic fervour.
Bharathi had maintained good relations
with some of the national leaders and shared “World will prosper in knowledge
his thoughts and views on the nation and and intellect, if both men and
offered his suggestions to strengthen the woman are deemed equal.”
-Subramaniya Bharathiyar
nationalist movement. Undoubtedly, his wise
suggestions and steadfast support to the cause
Bharathiyar – A Visionary
of nationalism rejuvenated many national
leaders. Thus Bharathi played a pivotal role in Bharathi as a poet, journalist, freedom
the freedom of India. fighter and social reformer had made a
great impact not only on the Tamil society
Bharathiyar as a social reformer
but also on the entire human society. He
followed what all he preached and it is
Bharathi was also against caste system. He
here that his greatness is manifested. His
declared that there were only two castes-men
prophecy during the colonial period about
and women and nothing more than that.
the independence of India came true after
Above all, he himself had removed his sacred
two and half decades after his demise. His
thread. He used to take tea sold in shops run
vision about a glorious India has been
by Muslims. He along with his family members
taking a shape in the post-Independence
attended church on all festival occasions. He
era. Bharathi did not live for himself but
advocated temple entry of Seheduled caste
for the people and nation. That is why he
people. For all his reforms, he had to face
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is respectfully called as Bharathiyar. Even and labourers. This affected the majority
today, after many decades, Subramaniya Indians who are poor and belong to farmers
Bharathiyar stands as an undying symbol community. Further, caste discrimination
of Indian freedom and vibrant Tamil existed within Congress Party. Particularly,
nationalism. in Tamilnadu there existed a clear difference
between brahmins and non-brahmins.
In this context, Singaravelar played a
Bharathiyar passed away on 11th pivotal role in spreading rational ideas and
September 1921.It was a travesty that scientific perception in to politics. He also
only 14 people attended his funeral, played a key role in connecting welfare of
fearing repercussion from the British farmers and workers in to freedom struggle
and caste ostracisation. and spreading socialist thinking in to
politics.
Impact of Singaravelar’s Ideas on
15.4 Communism Congress Party
Singara Velar (1860-1946) The British empire which exported the
raw materials in the initial stages started
industries later in India as the demand
increased. This worsened common people’s
life standards. They are ready to work
even for meagre wages. Hence, those who
are employed were treated as slaves. Even
a minor protests by the employees were
suppressed with iron hands. More labour
organizations emerged to protect the rights
of working class. These organizations were
The emergence of Swadeshi and Home headed by Thiru.V.Kalyanasundaranar and
rule movement in India in the initial part of D.Varadharajalu in the Madras presidency.
20th century aroused the thirst for freedom. It was Singaravelar who took major efforts
Reforms were made in Hindu religion in in the emergence of labour organizations in
accordance with the existing society. These Madras presidency.
movements played a key role in creating the Singaravelar wanted to sensitize the
feeling of Indiannes and Nationalism in the workers on politics and wanted to engage
political Scenario. them in the freedom struggle. But Congress
Party did not accept this idea of Singaravelar.
But these movements are religious in
Singaravelar critised it vehemently and send
nature. Moreover, those who participated
telegraphs to Congress high command,
in these movements are from upper social
following this, he wrote a letter to Mahatma
class. Freedom sought by these people are
Gandhi. Further, he also wrote about this
political in nature neglecting the interests
issue on the popular dailies Swadesamitran,
and economic upliftment of farmers
The Hindu, and magazines like Navasakthi.
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He also propagated this among congress in the party, Singaravelar supported the
workers. In this juncture, he participated action of Periyar. After visiting USSR,
in the Congress Committee (1922) meeting Periyar was influenced by the Communist
as a representative of Tamilnadu, there also ideals. He changed the name of self-respect
he explained the following demands and movement to Self-Respect Social Justice
sought support from Congress members. Party. Singaravelar made his contribution
in framing the policies and principles of
Indian freedom includes economic
the movement. He also wrote extensively
freedom of workers and farmers.
in Periyar’s Republic magazine against
The welfare of farmers and labourers
superstitious beliefs. These writings were
should also be the motto of Congress
simple and can be understood easily.
party.
Farmers and labourers must be Singaravelar has a deep faith in the
included in the Indian national philosophy of Communisim. He urged
movement. the Congress party to support labour
Congress leaders should help to raise organizations. In the name of Madras
masses from different organization. Socialists, he telegraphed Congress High
Consequent of this, in 1922, Indian Command. In all the Congress Committee
National Congress, passed a resolution to meetings he argued as a Communist
induct people from various organizations. representative.
A six member committee was constituted,
In1923, it was he, who organized the
in which M. Singaravelar was appointed as a
first May Day celebrations in Chennai. In
member. In addition to this, he also fought for
the same day, he announced the formation of
the protection of labour rights. He emphasized
labour-farmer political party. The demands
this demand by writing in all popular dailies.
of his new political party are
As an outcome, labour protective law was
passed in 1926, in India. Moreover, he advised Eight hours work
for speaking in vernacular languages. Only Right to form union
then, he believed that the ideas will reach Right to strike as a last resort to
all the people. So, that leaders and people pressure labour demands.
can maintain good relations. He is also
Three level committees for reviewing
determined to speak in Tamil, when speaking
the demands.
about the issues of Tamilnadu people. In 1918,
a resolution regarding this was passed during Minimum wages
Chennai Presidency Association Conference. Shelter with basic amenities
Singaravelar and Periyar were the dignitaries Medical and life Insurance
in this conference. Provident fund facility
Singaravelar’s Impact on Self-Respect and Earned leave
Communist Movements: Free Medical assistance
When Periyar resigned from Congress Maternity leave
Party citing the existence of Brahmin and Put an end to contract basis
Non-Brahmin divide and discrimination
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For Farmers 15.5 Dravidian Ideology

Free water for agriculture Periyar (1879-1973)
Abolition of Zamindari system
For People
Voting rights for all
Right to contest in elections for poor,
labour and farmer communities.
First socialist conference was headed
by Singaravelar in 1925, in Kanpur. He Introduction
spoke about socialism without violence. Periyar E.V.Ramasamy is regarded as
Also, he resolved for adopting Communism the best political thinker in Tamilnadu. This
according to Indian circumstances. A is because he is the foremost reformist in
socialist should play a role by being in the our state. Let us see about him in detail in
member of Congress Party, he advised. this lesson.
Eventually, Socialist block was formed
inside the Congress Party.
Life and Services The original name of Periyar is
E.V.Ramasamy. He was born in the year
Since his childhood Singaravelar
1879 in an affluent business family in
did not believe in the Varna System and
Erode. Even during his youth, Periyar
superstitious belief. As a result of this,
criticized the superstitious beliefs in his
he established Buddhist Association and
family and surroundings. He did not
propagated against Varna System and
enter politics at the early stages of his
superstitious beliefs during 1880 itself.
career. But still, he occupied posts like
Born in a rich family and well versed chairman of Erode municipality.
with law, he served as a member in Chennai
Municipality and also in health sector. Periyar fought against superstitious
Due to the endemic diseases in the down- beliefs, enslavement of women and social
trodden areas, he gave priority to health backwardness which existed in Tamilnadu
and education. He also fought for rights of from time immemorial based on his
labourers. Based on this, he played active wisdom and self-respect throughout his
role in Congress Party. Later, he joined in life. It is because of this, he is fondly called
Periyar’s Self – Respect movement. as ‘Thanthai Periyar’. Various scholars
Though he entered into politics after he on Social Justice say that the Dravidian
crossed the age of 50, he actively propagated ideology enunciated by Periyar on cultural
and wrote about communist ideas for more lines shines all around our country.
than thirty years. He was fondly remembered Periyar was attracted towards Gandhi’s
and called as the first communist of south entry into politics and hence joined congress
India. and became actively participating in freedom
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movement and social reforms. During that If anybody speaks about nationalism
period in 1920’s Congress was dominated by in Tamilnadu, I wonder, that will they
upper class people. But Periyar took Congress think about “welfare or botheration about
to the down trodden and successfully organized people” questioned Periyar.
temple entry movements as a true Congress Nationalism as exploitation
man. Periyar was very much disgruntled by
the practice of Varnashrama in Congress party There are people who may not bother
and left it. He joined Justice party and formed about Indians, Tamilians and the self-
the self respect movement later. After this, the respect of the people. They deceive people
contributions and activities of Periyar became to believe in nation and nationalism for their
inseparable from the politics of India and own welfare and betterment. If self-respect
Tamilnadu in particular. is submerged in the name of nation and
nationalism that will be the crime against
In the name of nation, if a group of
India, stated Periyar.
people exploit other groups that is not the
real freedom which a nation fought for, Nationalism is an unreal feeling. Since
said Periyar alias E.V. Ramasamy. Periyar National feeling is nothing but a conspiracy
vociferously criticized against Nation, framed by rich and power-centered, people
Race and Nationalism at various levels. who deceive the other people by controlling
All Nation, nationality and nationalism the negative emotions. It is a false
are similarly related concepts. All these assumption, propagated by these upper rich
differentiations indicate the “Self Respect” communities in order to curtail the rights of
of the entire population of a country. the poor community.
An iconoclast and rationalist social reformer

His work and his legacy
For the average Tamil, Periyar today is an ideology. He stands for a politics that
foregrounded social equality, self-respect, and linguistic pride. As a social reformer, he
focused on social, cultural and gender inequalities, and his reform agenda questioned
matters of faith, gender and tradition. He asked people to be rational in their life choices.
He argued that women needed to be independent, not mere child-bearers, and insisted that
they be allowed a equal share in employment. The Self Respect Movement he led promoted
weddings without rituals, and sanctioned property as well as divorce rights for women. He
appealed to people to give up the caste suffix in their names, and do not mention caste. He
instituted inter-dining with food cooked by Seheduled caste people in public conferences in
the 1930s.
Over the years, Periyar has transcended the political divide as well as the faultlines of
religion and caste, and come to be revered as Thanthai Periyar, the father figure of modern
Tamil Nadu.
Courtesy ; Arun Janardhanan, The New Indian Express, 13.3.2018.
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Nationalism has become a buzz word India – A Land of Diversities

of addictiveness and emotionalist for the Whether “Nation” as a concept is
people, he exclaimed. suitable for India? Periyar raised a pertinent
Global Nationalism – A Denial question and answer as well.
Periyar in his speech in Sri-Lanka, “Madras is not a separate nation and
opposed strongly against Nation and cannot function separately,” says some of
Nationalism when others used ‘Indian our friends. Once ‘Madras’ was a nation.
Nationalism” as a weapon, Periyar spoke Also now, “Dravidam” it is. The culture and
against these factors. He has also shown other practices are different from Bengal
about other nations, nationalistic feeling and Mumbai. English language is the
apart from Indian Nationalism. main base for the familiarly among these
different nations in India. If British Empire
It is to treat people as scapegoat, Capitalist
and its language is relieved from India,
Class along with other similar people, Patriotic
Hindi may become the national language.
feeling was misused, said Periyar.
Instead of calling India as a nation, Dravida
For instance, if rich communities Nadu, Andhra, Bengal can be separately
in U.K have any clash with USA or vice- called as nations respectively. For instance,
versa they may give clarion call as “Oh ! Dravidian nation had its culture, language,
Britons, Patriots, our nation is under threat”. civilization and rule for thousands of
Such kind of false words is only for their years on accordance with historical facts.
economic advancement and not for the Undoubtedly it is known to all the people.
poor communities. “Dravidian Nationalism” proposed by
Erstwhile, Russia has many races and Periyar was to a large extent against religious
cultural groups, but there is no discrimination dominations.
in that nation. He also supported communist
revolution. These nations which are free of On Language
nationalism, religion and God may not be Each and everyone have their own rights
affected with luxurious life styles, poverty and to protect their languages. These rights can
exploitation by rich community. Those people be protected and provided under Dravida,
may not stick upon with national and godly Socialist Republic Rule. No language can be
attachments. Equality and egalitarian society enforced.
is the only priority of that place. There will not
be any discrimination like rich-poor, owner- Language should not be misused
worker, powerful-powerless in that region. as weapon for separatism. If people are
Those people of high value and egalitarian- dependent upon Central rule for all kinds
longing are not equal to the nation which gives of amenities, there is no outcome in it. If
priority for God and Nationalism. languages are officialised at Central level,
By showing other nations as evidences, will the poor people relieve out of hunger?
Periyar also criticized Indian nationalistic
To put it in clear way, are Tamil labourers
feelings and patriotism. Because these
exploited only by the Tamil speaking owner
feelings are exploited as weapons by certain
class?
dominant groups.
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Casteless Society Consequently, Periyar put an end to the

demand of separate Tamilnadu and upheld
Periyar’s protests and speeches always
the ideal of casteless society.
centre around, “Tamilnadu for Tamils
and Dravidian nation for Dravidians.” His Thus, casteless society has become the
ideologies include Common plan, common top most priority for Periyar. Other ideals
work plan, Islamic conversion, separate like separate Dravidian nation, abounding
Dravidian nation for which he fought dominant communities, distortion of
against the dominant communities. capitalist class became secondary priorities
for Periyar.
His argument was that the dominant
communities misused Tamil, Tamil This may be the only ambition and goals
nationalism, Tamil race for sustaining for Dravida Kazhagam, claimed Periyar. “The
the power in Tamilnadu. It is with the caste feeling, thus divided the Dravidian race
help of Tamil leaders, they injected Tamil and Dravidians became slaves for Aryans”
nationalism in the minds of the people for stated Periyar in his writings published in
holding the power for a long time he said. the 1950’s in Tamilnadu.
presidency during the late-19th and early-

Glossary
20th century, mainly due to caste prejudices
and disproportionate Brahminical
Political Movement : It is a social group that representation in government jobs.
operates together to obtain a political goal.
Casteless Society : Of a society, an
Social Movement : It is a type of group egalitarian society without caste structure
action. Social movements can be defined
as organizational structures and strategies Pure Tamil Movement : Pure-Tamil
that may empower oppressed populations Movement, a movement aimed at freeing
to mount effective challenges and resist the Tamil language from alien language
the more powerful and advantaged elites. words, particularly Sanskrit.
Dravidian Movement : Dravidian movement Home Rule Movement : Between the years
developed in Madras Presidency which 1916 and 1918, the Indian independence
comprises the four major ethno-linguistic movement was sperarheaded by Dr.
groups in South India. Besant's home rule league.
Self-Respect Movement : The Self-Respect Politics : The activities associated with the
Movement is a movement with the aim of governance of a country or area, especially
achieving a society where backward castes the debate between parties having power.
have equal human rights Discrimination : The unjust or prejudicial
Labour Movement : A movement organized treatment of different categories of people,
for the betterment of labourers especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex.
Justice Party : Communal division between Peace : It is the concept of harmony and the
Brahmins and non-Brahmins began in the absence of hostility. In a behavioral sense,
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peace is a lack of conflict and freedom identity and autonomy among a group of
from fear of violence between individuals people that some of its members consider
and heterogeneous social groups. a nation.
National Movement : A national movement Welfare state : a system whereby the state
is a social and political movement for undertakes to protect the health and well-
obtaining and maintaining national being of its citizens.
Evaluation

1. In Arathupal of Thirukkural, Valluvar says about?
a) Ideals and morals b) poet
c) political philosopher d) Welfare state
2. How many Parts are in Porutpal?
(a)5 (b)4 (c)7 (d) 6
3. Bharathiyar was the editor of
(a) India (b) Young India
(c ) Kesari (d) Dravidan
4. Who wrote 'Panchali Sabatham'?
(a) Bharathiyar (b) Thiru. V. Ka
(c) Kambar (d) Bharathidasan.
5. Who is regarded as the best political thinker in Tamil Nadu?
(a) J.C.Kumarappa (b) Periyar
(c) Thiruvalluvar (d) Maraimalai Adigal
6. E.V. Ramasamy was born in the year
(a) 1879 (b) 1877 (c) 1878 (d) 1876
7. Who wrote “The caste feeling, thus divided the Dravidian race and Dravidians became
slaves for Aryans”
(a) C.N. Annadurai (b)E.V. Periyar
(c) Singaravelar (d) Maraimalai Adigal
8. In1923, First Indian ‘May Day’ meeting was arranged in Chennai by
(a) Ilangovadigal (b)E.V.R. Periyar
9. Periyar passed away in the year
(a) 1971 (b) 1972 (c) 1973 (d) 1974
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10. Bharathiyar was born in

(a) Ettayapuram (b) Trichy (c) Tirunelveli (d) Chennai
11. Who started the self respect movement in Tamil Nadu?
(a) Annadurai (b)E.V.R. Periyar
(c) Maraimalai Adigal (d) Singaravelar
12. Who said that “ Tamilnadu for Tamils and Dravida nation for Dravidians.”?
(a) Ilangovadigal (b)E.V.R. Periyar
13. In which year a labour protective law was passed in british India?
(a)1914 (b) 1924 (c) 1926 (d) 1928
14. Why did Periyar left Indian National Congress?
a) Ahimsa b) Varnashrama Dharma
c) Personal differences d) None of them
15. Assertion: Bharathiyar went to Pondicherry and hide himself.
Reason: Bharathiyar was the editor of 'India' a Tamil daily spreading Nationalism.
II Match the following:
1. Cholas - Madurai
2. Cheras - Kongunadu
3. Pandyas - Kanchipuram
4. Pallavas - Uraiyur
III Answer the following questions very shortly
1. What is thirukkural?
2. How many Parts are in Porutpal?
3. Who is the writer of Kuyil Pattu?
4. Explain Bharathiyar's ideas on women empowerment.
5. Discuss Bharathiyar as a Journalist.
6. Describe the views of Periyar on God.
7. Write a short note on Singaravelar's role in Labour Movement
8. What is Singaravelar's ideas on Politics?
9. Describe Singaravelar’s Life and Services to Tamil Society.
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IV Answer the following questions shortly

1. What is Thiruvalluvar’s ideas on Welfare state and King?
2. Explain Valluvar's views on Tyranny
3. Describe Bharathiyar's views on British rule.
4. Explain Bharathiyar's views on Nationalism.
5. Examine the ideas of Singaravelar on Congress Party.
6. List out the demands submitted by Singaravelar in 1922.
7. Enumerate the ideas of Periyar on Dravidanadu
8. Write a note on the Social reforms of Periyar.
V Answer the following questions in detail
1. Write a short note on the thiruvalluvar’s ideas in the society.
2. Discuss Singaravelar as a labour leader in Tamil Nadu.
3. Elaborate the Socio-Political contributions of Bharathiyar to Tamil Nadu.
4. Explain the life history and contribution of Periyar.
5. Trace the background of Political thought in Tamil Nadu.
Reference
1. Padmaja, R, Purushothaman, V.P (2000). Sanga Kaala Mannargalin Kaala Nilai. Volume 1.
International institute of Tamil Studies: Chennai.
2. Pope .G.U , “Thirukkural: English translation and commentary”, Kazhagam 2017 edition.
3. Rajaram.M, “ I sing the glory of this Land: Translated verses of Bharathiyar”, Rupa Publica-
tions, Chennai, 2018.
4. Vasanthakumaran .P , ” The godfather of Indian labour : M. Singaravelar” , Chennai : Poorn-
ima Publishers, 2003.
5. Veeramani. K , “ Thoughts of Periyar”, DRAVIDAR KAZHAGAM PUBLICATIONS , chennai
,(2012),
6. Palanithurai. G, “ Caste Politics and Society in Tamilnadu”, South Asia Books (1 July 1994)
7. Puranannoru….. See ‘Purananooru, moolamum thelivum', Manimegalai prasuram, pg 82
Internet Sources:
 http://15hsactn15.blogspot.com/2017/07/the-sangam-age-society.html
 https://allmyearthlythoughts.wordpress.com/2017/06/02/avvaiyar-the-story-of-the-
many-women-who-carried-that-name/
 http://vijeejournalist.com/2016/10/avvaiyar-the-diplomat/
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KEY TERMS
Absolute Monarchy - முடியநாட்சி இ்ன ஒது்ககல பகநாள்மக

Apartheid -
(நி்றபவறி)
Activist - பசயற�நாட்்டநாளர்
சநார்நதிருத்தைல (அ)
Appeal - மும்றயீடு
Adherence -
பின�றறுதைல Appetite - உணவு ்நாட்்டம்
ஒரு குறிப்பிட்்ட Aristocracy - பிரபு்ககள் ஆட்சி

Ad-Hoc -
கநாரணத்திறகநாக ைட்டும்
Astronomy – வநானியல
Administrative Law - நிருவநாகச் சட்்டம்
Asylum - புகலி்டம்
Administrative
Machinery
- நிர்வநாக இயநதிரம் Authority - அதிகநாரம்
Administrative Behavioral ்்ட்கமகயியல

Policy
- நிர்வநாக்க பகநாள்மக
Approach
-
அணுகுமும்ற
Administrative Behaviouralism ்்டத்மதையியல
units
- நிர்வநாக அலகுகள்
Bill of Rights - உரிமைகளின சட்்டம்
உ்டன�நா்டநா்ன பசயல�நாடு
முதைலநாளித்துவவநாதிகள் /
Affirmative Action - (்லிநபதைநார் ்லப்நா்ககு Bourgeoise -
்்டவடி்கமக) பூர்ஷுவநா்ககள்
Age of அறிவு Bureaucracy - அதிகநாரவர்்ககம்

Enlightenment
-
ைறுைலர்ச்சி்ககநாலம் அமைச்சர் குழு
Cabinet -
Alternative vote - ைநாறறு வநா்ககு (அமைச்சரமவ)
அரசியலமைப்பு சட்்டத் Capitalism - முதைலநாளித்துவம்

Amendment -
திருத்தைம் Centralisation - அதிகநார்க குவிப்பு
Amendment - சட்்டத்திருத்தைம் Charismatic
Leadership
- வசீகரத் தைமலமை
Amnesty சர்வபதைச ப�நாது
International
-
ைனனிப்பு கழகம் ைனிதை உரிமைகள்
Charter of Human
Anachronism - கநாலத்திறகு ஒவ்வநாமை Rights
- சநாச்னம் / ைனிதை
உரிமைகள் ப�ரரறி்கமக
அமைப்ப�திர்வநாதைம் /
Anarchism - Checks and கட்டுப்�நாடுகளும்
அரசினமைவநாதைம்
balances
-
சைநிமலகளும்
அமைப்ப�திர்வநாதிகள் /
Anarchists - Child Labour - குழநமதைத் பதைநாழிலநாளர்
கலக்ககநாரர்கள்
Antecedents - முனனுதைநாரணஙகள்
Citizenship - குடியுரிமை
Anthropology - ைநானு்டவியல
City-State - ்கர அரசு
கட்சித் தைநாவல Civic Participation - குடிமைப் �ஙபகறபு

Anti-Defection Law -
தைம்டச்சட்்டம்
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Civil Equality - குடிமைச் சமத்துவம் மரபு விரும்பிகள்/

Conservatives -
பழமைவாதிகள்
Civil Rights - குடிமை உரிமைகள்
Constituent
Civil Society - குடிமைச் சமூகம் Assembly
- அரசமைப்பு நிர்ணய சபை
Civil War - உள்நாட்டுப் ப�ோர் Constitutional அரசமைப்புச்

Amendment
-
சட்டதிருத்தம்
வர்க்க முரண்பாடுகள் /
Class Antagonisms -
சாதிய முரண்பாடுகள் Constitutional Law - அரசமைப்பு சட்டம்
Class Struggle - வர்க்கப்போராட்டம் Constitutional

Monarchy
– அரசமைப்பு மன்னராட்சி
Classless Society - வர்க்கமற்ற சமூகம்
Constitutional அரசமைப்பு தீர்வுகாண்
Coalition Ministry - கூட்டணி அமைச்சரவை remedies
-
உரிமைகள்
Code of conduct - நடத்தை விதிமுறைகள் Contest - ப�ோட்டி
Cold War - பனிப்போர் Contractual Rights - ஒப்பந்த உரிமைகள்
Collective Cultural and பண்பாட்டு மற்றும் கல்வி
Responsibility
- கூட்டுப் ப�ொறுப்புணர்வு
-
Educational Rights உரிமைகள்
குழு செயல்பாட்டு
Collegiability - Cultural Revolution - பண்பாட்டுப் புரட்சி
தன்மை
Customs - பழக்கவழக்கங்கள்
Colonialism - குடியேற்றம்
Das Capital - மூலதனம்
Committee System - குழு முறை
Decentralization of
Commonwealth ப�ொது நலக் கூட்டு
Powers
- அதிகாரப் பரவலாக்கல்
Nations
-
நாடுகள்
Decision Making முடிவு எடுத்தல்
Communal வகுப்பு நல்லிணக்கம் (மத Policy
-
- க�ொள்கை
Harmony நல்லிணக்கம்)
Declaration of மனித உரிமைகள்
Communist
Rights of Man
-
Manifesto
- ப�ொதுவுடமை அறிக்கை பறைசாற்றம்
Decolonization - குடியேற்ற நீக்கம்

Communitarianism - சமுதாய வாதம்
Comparative
Decree - ஆணை
Analysis
- ஒப்பீட்டு பகுப்பாய்வு
Deductive குறைப்பு முறை / பகுத்தறி
Reasoning
-
Comparative முறைக் காரணவியல்
Approach
- ஒப்பீட்டு அணுகுமுறை
Deep Ecology - ஆழச்சூழலியல்
Comparative Study - ஒப்பீட்டு ஆய்வு De-facto சட்டபூர்வமில்லாத
sovereignty
–
Compartmentalism - பகுதி பகுதியாக பிரித்தல் பெயரளவு இறைமை
சட்டபூர்வமான இறைமை
Confederation - கூட்டிணைவு
De-jure sovereignty - (சட்டநிலையிலான
Consenses - ஒருமித்த கருத்து
இறைமை)
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தன்விருப்ப மக்களாட்சி Environmental சுற்றுச்சூழல்

Deliberative -
Democracy
- (அவதானமான Sustainability நிலைத்தன்மை
மக்களாட்சி) Equality of வாய்ப்புகளில் சமத்துவம்
Deligation of Opportunity
-
(சம வாய்ப்புரிமை)
Authority
- அதிகார ஒப்படைப்பு
Equity – சமபங்கு/சமச்சீராக்கம்
Delimitation
Commission
- வரையறை ஆணையம் Era - சகாப்தம்
மக்களாட்சியிலான Eradication - ஒழிப்பு

Democratic Elitism -
மேட்டிமைவாதம் Eradication of
Despotic Poverty
- வறுமை ஒழிப்பு
க�ொடுங்கோன்மை
Government
-
அரசாங்கம் நித்திய சட்டம்/முடிவிலிச்
Eternal Law -
Despotism - க�ொடுங்கோலாட்சி சட்டம்
Developed Evolutionary பரிணாம வளர்ச்சி

- வளர்ந்த நாடுகள் Theory
-
Countries க�ோட்பாடு
Dialectical இயக்கவியல் Evolutionary

- பரிணாம வளர்ச்சி அரசு
Materialism ப�ொருள்முதல்வாதம் Theory of Origin of -
த�ோற்றக் க�ோட்பாடு
State
Dialectical Method - இயங்கியல் முறை
Executive Authority - செயலாக்க அதிகாரம்
Dictatorship - சர்வாதிகாரம்
External வெளிப்புற
Dictatorship Of பாட்டாளிகளின் Sovereignty
-
- இறையாண்மை
The Proletariat சர்வாதிகாரம்
எச்சரிக்கை மிகு
Diplomacy - தூதாண்மை
Fabian Socialism -
சமதர்மம்
Distributive Justice - பங்கீட்டு நீதி Factionalism - பிரிவினைவாதம்
Divine Origin தெய்வீக உரிமை அரசு
-
Feminism - பெண்ணியம்
Theory of State த�ோற்றக் க�ோட்பாடு
Feminists - பெண்ணியவாதிகள்
Divine Rights தெய்வீக உரிமை
Theory
- Feudalism - நிலப்பிரபுத்துவம்
க�ோட்பாடு
Flexible
Domestic Liberty - உள்நாட்டு சுதந்திரம்
– நெகிழும் அரசியலமைப்பு
constitution
Early Vedic Period - முற்கால வேதகாலம்
Franchise - வாக்குரிமை
Eco-Feminism - சூழலிய பெண்ணியம்
Fraternity - சக�ோதரத்துவம்
Ecologist - சூழலியல் வல்லுநர்
Fundamental
Economic Rights
- அடிப்படை உரிமைகள்
Democracy
- ப�ொருளாதார மக்களாட்சி
Gender Equality - பாலினச் சமத்துவம்
Economic Security – ப�ொருளாதாரப் பாதுகாப்பு
General Will - ப�ொது விருப்பம்
Enforciable - செயலாக்கத் தகுந்த
Global Warming - புவி வெப்பமயமாதல்
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Globalization - உலகமயமாக்கல் Materialistic ப�ொருள்முதல்வாத

Individualism
-
Glorious தனிமனிதத்துவம்
- மகத்தான புரட்சி
Revolution Minority Rule - சிறுபான்மை ஆட்சி
House of
- பிரதிநிதிகள் சபை Mobocracy - கும்பலாட்சி
Representatives
Moderates - மிதவாதிகள்
Human Rights - மனித உரிமைகள்
Monarchy - முடியாட்சி
Human Trafficking - ஆட்கடத்தல்
Monistic Theory of ஒருமைவாத
Ideal State - இலட்சிய அரசு
Sovereignty
-
இறைமைக்கோட்பாடு
Idealistic Theory of இலட்சியவாத உரிமைக்
- Natural Rights - இயற்கை உரிமைகள்
Rights க�ோட்பாடு
Natural Rights - இயற்கை உரிமைகள்
Identity Politics - அடையாள அரசியல்
இயற்கையாதலான
த�ொகுத்தறிமுறைக் Naturalised Citizen -
Inductive Method - குடிமகன்
காரணவியல்
Negative Liberalism - எதிர்மறை தாராளவாதம்
Initiative - மக்கள் கருத்து முன்வடிவு
Institutional நிறுவன ரீதியிலான

Negative Liberty - எதிர்மறை சுதந்திரம்
Approach
- Nominal பெயரளவிலான
அணுகுமுறை
Sovereignty
-
Instrumental இறையாண்மை
- கருவி மார்க்சிசம்
Marxism Non-Alignment - கூட்டு சேராமை
Interest Groups – தன்னலக்குழுக்கள் Normative - கருத்தறிவு
Internal Nutritious
Sovereignty
- உள் இறையாண்மை - சத்துணவுத் திட்டம்
MealScheme
International Law - பன்னாட்டுச் சட்டம் கூர்நோக்குதல்/உற்று
Observation -
International ந�ோக்கல்
Organizations
- பன்னாட்டு அமைப்புக்கள்
Observation
Method
- கூர்நோக்குதல் முறை
International Peace - பன்னாட்டு அமைதி
International Office of Profit - ஆதாயம் தரும் பதவி

Relations
- பன்னாட்டு உறவுகள்
Oligarchy - சிறுகுழுஆட்சி
League of Nations - பன்னாட்டுச் சங்கம் Organisation - அமைப்பு
Legal Approach - சட்டபூர்வ அணுகுமுறை Over Developed
State
- மிகு வளர்ச்சி அரசு
Legal Sovereignty - சட்டபூர்வ இறையாண்மை
Parliamentary
Liberalism - தாராளவாதம் பாராளுமன்ற முறை
Form of -
அரசாங்கம்
Local-self உள்ளாட்சி சுய Government
Government
-
Paternalism - தந்தை வழி மரபு
Magna Carta - மகா சாசனம்
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Patriarchal Theory தந்தை வழி அரசு Political Ideology - அரசியல் இலட்சியம்

of State
-
த�ோற்றக் க�ோட்பாடு
Political influence - அரசியல் செல்வாக்கு
Patriarchy - ஆணாதிக்கம்
Political Obligation - அரசியல் கடப்பாடு
Patricians - உயர்குலத்தோர்
Political Parties - அரசியல் கட்சிகள்
Patriotism - நாட்டுப்பற்று/தேசப்பற்று
Political
- அரசியல் துருவமடைதல்
Per-Capita Income - தனிநபர் வருமானம் Polarization
Personal Liberty - தனி நபர் சுதந்திரம் Political Power - அரசியல் வலிமை
Personality - ஆளுமை Political Rights - அரசியல் உரிமைகள்
Personality Cult - தனிமனித வழிபாடு Political Science - அரசியல் அறிவியல்
Political Self-
Petitions - மனுக்கள் - அரசியல் சுய நிர்ணயம்
Determination
Philosophical தத்துவ அரசின்மை
- Political
Anarchism வாதம்
Sovereignty
- அரசியல் இறையாண்மை
Physical Law – இயற்பியல் சட்டம்

Political System - அரசியல் முறைமை
Planning - திட்டமிடல்
Political Theory - அரசியல் க�ோட்பாடு
Plebeians - சாதாரண குடிமக்கள்
Politician - அரசியல்வாதி
Plebians - சாதாரண குடிமக்கள்
Politics - அரசியல்
Plebiscitary ப�ொது வாக்கெடுப்பிலான
Democracy
- Polling process - வாக்களிக்கும் நடைமுறை
மக்களாட்சி
Polyarchy - குழுவாட்சிமுறை
Plural Executive - பன்மைத் தலைமை
Popular Initiative - மக்களின் துவக்க முறை
Pluralism - பன்மைவாதம்
Popular மக்களின்
Pluralistic Theory பன்முக இறைமைக் -
of Sovereignty
- Referendum கருத்துக்கணிப்பு
Popular Sovereignty - மக்கள் இறையாண்மை
Plurality - பன்மைத்துவம்
Popular will - மக்கள் விருப்பம்
Policy - க�ொள்கை
க�ொள்கையை
Popularity - பிரபலம்
Policy makers -
உருவாக்குபவர்கள் Positive Liberalism - நேர்மறை தாராளவாதம்
Political Asylum - அரசியல் புகலிடம் Positive Liberty - நேர்மறைச் சுதந்திரம்
Political Authority - அரசியல் அதிகாரம் Positive Rights - நேர்மறை உரிமைகள்

Political Post- Revolutionary புரட்சிக்குப் பிந்தைய
Democracy
- அரசியல் மக்களாட்சி
-
Stage நிலை
Political Economy - அரசியல் ப�ொருளாதாரம்
Political Equality - அரசியல் சமத்துவம்
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பிந்தைய நடத்தையியல் Progressivism - முன்னேற்றவாதம்

Post-Behavioralism - (பின் த�ோன்றிய
Proletariat - பாட்டாளி வர்க்கம்
நடத்தையியல்)
Post-Colonial பின் காலனிய
Prominent - முதன்மையான
Feminism
-
பெண்ணியம் Promulgation - நடைமுறைப்படுத்துதல்
குடியேற்றத்திற்குப்
Post-Colonial States -
Propaganda - பரப்புரை
பிந்தைய அரசுகள்
Proportional - விகிதாச்சார
Post-Modern பின் நவீனத்துவ
Feminism
- Protective பாதுகாப்பிலான
பெண்ணியம்
Democracy
-
Post-Modernism - பின் நவீனத்துவம்
Proxy - பதிலி/பிரதிநிதி
Post-Revolutionary புரட்சிக்குப் பிந்தைய
Stage
- Psephology - வாக்களிப்பியல்
நிலை
Poverty - வறுமை Psephology - தேர்தலியல்
Pre- Revolutionary Psychology - உளவியல்

Stage
- புரட்சிக்கு முந்தைய நிலை
Public interest - ப�ொது நலம்
Preamble – முகப்புரை/முகவுரை
Public office - ப�ொதுப்பதவி
Pre-Revolutionary
Stage
- புரட்சிக்கு முந்தைய நிலை Public Opinion - ப�ொதுக் கருத்து
இந்திய குடியரசுத் Public Sector - ப�ொதுத்துறை

President of India -
தலைவர் Purchasing Power
Presidential Form குடியரசுத்தலைவர் முறை Parity
– வாங்குந்திறன் சமநிலை
of Government
-
அரசாங்கம் Qualitative
Methods
- தரநிலை முறைகள்
Presidential Form குடியரசுத்தலைவர் முறை
of Government
- Quantitative
Methods
- தகுதிநிலை முறைகள்
Presidential System - குடியரசுத்தலைவர் முறை
அரைகுறை கூட்டாட்சி
Pressure Groups - அழுத்தக் குழுக்கள் Quasi-Federal State -
அரசு
Preventive
Detention
- தடுப்புக் காவல் Quasi-Judicial - நீதிமுறை சார்புடைய
Primitive ஆரம்பநிலை
Quota - ஒதுக்கீடு
Communism
- Racial
ப�ொதுவுடைமை
Discrimination
- இனப் பாகுபாடு
Primitive ஆரம்பநிலை
-
Communism ப�ொதுவுடைமை Radical Democracy - தீவிர மக்களாட்சி
Primordial - ஆதியிலிருந்து Radical Feminism - தீவிர பெண்ணியம்
Privileges - சலுகைகள் Rajya Sabha - மாநிலங்களவை
Progress - முன்னேற்றம்
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மெய்யான Returning officer - தேர்தல் நடத்தும் அதிகாரி

Real Sovereignty –
இறையாண்மை Reverse
– தலைகீழ் பாகுபாடு
Real Will - மெய்யான விருப்பம் discrimination
Realism - மெய்மைவாதம் Revolution - புரட்சி
Reason - பகுத்தறிவு Rhetoric - ச�ொல்லாட்சி
Recall System - திரும்ப அழைத்தல் முறை Right - உரிமை
Right against சுரண்டலுக்கு எதிரான

Recognition - ஏற்பு
-
Exploitation உரிமை
Referundum - மக்கள் ஒப்பம்
Right to Equality - சமத்துவ உரிமை
Reforms - சீர்திருத்தங்கள்
Right to Freedom - சுதந்திர உரிமை
Regional - வட்டார/பிராந்திய
Right to Freedom மதச்சுதந்திரத்திற்கான
Regional Alliances - வட்டாரக் கூட்டணிகள் Of Religion
-
உரிமை
Regional Alliances - வட்டாரக் கூட்டணிகள் Right to Life - உயிர்வாழும் உரிமை
Regulate - ஒழுங்குபடுத்துதல் Right to Privacy - தனியுரிமை
Religion - மதம் தனியுரிமை / அந்தரங்க

Right to Privacy -
Religious உரிமை
Fundamentalist
- மத அடிப்படைவாதி
Rightist Ideology - வலதுசாரி லட்சியவாதம்
Religious
- மதச் சிறுபான்மையினர் Rightist Ideology - வலதுசாரி லட்சியவாதம்
Minorities
நெகிழா அரசமைப்பு/
Renaissance - மறுமலர்ச்சி Rigid Constitution -
இறுக்கமான அரசமைப்பு
Representation - பிரதிநிதித்துவம்
Rule of Law - சட்டத்தின் ஆட்சி
Representative - பிரதிநிதி
Ruling Class - ஆளும் வர்க்கம்
Representative பிரதிநிதித்துவ
Democracy
- Satyagraha - சத்தியாகிரகம்
Representative பிரதிநிதித்துவ
Schedule - அட்டவணை
Government
-
அரசாங்கம் Scheduled castes - பட்டியல் இனத்தவர்
Republic - குடியரசு Scheduled Castes

பட்டியல் வகுப்பினர்
And Scheduled -
Reservation - இடஒதுக்கீடு மற்றும் பழங்குடியினர்
Tribes
Resignation - பதவி விலகல்
Scheduled tribes - பழங்குடியினர்
Resignation - பதவி விலகுதல்
Scope - பரப்பெல்லை
Resources - ஆதாரங்கள்
Seats - இடங்கள்
Responsibility - ப�ொறுப்புடைமை
Secessionism - பிரிவினைவாதம்
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Secular State - மதச்சார்பற்ற அரசு Social Media - சமூக ஊடகங்கள்
Secularism - மதச்சார்பின்மை Social Movements - சமூக இயக்கங்கள்
Security deposit - பிணைத்தொகை Social Status - சமூக நிலை
Self-Rule - சுயாட்சி Social System - சமூக அமைப்பு
Seminary - இறையியல் கல்லூரி Social System - சமூக முறைமை
Senior Citizens - மூத்த குடிமக்கள் Socialism - சமதர்மம்
Separation of Socialistic சமதர்மத்திலான

Powers
- அதிகாரப் பிரிவினை -
Democracy மக்களாட்சி
Service Sector - சேவைத் துறை Socialistic சமதர்மத்திலான
Democracy
-
Sessions - கூட்டத் த�ொடர்கள்
மேல�ோட்டமான
Society - சமூகம்
Shallow Ecology -
சூழலியல் Society - சமுதாயம்
Simple Majority - சாதாரண பெரும்பான்மை Soft State - மென்மையான அரசு
Single Citizenship - ஒற்றைக் குடியுரிமை Soft State - மென்மை அரசு
Sinification - சீனமயமாக்கல் Sovereignty - இறையாண்மை
Slavery - அடிமைமுறை Speaker - சபாநாயகர்
Social Activism - சமூக செயல்முனைவு Spirit - உத்வேகம்
Social activist - சமூக செயற்பாட்டாளர் அரசியல் சார்ந்த அரசுப்

Spoils System -
பதவி முறை
Social Autonomy - சமூக தன்னாட்சி
Standing
சமூகத்தின் வலிந்த - நிலைக்குழு
Social Coercion - Committee
மாற்றம்
State - அரசு
சமூகத்தின் வலிந்த
Social Coercion - State Legislative
மாற்றம்
Assembly
- மாநில சட்டப்பேரவை
Social Contract சமூக ஒப்பந்தக்
Theory
- State legislature - மாநில சட்டமன்றம்
Social சமூக State of Nature - இயற்கை நிலை
Contractualists
-
ஒப்பந்தவியலாளர்கள் Statelessness - அரசற்றநிலை
Social Democracy - சமூக மக்களாட்சி Structural
கட்டமைப்பு செயல்பாட்டு
Social Democratic Functional -
State
- சமூக நல அரசு
Approach
அணுகுமுறை
Social Equality - சமூக சமத்துவம் கட்டமைப்பிலான

Structural Marxism -
மார்க்சிசம்
Social Justice - சமூக நீதி
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Structure - கட்டமைப்பு Traditionalism – மரபுவாதம்
Sub-continent - துணைக்கண்டம் Transform - மாறுதல்
Suffrage - வாக்குரிமை Transgenders - மூன்றாம் பாலினத்தவர்
நாடுகளுக்கிடையேயான Transparency - வெளிப்படைத்தன்மை

Summit -
மாநாடு
Tribunals - தீர்ப்பாயங்கள்
Super Powers - உயர் அதிகார நாடுகள்
Tri-Coloured Flag - மூவர்ணக் க�ொடி
Superintendence - கண்காணிப்பு
Two Party System - இரு கட்சி முறை
Superiority - உயர்வுத் தன்மை
Tyranny - க�ொடுங்கோன்மை
Supervision - மேற்பார்வை
Under Developed வளர்ச்சி குன்றிய
-
Supervisor - மேற்பார்வையாளர் Countries நாடுகள்
Sustainable
- நிலையான முன்னேற்றம்
Unethical - நன்னெறிக்குப் புறம்பான
Development
Unfair - நியாயமற்ற
Syllogisms - முக்கூற்று ஏரணம்
Unitary State - ஒற்றையாட்சி அரசு
Syndicalists – த�ொழிற்சங்கவாதிகள்
United Nations - ஐக்கிய நாடுகள் சபை
System Approach - முறைமை அணுகுமுறை
Universal Adult அனைவருக்கும்
System of Logic - தர்க்க முறை Franchise
-
வாக்குரிமை
Systems Approach - முறைமை அணுகுமுறை Universalism - பிரபஞ்சவாதம்
Tenure - பதவிக்காலம் Untouchability - தீண்டாமை
Territory - நிலப்பரப்பு Unwritten எழுதப்படாத

Constitution
–
The Reformation அரசியலமைப்பு
Movement
- சீர்திருத்த இயக்கம்
Upper Chamber - சட்டமன்றத்தின் மேலவை
Theocracy - சமய ஆட்சி நகர்ப்புற உள்ளாட்சி
Urban local body -
Theology - சமயவியல் அமைப்பு
Theory of Surplus பயன்கருதுவாதம்/

- உபரி மதிப்புக் க�ோட்பாடு Utilitarianism -
Value பயன்பாட்டுவாதம்
Three-Fold மூன்றுஅடுக்கு கற்பனையிலான

- Utopian Socialism -
Citizenship குடியுரிமை சமதர்மம்
Timocracy - செல்வராட்சி Utopian Theory - கற்பனைவாதக் க�ோட்பாடு
Totalitarian Utopianism - கற்பனைவாதம்

Democracy
- முற்றதிகார மக்களாட்சி
Vice President of இந்திய குடியரசு துணைத்
Traditional India
-
தலைவர்
Morality
- மரபார்ந்த நீதிநெறிமுறை
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விதான் சபை (சட்டமன்ற கட்டளை / செயலுறுத்தும்

Vidhan Sabha - Writ of Mandamus -
கீழவை) நீதிப்பேராணை
Vote - வாக்கு Writ of Prohibition - தடை நீதிப்பேராணை
Voters` list - வாக்காளர் பட்டியல் உரிமையேது வினா

Writ of Quo- நீதிப்பேராணை/
Votes - வாக்குகள்
Warranto
-
தகுதிவினவும்
Voting Machine - வாக்களிக்கும் இயந்திரம் நீதிப்பேராணை
Voting Right - வாக்களிக்கும் உரிமை Writ of Quo- உரிமையேது வினா

Warranto
-
நீதிப்பேராணை
நகரின் உட்பிரிவு (வார்டு)
Ward - Write of
/ குடும்பு
Prohibition
- தடை நீதிப்பேராணை
Weaker sections - நலிவுற்ற பிரிவினர்
Written எழுதப்பட்ட
Welfare State - நலந�ோக்கு அரசு Constitution
-
அரசியலமைப்பு
வெள்ளை மனிதனின் Written
White Man Burden - Constitution
- எழுதப்பட்ட அரசமைப்பு
சுமை-கடமை
Withdrawal - திரும்பப்பெறுதல்
Withering away of
the State
- அரசு உதிர்வடைதல்
Women பெண்களுக்கு
Empowerment
-
அதிகாரமளித்தல்
Working Class - உழைக்கும் வர்க்கம்
World Bank - உலக வங்கி
சான்றாய்வு
நீதிப்பேராணை/
Writ of Certiorari -
நெறிப்படுத்தும்
சான்றாய்வு /
Writ of Certiorari - நெறிப்படுத்தும்
Writ of Habeas ஆட்கொணர்வு
Corpus
-
Writ of Habeas ஆட்கொணர்வு
Corpus
-
கட்டளை நீதிப்பேராணை/
Writ of Mandamus - செயலுறுத்தும்
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Political Science – XI
List of Authors and Reviewers
Domain Expert Dr.Haans Freddy, Assistant Professor,

Department Of Political Science, MCC, Tambaram, Chennai.
Prof. Ramu Manivannan HOD
Dept. of Politics and Public Administration,
University of Madras, Chennai. Mr. Adarsh Vijay, Assistant Professor,
Department Of Political Science, MCC, Tambaram, Chennai.
Reviewer
Dr.P.Sakthivel, Associate Professor, Dept.of political Science and Public Admn.
Prof. A. Karunanandam, HOD (Retd), Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar.
Dept. of History,
Vivekananda College,
Dr. M. Kennedy Stephensan vaseekaran, Associate Professor,
Chennai.
Dept. of Political and Public Administration, University of Madras, Chennai.
Authors Dr. T.Krishna Kumar, Associate Professor, Dept. of Political Science,

Prof. Ramu Manivannan HOD Presidency College, Chennai
Dept. of Politics and Public Administration, University of Madras, Chennai.
Dr.K. Kottairajan, Assistant Professor, Dept.of Political Science,
Dr.P. Kanagaraj, HOD, Dept.of Political Science Govt. Arts College, Coimbatore. Govt. Arts College, Cuddalore
Dr. P.Muthukumar, Associate Professor, Dr.R.Thirunavukkarasu, Assistant Professor,

Presidency College, Chennai. Department of Sociology,University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad.
N.K.Kumaresan Raja, Assistant Professor, Dr. J. Amirtha Lenin, Assistant Professor

Department of Politics & International Studies,Pondicherry University, R.V.Nagar, Department of Tamil,Loyola College, Chennai.
Kalapet, Puducherry.
Dr.K.Senthilkumar, Assistant Professor Dept.of Political Science and Public
Dr.S.Jameela, Associate Professor, Admn. Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar.
Dept. of Political Science, J.B.A.S College for Women, Chennai
Dr. S. Parthiban, Assistant Professor,
Dr. R.Vidya, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Politics & Public Administration
Department of Political Science, MCC, Tambaram, Chennai. University of Madras, Chennai
Dr. Meera Rajivkumar, Assistant Professor, Dr. R. Mohan, Professor(Retd),

Madras Christian college, Tambaram, Chennai. Dept of Linguistics, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai
Dr. P. Ramajayam, Assistant Professor, Dr.Radhika Laxman, Researcher, Madras Christian College, chennai
Centre for Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy,
Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli. P. Appanasamy, Writer
P. K. Saravanan, Writer
Dr. R. Sivakumar, Associate Professor of Political Science,
Thiruvalluvar Govt. Arts College, Rasipuram, Namakkal. ICT Co-ordinator
Dr. P. Arunachalam, Principal,
Dr.R.Sivakumar, Assistant Professor, Chinmaya Vidhyalaya PAC Ramasamy Raja Matric. HSS, Ilanthope,
Presidency College, Chennai. Rajapalayam, Tirunelveli.
Dr.Ashik J Bonofer, Assistant Professor, Academic Co-ordinator

Department of Political Science, MCC, Tambaram, Chennai.
Dr.S.Sudha, Associate Professor, R. Malarkodi,Assistant Professor,
Department of Political Science, MCC, Tambaram, Chennai. SCERT, Chennai.
Mr. J.Diviyan, Assistant Professor, Compilation

Department of Political Science, MCC, Tambaram, Chennai. R. Thirunavukkarasu, PG Assistant,
Govt Boys Hr. Sec. School, Kaveripattinam, Krishnagiri Dt.
J. Sakthivel, PG Assistant,
Govt Boys Hr. Sec. School, Pappireddipatty, Dharmapuri Dt.
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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Government of Tamil Nadu

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational Research

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

HOW TO USE THE BOOK?

Learning objective Diagrams

 Describes about what students Schematic representation that

Do you know? Glossary

Knowledge Boxes Evaluation

Debate Further readings

Case study Web links

Unit Title Page No. Month

E - Book Assessment Digi Link

Let’s use the QR code in the text books!

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to

constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizen :

JUSTICE, social, economic and political ;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship ;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity ;

and to promote among them all

FRATERNITY assuring the diginity of the individual and the unity

and integrity of the Nation ;

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day

of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE

TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

1 Introduction of Political Science

1.1 Meaning, Definition and Origin of Political Science

and the relations between states. But the

politics as a systematic inquiry to assumption that all societies exhibit sharp

There is a limited amount

in political analysis. Charles E. Merriam’s to examine the political behaviour of

On the basis of your reading / their observance had to be ensured. The

“Tryst with Destiny”

The following is the report by The Hindu on 14.8.1947delivered by the first

the study of politics from other social  Political Dynamics

Make a list of the important works of Political Science primarily studies

What is Political Science?

TRADITIONAL APPROACHES MODERN APPROACHES

PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH

ii. Historical Approach are sought. However, critics argue that

political organization. As the State is psychological laws. It assumes that the

vi. Political Science and Public

Political Science It is the branch of Totalitarianism It refers to the

I Choose the Correct answer

II Answer the following questions very shortly

III Answer the following questions shortly

IV Answer the following questions in detail

Reference books Further readings

Dear Students, in the last chapter

2.2 Essential Elements of State agent on the overwhelming authority of

People/Population Territory Government Sovereignty

CENSUS2011 The population of India

Census 2011: population pegged at 121.02 cr

Population sovereignty or the superiority of State,

 Can there be a Permanent Chief Minister or Permanent Prime

Describes about what students Schematic representation that

5. “ Territorial sovereignty or the superiority of State, overall within its boundaries

8. Which flagship programme of Government of Tamil Nadu followed by all other

 The meaning and characteristics

The other factors that ensure the political (v)

While learning the classification behaved like monarchs. The fall of

iii. Constitution is custodian of liberty

vi. Economic Security viii.

a) Why it is important to separate the religion from the State in democratic