Physics XIs

CH-2 Units and Dimensions
Session 2.1(Physical Quantities, Units, Dimensions)

1. Physical Quantities:
Physical quantities:‐
All those quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly and in terms of which the laws of
physics can be expressed are called physical quantities.
Or any number that is used to describe a physical phenomenon quantitatively is called a physical
quantity.
Example. Length, mass, temperature, speed, force, etc.
Types of Physical Quantities:‐
(i) Fundamental Quantities or base quantity:
The physical quantities which are independent of other physical quantities and are not
defined in terms of other physical quantities are called fundamental or base quantities. We
can define them by only describing how they are measured.
For example, mass, length and time are the most common base quantities in almost all
prevailing systems.
(ii) Derived Quantities:
Physical quantities which are defined using fundamental quantities or are derived from
fundamental quantities are called derived quantities. All physical quantities other than
seven fundamental quantities are derived quantities.
Example.Velocity, acceleration, force, etc.
2. Unit:
Unit:‐
When we measure a quantity, we always compare it with some reference standard. This standard
reference of the quantity is called unit of quantity.
For example, meter is unit of distance and second is a unit of time.
Types of units:
(i) Fundamental Units:
The physical units which can neither be derived from one another, nor can be resolved into
more simpler units are called fundamental units.
Units of fundamental quantities such as mass, length, etc are fundamental units.
(ii) Derived Units:
All other units which can be derived from fundamental units are called derived units.
Example. Unit of speed = m/s.
Some derived units are used with special names which may appear as fundamental units but
they are not.
Example. (i) Newton(kgms‐2) is the SI unit of force, (ii)Joule (kgm2s‐2) is the SI unit of Work.
Keystone Universe of Education Ph. 40301787, 40327045

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3. System of Units:
A complete set of units which is used to measure all kinds of fundamental and derived quantities is
called a system of units.
Generally, all system of units except the SI system have length, mass and time as their fundamental
quantities.
The following table describes fundamental units for commonly used system of units:
Name of Systems Length Mass Time
CGS Centimetre Gram Second
FPS Foot Pound Second
MKS Metre Kilogram Second
SI system of units:
Internationally accepted reference standard to measure a physical quantity is called SI unit of
quantity.
It is the most accepted system of units.
It has seven fundamental quantities and two supplementary quantities.
The following table gives a list of fundamental quantities and their units.
Fundamental Quantities Units Symbols

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Electric Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance Mole Mol
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
Supplementary Quantities Units Diagram

Plane angle (θ) Radian
θ = (where l is length of arc and r is radius of circle)
Solid angle (Ω) Steradian

Ω = (where S is the area of surface and r is radius of
sphere)

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4. Coherent system of units:
It is a system of units based on a certain set of fundamental units from which all derived units can be
obtained by simple multiplication or division without introducing any numerical factor.
5. Advantages of SI system:
i. SI is a coherent system of units.
ii. SI is a rational system of units.
iii. SI is a metric system.
iv. SI is an absolute system of units.
v. SI is an internationally accepted system of units.
6. Dimensions:
All derived physical quantities can be expressed in terms of some combination of the seven
fundamental quantities. These seven fundamental quantities are known as seven dimensions of the
world, denoted with square brackets []. Dimensions of seven fundamental quantities are given
below:
Quantity Dimensions Quantity Dimensions
Length [L] Electric Current [A]
Mass [M] Temperature [K]
Time [T] Amount of substance [mol]
Luminous Intensity [cd]
Dimensions of a physical quantity:
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities must be
raised to represent that quantity completely.
Example. Density = =
∴Dimensions of density = = [ML‐3] = [ML ‐3T 0]

Dimensional Formula:
The expression which shows how and which of the fundamental quantities represent the dimensions
of a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical quantity.
Dimensional Equation:
The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called the
dimensional equation of the given physical quantity.
Example. Dimensional equation of force is : [Force] = [MLT ‐2]
7. Different types of variables and constants:
i. Dimensional variables:‐ The physical, quantities which possess dimensions and have variable
values are called dimensional variables.
Example. Area, volume, velocity etc.
ii. Dimensionless variables:‐ The physical quantities which have no dimensions but have
variable values are called dimensionless variables.
Example. Angle, relative density, strain etc.
iii. Dimensional constants:‐ The physical quantities which possess dimensions and have
constant values are called dimensional constants.
Example. Gravitational constant, Planck’s constant etc.
iv. Dimensionless constants:‐ The constant quantities having no dimensions are called
dimensionless constants.
Example. pi (π), e etc.

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8. Dimensions of some most used quantities are given below:
Sr. Physical Quantity Dimensional SI Unit
No. Formula
1. Area=length length [M0L2T0] m2
2. Volume=length lengthlength [M0L3T0] m3
3. Density=mass/volume [ML‐3T0] Kgm‐3
4. Speed or velocity= displacement/time [M0LT‐1] ms‐1
5. Acceleration= velocity/time [M0LT‐2] ms‐2
6. Force=mass  Acceleration [MLT‐2] Newton(N)
7. Pressure= force/area [ML‐1T ‐2] Pascal (Pa) or Nm‐2
8. Stress=restoring force/area [ML‐1T ‐2] Pascal (Pa) or Nm‐2
9. Modulus of elasticity =stress/strain [ML‐1T ‐2] Nm‐2
10. Energy density= energy / volume [ML‐1T ‐2] Nm or Jm‐3
‐2
11. Momentum=mass  velocity [MLT ‐1] Kgms‐1

12. Impulse=Ft [MLT ‐1] Ns
13. Coefficient of viscosity(ɳ) F= 6ɳrvɳ= F/6rv [ML‐1T ‐1] Kgm‐1 s‐1
14. Work=Fs cosθ [ML2T‐2] Joule (J)
15. Energy(All type)=work [ML2T‐2] Joule (J)
16. Torque=Fr sinθ [ML2T‐2] Nm
17. Power = work/time [ML2T‐3] Watt(W)
18. Surface Energy=energy/area [ML0T ‐2] Jm‐2
19. Surface Tension=force/length [ML0T ‐2] Nm‐1
20. spring constant K = F/ [ML0T ‐2] Nm‐1
21. Frequency=1/time period [M0L0T ‐1] Hz or s‐1
22. Angular velocity(ω)= angular [M0L0T ‐1] rads‐1
displacement/time
23. Angular Acceleration=dω/dt [M0L0T ‐2] rads‐2
2
24. Moment of Inertia=∑mr [ML2T 0] Kgm2
25. Strain=L/L or V/V [M0L0T0] ‐
26. Angle= arc/radius [M0L0T0] Rad
27. Trignometric Ratios = side/side [M0L0T0] ‐
28. Relative Density= density of matter / density of [M0L0T0] ‐
water
29. Gravitational constant(G) F=  G= / [M‐1L3T‐2] Nm2kg‐2
Note:
 All these physical quantities have dimensions as that of length.
(breadth, height, radius, diameter, circumference, perimeter, distance, displacement)
 All these physical quantities have dimension as that of force.
(weight, tension, gravitational force, electrostatic force etc.)
 All these physical quantities have dimensions same as that of energy
(kinetic energy, potential energy etc)

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Solved examples
Eg 1:Write three physical quantities having dimension:[ML2T‐2]. [DPS] [1 mark]
Ans. Energy, Torque, Work.
Eg 2: Deduce dimensional formulae for following physical quantities: (i) Power, (ii) Young’s
Modulus, (iii) Surface Tension, (iv) Specific Heat, (v) Electric charge, (vi) Electric Potential.[3 marks]
Sol:(i) Power = = = = [ML2T ‐3].
/
(iii) Young’s Modulus = =
/
/
= = [ML‐1T ‐2]
/
(iv) Surface Tension = = = [MT ‐2]
(v) Specific Heat = = = [M0L2T ‐2K‐1]

(vi) Electric Charge = Current × Time = [A][T] = [AT]
(vii) Electric Potential = = = [ML2T ‐3A‐1]

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Homework Sheet 2.1
Theory
1. What are physical quantities? Distinguish between fundamental and derived quantities.
[DPS] [2 marks]
2. What is the SI system of units? [Udgam, DPS] [1 mark]
3. State two advantages of SI system over other system of units. [Udgam, DPS] [1 mark]
4. Give an example of a physical quantity for each of the following: (i) Dimensional variable,(ii)
Dimensional constant, (iii) Non‐dimensional variable, (iv) Non‐dimensional constant. [2 marks]
5. Name at least two physical quantities whose dimensions are [M0L0T‐1]. [DPS, KV][1 mark]
6. Name two quantities which have S.I. unit but no dimensions. [1 mark]
Numerical
7. Deduce dimensional formulae for following physical quantities: (i) Impulse, (ii) Angular velocity,
(iii) Torque, (iv) Moment of inertia. [Hint: Impulse = Force × Time, Angular velocity =
, Torque = Distance × Force, Moment of Inertia = Mass × (Radius)2] [MAV][2 marks]
8. Deduce dimensional formulae for following physical quantities: (i) Gravitational Constant, (ii)
Latent Heat, (iii) Universal Gas Constant, (iv) Coefficient of thermal conductivity.
[Hint: Gravitational Constant = , Latent Heat = , Universal Gas
Constant = , Coefficient of thermal conductivity= ]

[2 marks]
9. Deduce dimensional formulae for following physical quantities: (i) Resistance, (ii) Capacitance
[Hint: Resistance = , Capacitance = ] [1 mark]
10. Show that angular momentum (L)has the same physical units as the Planck’s constant h which is
given by the relation E = hν. [Hint: L = [ML2T ‐1]] [2 marks]
11. Deduce dimensional formulae for following physical quantities: (i) Power, (ii) Young’s Modulus,
(iii) Surface Tension, (iv) Specific Heat, (v) Electric charge, (vi) Electric Potential. [3 marks]
12. In the expression, P = El2m‐5G‐2; E, m, l and G denote energy, mass, angular momentum and
gravitational constant, respectively. Show that P is a dimensionless quantity. [2 marks]
13. De‐Broglie wavelength is given by the relation λ=h/mv, where λ is the wavelength, m is the mass,
v is the velocity and h is Planck’s constant. Using dimensional analysis find the dimensions of
Planck’s constant. [DPS] Ans.[ML2T‐1] [1 mark]

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Session 2.2(Applications of Dimensions)
1. Applications of Dimensions:
(i) Conversion of one system of units into another:‐
To convert a physical unit from one system of units to another, we use the fact that the
magnitude of a physical quantity remains same, whatever may be the system of units.
Let us consider a physical quantity ‘Q’ having dimension [M L T ].
Let the size of the fundamental units of the first system be M , L , T and the size of the
fundamental units of the second system be M , L , T . Let n be the value of the quantity in the
first system of unit and n be the value of the quantity in the second system of units.
Now they represent the same physical quantity, hence we can write
Q = n1u1 = n2u2
Q = n M L T =n M L T
⟹n2 = n1
First system is the system from which we are converting from and the second system is the
system in which we are converting into.
(ii) Checking the correctness of various formulae:‐
 Principle of homogeneity of dimensions:
According to this principle,“ a physical equation will be dimensionally correct if the
dimensions of all the terms combined occurring on both sides of the equation are the same.”
This principle is based on the fact that only physical quantities of same kind can be added,
subtracted or equated. Hence every equation must be dimensionally consistent. The
conclusion is the quantities having same units or dimensions are added, subtracted or
equated.
 To check the dimensional correctness of physical equation we have to check whether the
dimensions of all the terms on the two sides of the equation are same. If they are same then
equation is dimensionally correct otherwise it is dimensionally wrong.
 A dimensionally correct equation need not be actually a correct equation, but a
dimensionally inconsistent equation must be wrong.
For example. s = ut + at2 is dimensionally correct but numerically it is wrong.

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(iii) Derive relationship between different physical quantities:‐
By making the use of principle of homogeneity of dimensions, we can derive an expression for a
physical quantity if we know the various factors on which it depends.
If a physical quantity P depends upon the physical quantities A and B and we have to derive the
formula of P, then following steps are to be followed.
 Step 1: Creating the expression in which dependence of P on A and B is shown.
P ∝ Ax B y
 Step 2: Change proportionality to equality by inserting a dimensionless constant.
P = k Ax By where k is a dimensionless constant
 Step 3: Write the dimensions of all the physical quantities on LHS and RHS of the equation.
 Step 4: Consolidate the powers in the dimensions.
 Step 5: Equate the powers on LHS and RHS of the equation and solve for x and y.
 Step 6: Substitute the values of x and y in step 2 (and value of k if it is known) and therefore
we get the formula required.
2. Limitations of Dimensional Analysis:
(i) If dimension are given, physical quantity may not be unique as many physical quantities have
same dimensions.
For example, if the dimensional formula of a physical quantity is [ML2T‐2] it may be work or
energy or torque.
(ii) The method does not give any information about the dimensional constant k.
(iii) The method of dimension fails when the physical quantity is the sum or difference of two or
more quantities.
For example s= ut+ at2
(iv) This method fails when the physical quantities depends on more than three physical quantities.
(v) A dimensionally correct equation need not be actually a correct equation, but a dimensionally
inconsistent equation must be wrong.
(vi) This method fails to derive relationships which involve trigonometric, logarithmic or exponential
functions.
For example, y = a sin t

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Solved examples
Eg 3:Convert 1 joule into erg. [1 mark]
Sol: Joule is SI unit of energy and erg is the CGS unit of energy. Dimensional formula of energy is
[ML2T ‐2].
Hence, a = 1, b = 2, c = ‐2.
For SI system, M1 = 1kg = 1000g, L1 = 1m = 100cm, T1 = 1s, n1 = 1(joule)
For CGS system, M2 = 1g, L2 = 1cm, T2 = 1s, n2 =? (erg)
n2= n1
=1
= 103× 104 × 100
= 107
Ans.1 joule = 107erg
Eg 4:G = 6.67×10‐11Nm2/kg2 = _____dynecm2/g2. [DPS] [1 mark]

Sol: Nm2/kg2 is in SI system whereas dynecm2/g2 is in CGS system.
N is SI unit of Force and dyne is CGS unit of force. Dimensional formula of Force is [MLT ‐2]
Thus, Nm2/kg2 has dimensions = = [M‐1L3T ‐2]
Hence, a = ‐1, b = 3 and c = ‐2.
For SI system, M1 = 1kg = 1000g, L1 = 1m = 100cm, T1 = 1s, n1 = 1(Nm2/kg2)
For CGS system, M2 = 1g, L2 = 1cm, T2 = 1s, n2 =? (dynecm2/g2)
n2 = n1
=1
= 10‐3 × 106 × 100
= 103
Thus, 1Nm2/kg2 = 103dynecm2/g2.
Ans. Hence, 6.67×10‐11Nm2/kg2 = 6.67×10‐8dynecm2/g2.
Eg 5:Check the dimensional accuracy of the equation of motion, s = ut + ½ at2. [1 mark]

Sol: Dimensions of different terms are (i)[s]=[L],
(ii)[ut] = [LT‐1][T] = [L],
(iii)[½ at2] = [LT ‐2] [T2] = [L].
As all the terms on both sides of the equations have the same dimensions, so the given equation is
dimensionally correct.

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Eg 6:Find the dimensions of a/b in the equation: F = a√ + bt2, where F is force, x is distance and t is
time. [Udgam] [2 marks]
Sol: By Principle of homogeneity, dimensions of F = dimensions of a√ = dimensions of bt2.
Hence, [a√ ] = [F]
⟹[a] = = / = [ML1/2T ‐2]
√
Also, [bt2] = [F]
⟹[b] = = = [MLT ‐4]
Thus, [a/b] = = [L ‐1/2T 2]

Ans. Dimensions of a/b are [L ‐1/2T 2]
Eg 7:Consider a simple pendulum, having a bob attached to a string that oscillates under the action
of the force of gravity. Suppose that the period of oscillation of the simple pendulum depends on its
length (l), mass of the bob (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive the expression for its time
period using method of dimensions. [MAV] [3 marks]
Sol: The dependence of time period T on the quantities l, g and m as a product may be written as:
T = k lxgymz, where k is dimensionless constant and x, yand z are the exponents.
By considering dimensions on both sides, we have,
[L0M0T1]=[L1]x [L1 T‐2 ]y[M1 ]z
⟹[L0M0T1]= [Lx+yT ‐2yMz]
On equating the dimensions on both sides, we have x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0.
On solving, we get, x = ½ y = ‐ ½ and z =0.
Thus, T = k l1/2 g‐1/2 or, T = k .

Value of constant k cannot be obtained by the method of dimensions. Here it does not matter if
some number multiplies the right side of this formula, because that does not affect its dimensions.
Actually, k = 2π so that T = 2 .
Ans. T = 2

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Eg 8:A planet moves around the sun in nearly circular orbit. Its period of revolution ‘T’ depends
upon: (i) radius ‘r’ of orbit, (ii) mass ‘M’ of the sun and (iii) the gravitational constant G. Show
dimensionally T2∝ r3. [DPS] [3 marks]
Sol: Let, T = k r M G → ①, where k=dimensionless constant.
a b c
Dimensions of various quantities are: T = [T], r = [L], M = [M], G = = = [M‐1L3T ‐2]

Substituting these dimensions in eqn ①, we get,
[T] = [L]a [M]b [M ‐1 L3T ‐2]c
⟹ [M0L0T 1] =[M]b‐c [L]a+3c [T]‐2c
Equating the dimensions of M, L and T, we get, b – c =0; a + 3c = 0; ‐2c = 1
On solving, we get, a = , b = ‐½, c = ‐½
Thus, T = k r3/2 M‐1/2 G‐1/2
⟹ T2 =
∴ T 2∝ r3. Hence Proved.

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Homework Sheet 2.2
Theory
1. State the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. [Udgam] [1 mark]
2. What are the limitations of dimensional analysis? [DPS] [1 mark]
Numerical
3. What is the ratio of SI unit to CGS unit of impulse? [Udgam] Ans. 105 [1 mark]
4. Check the validity of given expression: (i)y = a +vt where y is position at any time t of any particle
having speed v and a is amplitude.(ii) v = ( )1/2, where v is velocity of any body of mass M
moves round in radius R, G is gravitational constant. [MAV] Ans.(i) Correct, (ii) Correct[2 marks]
5. The equation of state for a real gas is given by (P+ )(V‐b)=RT, where P is pressure, V is volume
of gas & a and b are constants. Using dimensional analysis find the SI units of ‘a’ and ‘b’.
Ans. kgm5s‐2, m3 [2 marks]
6. The rate of flow ( ) i.e. volume flowing per unit time of a liquid flowing through a pipe of radius
Ω
r and a pressure gradient ( / ) is given by poiseuilles equation: . Check the dimensional
ɳ
consistency of this equation. Ans. Correct [2 marks]
7. An electric bulb has a power of 500W. Express it in CGS units.Ans.5×109 ergs‐1 [2 marks]
‐5 ‐1 ‐2 ‐4
8. In CGS system, the value of Stefan’s constant is σ = 5.67 ×10 erg s cm K . Find its value in SI
units. (Given 1 J = 107 erg). Ans. 5.67 × 10‐8 J s‐1 m‐2 K‐4 [2 marks]
9. Find the value of 60J per min on a system that has 100g, 100cm and 1min as the base units.
Ans.2.16×106 [2 marks]
10. If the unit of force is 1kN, unit of length 1km and the unit of time is 100s, what will be the unit of
mass? Ans. 10 kg [2 marks]
11. Find the value of 100 J on a system which has 20 cm, 250 g and half minute as fundamental units
of length, mass and time. Ans. 9 × 106new units [2 marks]
‐1
12. If the units of force, energy and velocity are 20N, 200J and 5ms , find the units of length, mass
and time. Ans.10m, 8kg, 2s [2 marks]
13. Assuming that the mass M of the largest stone that can be moved by a flowing river on velocity
‘v’, density of water ‘ρ’ and acceleration due to gravity ‘g’. Using dimensions show that M varies
with 6th power of the velocity of flow. [MAV] [3 marks]
14. The escape velocity v of a body depends upon (i) acceleration due gravity (g), (ii) radius of the
planet R. Establish dimensionally the relationship between v, g and R.Ans. v = K [3 marks]
15. Using the method of dimensions, derive an expression for the energy of a body (E) executing
SHM; assuming this energy depends upon its mass m, frequency ν and amplitude of vibration r.
[Udgam] Ans. E = Kmν2r2 [3 marks]
16. Assuming that the critical velocity vcof a viscous liquid flowing through a capillary tube depends
only upon the radius r of the tube, density ρ and the coefficient of viscosity η of the liquid, find
the expression for critical velocity. [DPS] Ans.vc= [3 marks]

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Solved examples
Eg 9: Calculate the angle of (a) 10 (degree) (b) 1′ (minute of arc or arc min) and (c) 1″ (second of arc
or arc second) in radians. [2 marks]
0
Sol:(a)We know that, 180 = π radians
⟹10= radians
⟹1 = 1.745×10‐2 rad
0
(b) We know, 60’ = 10 and 1800 = π radians

⟹1’= radians
⟹1’= 2.91× 10 ‐4 rad
(c) We know, 60” = 1’= 2.91× 10 ‐4 rad
.
⟹1” =
⟹1” = 4.85 × 10 ‐6 rad
Ans. (a) 1.745 × 10‐2 rad, (b)2.91× 10 ‐4 rad, (c)4.85 × 10 ‐6 rad
Eg 10:The moon is observed from two diametrically opposite points A and B on Earth. The angle θ
subtended at the moon by the two directions of observation is 1054′. Given the diameter of the
Earth is 1.276 × 107m, compute the distance of the moon from the Earth. [2 marks]
Sol: Here, θ = 1054’= 10 + ( )0
= (1+0.9)0 = 1.90
= (1.9 × ) radians
= 0.03316 radians.
Given, D = 1.276×107m.
Applying, θ = , we get,
.
S= = 38.4×107 = 3.84×108m
.
Ans. Distance of moon from Earth is 3.84×108m
Eg 11: Express 1 parsec in terms of (i) Light Year (ly), (ii) AU. [Udgam] [1 mark]
Sol: (i) 1 parsec = 3.1×1016m and 1Ly = 9.46×1015m.
.
Hence, = = 3.27695
.
Ans.1 parsec = 3.27695 Ly
(ii)1 parsec = 3.1×1016m and 1AU = 1.5×1011m.
.
Hence, = = 2.067×104
.
Ans.1 parsec = 2.067×104AU.

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Session 2.5 (Significant Figures)
1. Significant Figures:
 The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured quantity which are known
reliably or about which we have confidence in our measurement plus one additional digit that
is uncertain.
 Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is the accuracy of
the measurement.
 Greater the precision of the measurement, greater is the number of significant figures.
For example, when we measure the length of a straight line using a meter scale and it lies
between 7.4 cm and 7.5 cm, we may estimate it as = 7.43 cm. This expression has three
significant figures out of these 7 and 4 are precisely known but the last digit 3 is only
approximately known.
2. Common rules for counting the number of significant figures:
(i) All non‐zero digits are significant.
For Example,13.75 has 4 significant figures.
(ii) All zeroes occurring between two non‐zero digits are significant.
For Example, 100.05km has 5 significant figures.
(iii) If the number is less than one, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point but to the left of
first non‐zero digit are not significant.
For Example, 0.161cm and 0.0161cm both have 3 significant figures.
(iv) In a number without decimal point, the terminal or trailing zeros are not significant.
For example, 86400 has 3 significant figures.
(v) However, in a number with decimal point, the trailing zeros are significant.
For example, 161cm, 161.0cm and 161.00cm has 3, 4 and 5 significant figures respectively.
(vi) Change of units does not change the number of significant figures in a measurement.
For Example, 16.4cm, 0.164m and 0.000164km, all have 3 significant figures.
o To remove the ambiguities in determining the number of significant numbers, the best way is to
report every measurement in scientific notation i.e., only significant figures are mentioned in
scientific notation.
3. Rounding off a measurement:
 Rules of Rounding off :
(i) If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
For Example, 3.444rounded off to 2 decimal places will be 3.44
(ii) If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by one.
Forexample,3.447 rounded off to 2 decimal places will be 3.45
(iii) If the digit to be dropped is 5 and the preceding digit is even, then the digit is just dropped
without any changes in the preceding digit.
For example, 2.745 rounded off to 2 decimal places will be 2.74
(iv) If the digit to be dropped is 5 and the preceding digit is odd, then the preceding digit is
increased by one.
For example, 2.735 rounded off to 2 decimal places will be 2.74

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4. Rules for Arithmetical Operations with significant figures:
(i) In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal places as are there in
the number with the least decimal places.
For example, 436.2 + 227.2 + 0.301 = 663.821 but the final result should be rounded off to 663.8
(ii) In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many significant figures as are there
in the original number with the least significant figures.
For example, 4.237/2.51 = 1.688 but the final result should be rounded off to 1.69
5. Definition of 7 Fundamental Units:

Fundamental Units Symbols Definition
Quantities
Length Metre M The metre is the length of the path travelled by
light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299,792,458 of a second.
Mass Kilogram Kg The kilogram is equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram (a
platinum‐iridium alloy cylinder) kept at
international Bureau of Weights and Measures, at
Sevres, near Paris, France.
Time Second S The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770
periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium‐133 atom.
Electric Current Ampere A The ampere is that constant current which, if
maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length, of negligible circular cross‐section,
and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would
produce between these conductors a force equal
to 2×10‐7 newton per metre of length.
Temperature Kelvin K The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water.
Amount of Substance Mole Mol The mole is the amount of substance of a system,
which contains as many elementary entities as
there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon ‐ 12.
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
direction, of a source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540×1012 hertz and that
has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683
watt per steradian.

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Solved examples
Eg 20: State the number of significant figures in the following : (a) 0.007m2 (b) 2.64 × 1024 kg (c)
0.2370 g cm‐3, (d) 6.320 J (e) 6.032 Nm‐2 (f) 0.0006032m2. [2 marks]
Sol: (a) One: 7, (b) Three: 2,6,4, (c) Four: 2,3,7,0, (d) Four: 6,3,2,0, (e) Four: 6,0,3,2, (f) Four: 6,0,3,2.
Eg 21: Round off the following numbers as indicated:

(i) 18.35 upto 3 digits, (ii) 143.45 upto 4 digits, (iii) 18967 upto 3 digits, (iv) 12.653 upto 3 digits, (v)
101.55×106 upto 4 digits. [2 marks]
Sol:(i)18.4, (ii) 143.4, (iii) 19000, (iv) 12.7, (v) 101.6×106
Eg 22: Add 7.21, 12.141 and 0.0028, and express the result to an appropriate number of significant
figures. [1 mark]
Sol: 7.21 +12.141 + 0.0028
Sum =19.3538
Ans. Corrected Sum = 19.35
Here, 7.21 has minimum number of decimal places (two), so result is rounded off upto second place
of decimal point.
Eg 23: Subtract 4.27153 from 6.807 & express the result to an appropriate no of significant figures.
[Prakash] [1 mark]
Sol:6.807 ‐ 4.27153
Difference = 2.53547
Ans. Corrected Difference = 2.535
Eg 24: The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.3 kg. Two gold pieces of masses
20.15g &20.17g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the box, (b) the difference in the
masses of the pieces to correct significant figures? [MAV, Prakash] [2 marks]
Sol:(a) Total mass of the box = 2.3kg + 0.02015kg + 0.02017kg
= 2.34032kg
= 2.3kg [Rounded off to 1stdecimal place]
(b) Difference in masses of 2 gold pieces = 20.17g – 20.15g = 0.02g
Ans.(a) Total mass of the box = 2.3kg, (b) Difference in masses of pieces = 0.02g.

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Eg 25: Each side of cube is measured to be 7.203m. What is the total surface area and volume of
the cube to appropriate significant figures? [DPS] [2 marks]
Sol: Side of the cube = 7.203m
Total Surface Area = 6 × (side)2 = 6 × (7.203)2
= 311.299254m2
= 311.3m2 [Rounded off to 4 significant figures]
3 3
Volume = (side) = (7.203)
= 373.714754m3
= 373.7m3 [Rounded off to 4 significant figures]
Ans. Total Surface Area = 311.3m , Volume = 373.7m3
2
Eg 26: 5.74g of a substance occupies 1.2cm3. Express its density by keeping the significant figures
in view. [MAV] [1 mark]
.
Sol: Density = =
.
= 4.783 gcm‐3
= 4.8 gcm‐3 [Rounded off to 2 significant figures]
‐3
Ans. Density is 4.8gcm .

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Assignment Sheet
1. Let us consider an equation ½ mv2= mgh, where m is the mass of the body, v its velocity, g is the
acceleration due to gravity and h is the height. Check whether this equation is dimensionally
correct. [1 mark]
2
2. If x = at+bt , where x is in metres and t is in hours, what will be the units of ‘a’ and ‘b’?
[MAV,KV] Ans. mh‐1, mh‐2 [1 mark]
‐3
3. The density of mercury is 13.6gcm in CGS system. Find its value in SI units.
Ans. 13.6×103kgm‐3 [2 marks]
4. Reynold number NR(a dimensionless quantity) determine the condition of laminar flow of a
viscous liquid through a pipe. NR is a function of the density of the liquid `ρ`, its average speed
and coefficient of viscosity ɳ. Given that NR is also directly proportional to D(the diameter of the
pipe), show from dimensional considerations that ∝ . The unit of ɳ in SI system is kg m‐1
ɳ
s‐1 [3 marks]
5. Find the dimensions of in the relation: ; where is power, is distance and is
‐1 2 2
time.Ans.[M L T ] [2 marks]
6. Obtain an expression for the centripetal force F acting on a particle of mass m moving with
velocity v in a circle of radius r. Take dimensionless constant K=1. Ans. F = [3 marks]
7. Taking velocity, time and force as the fundamental quantities, find the dimensions of mass.
[1 mark]
8. Using principle of homogeneity of dimension ,find which of the equations is dimensionally
correct:
(a) T2 = 4π2r2, (b) T2 = [T is time period, r is radius, G is gravitational constant and M is
mass] [MAV] [2 marks]
9. The measure of diameter of a cylinder is (1.6±0.01)cm and length is (5.0±0.1)cm. Calculate the
percentage error in its volume. [Hint: Volume of cylinder = ] [MAV]Ans.3.25%[2 marks]
10. Obtain an expression for acceleration ‘a’ of a particle of mass ‘m’ executing uniform circular
motion in path of radius ‘r’ with a constant speed ‘v’ of the particle using dimensional analysis.
Take K=1 [Udgam] Ans. a = [3 marks]
11. Derive by the method of dimensions, an expression for the volume of a liquid flowing out per
second through a narrow pipe. Assume that the rate of flow of liquid depends on
(i) The Coefficient of viscosity ɳ of the liquid.
(ii) The radius r of the pipe
Ω Ω
(iii) The pressure gradient ( ) along the pipe. Take K= Ans. [3 marks]
ɳ
12. A gas bubble, from an explosion under water, oscillates with the period T proportional to pa dbEc,
where p is the static pressure, d is the density of water and E is the total energy of the explosion.
Find the values of a, b and c. [DPS] Ans.‐ . , [2 marks]
13. The measured mass and volume of a body are 2.00g and 5.0cm3 respectively. With possible
errors of 0.01g and 0.1cm3, what would be the percentage error in the density? [Udgam]
Ans. 2.5% [2 marks]

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14. If density ρ, acceleration due to gravity g and frequency ν are the basic quantities, find the
dimensions of force. [Hint: ρ = [ML‐3], g = [LT ‐2], ν = [T ‐1]] Ans. [ρg4ν ‐6] [2 marks]
15. Calculate the dimensions of force and impulse taking velocity (v), density (ρ) and frequency ( ) as
basic quantities. [Hint:Use dimensional analysis and [Force] = [MLT‐2 ] and [Impulse] = [MLT‐1]
Ans. ρv4 , ρv4 [2 marks]
2 ‐2
16. A calorie is a unit of heat or energy and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J = 1 kg m s . Suppose we
employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α kg, the unit of length equals β m, the
unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a magnitude 4.2 α‐1 β ‐2γ2 in terms of the new units.
[2 marks]
17. A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity. What is the
distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes 8 min and 20 s to
cover this distance? [Hint:Distance = Speed × Time] Ans. 500 new units [2 marks]
18. Two resistors of resistances R1 = 100 ±3 ohm and R2 = 200 ± 4 ohm are connected (a) in series,
(b) in parallel. Find the equivalent resistance of the (a) series combination, (b) parallel
∆ ∆ ∆
combination. Use for (a) the relation R =R1+ R2, and for (b) = + and = + .
Ans. 300±7 ohm, 66.7±1.8 ohm [3 marks]
19. The unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and is denoted by Å:
1 Å= 10‐10 m. The radius of a hydrogen atom is about 0.5 Å. What is the total atomic volume in
m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms? [Hint: Total volume = πr3 × (6.022×1023)] Ans. 3×10‐7m3
[2 marks]
2
20. The photograph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm on a 35 mm slide. The slide is projected
on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What is the linear
magnification of the projector‐screen arrangement?
.
[Hint: Linear magnification = , Areal Magnification = ]
.
Ans.94.1 [2 marks]
List of Formulas
Quantity Formula Quantity Formula
Plane Angle θ= Errors in addition or ΔZ = ΔA + ΔB
subtraction
Solid Angle Ω= Errors in product or = +
division
Conversion of one Power rule If Z = , then
system to another
n2 = n 1
system =p +q +r
Parallax θ=

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CH-3 Motion in a Straight Line
Session 3.1 (Introduction to physical quantities involved in rectilinear motion)
1. Mechanics:
The study of relationship among force, matter and motion is called mechanics.
Sub branches of mechanics:
(i) Kinematics:
It is the branch of mechanics in which we describe motion of objects without going into the
causes of motion.
(ii) Kinetics (dynamics):
It is the branch of mechanics that is concerned with the relationship between the motion of
body and its causes (to be studied in chapter 5).
2. Important terms:
(i) Rest:
An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its position w.r.t. its surroundings with the
passage of time.
Example: A book lying on a table.
(ii) Motion:
An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position w.r.t. its surroundings with the passage
of time.
Example: A train moving on rails.
(iii) Point Object:
When the size of the object under consideration is much smaller than the change in its position
then its dimensions are neglected while considering its motion. Such an object is considered as
point object. This is done to simplify the calculations.
Example: A train under a journey of several hundred kilometers can be regarded as a point
object.
(iv) Frame of reference:
In physics, a frame of reference consists of an abstract coordinate system and the set of
physical reference points that uniquely fix (locate or orient) the coordinate system and
standardize measurements. In other words, it is set of stated values in related to which
measurements (of size, position, and motion) can be made.
(v) Reference Point:
It is a point which is used as a standard for measurement (of size, position, motion).
In physics the frame of reference is the Cartesian system containing the three axes i.e. X‐ axis, Y‐
axis and Z‐ axis and the reference point is considered as the intersection of these three axes i.e.
origin.
All the measurements will be done with respect to this reference point.
Note:
Rest and motion are relative terms:
A passenger sitting in a moving train is at rest with respect to his fellow passengers. But he is in
motion with respect to the objects outside the train. Thus, an object may be at rest w.r.t. one object
and at the same time it may be in motion relative to another object. Hence, rest and motion are
relative terms.

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Solved examples
Eg 1: A car is moving along a straight line, say OP. It moves from O to P in 18 s and returns from P
to Q in 6.0 s as shown in fig 8. What are the average velocity and average speed of the car in going
(a) from O to P? (b) From O to P and back to Q?Fig 5 [2 marks]
Sol:(a) Time taken for O to P = 18s

In going from O to P, distance travelled = 360 – 0 = 360m
In going from O to P, displacement = 360 – 0 = 360m
Average speed = = = 20ms‐1
Average velocity = = = 20ms‐1
(b) Time taken for O to Q = 18 + 6 = 24s
In going from O to Q, distance travelled = OP + PQ = 360 + (360‐240) = 360 + 120 = 480m
In going from O to Q, displacement = 240 – 0 = 240m
Average speed = = 20ms‐1
Average velocity = = 10ms‐1
Ans.(a)Average speed = 20ms‐1, Average velocity = 20ms‐1 (b)Average speed = 20ms‐1, Average
velocity = 10ms‐1.
Eg 2: A man walks on a straight road from his home to a market 2.5 km away with a speed of
5 km h‐1. Finding the market closed, he instantly turns and walks back home with a speed of 7.5 km
h‐1. What is the (a) magnitude of average velocity, and (b) average speed of the man over the
interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii) 0 to 50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min? [3 marks]
.
Sol: Time taken for home to market = = = ½ hr = 30min
.
Time taken for market to home = = = hr = 20min
.
Total time taken = 30 + 20 = 50min
(i) For 0 to 30 min,
Distance travelled = 2.5km (from home to market).
Displacement = 2.5km
Time taken = 30min = ½ hr
.
Average speed = = 5kmh‐1
/
.
Average velocity = = 5kmh‐1
/
Ans. Average speed = 5kmh‐1, Average velocity = 5kmh‐1

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(ii) For 0 to 50 min,
Distance travelled = 5km (from home to market and market to home).
Displacement = 0km
Time taken = 50min = hr = hr
Average speed = = 6 kmh‐1
/
Average velocity = = 0 kmh‐1

/
Ans. Average speed = 6 kmh‐1, Average velocity = 0 kmh‐1
(iii) For 0 to 40 min,
Distance travelled in 30min = 2.5km
In next 10 min, distance travelled = 7.5 × = 1.25km
Hence, total distance travelled = 2.5 + 1.25 = 3.75km
Displacement in 40min = 2.5 – 1.25 = 1.25km (Refer to fig 9)
Time taken = = hr
.
Average speed = = 5.625 kmh‐1
/
.
Average velocity = = 1.875 kmh‐1
/
Ans. Average speed = 6 kmh‐1, Average velocity = 1.875 kmh‐1
Eg 3: On a 60km track, a train travels the first 30km with a uniform speed of 30kmh‐1. How fast
must the train travel the next 30km so as to average 40kmh‐1 for the entire trip. [2 marks]
Sol: Total distance, d = 60km, d1 = 30km, s1 = 30kmh‐1, d2 = 30km, s = 40kmh‐1
We know that, s = .
Hence, t1 = = = 1hr
Total time, t = = = 1.5hr

⟹ t = t1 + t2
⟹ t2 = t – t1
⟹ t2 = 1.5 – 1 = 0.5hr
Now, t2 =
⟹s2 =
⟹ s2 = = 60kmh‐1
.
Ans. Train must travel with a speed of 60kmh‐1 the next 30km.

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Homework Sheet 3.1
Theory
1. Define the following terms and write their SI units: (i) Displacement, and (ii) Instantaneous
velocity. [2 marks]
2. Distinguish between average velocity and average speed over same time interval in one
dimensional motion. Can first quantity be greater than average speed? When are two quantities
equal? [KV] [2 marks]
3. Distinguish between distance travelled and displacement. [2 marks]
4. Define uniform motion. State its features. [2 marks]
Application based
5. A bullet fired vertically upwards falls at the same place after some time. What is the
displacement of the bullet? [1 mark]
6. Under what condition is the average velocity equal to the instantaneous velocity. [1 mark]
7. A particle is moving along a circular track of radius r. What is the distance travelled by the
particle in half a revolution? What is its displacement? Ans. , 2 [1 mark]
8. In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be considered approximately a point
object:(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.(b) a monkey sitting on
top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on
hitting the ground.(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the edge of a table. [1 mark]
9. State in the following cases, if the motion is one, two, three dimensional:‐
(a) A kite flying on a windy day.
(b)A speeding car on a long straight highway.
(c)An insect crawling on a globe.
(d)A planet revolving around the sun. [2 marks]
Numerical
10. A man walks on a straight road from his home to a market 2.5 km away with a speed of 5 km h‐1.
Finding the market closed, he instantly turns and walks back home with a speed of 7.5 km h‐1.
What is the (a) magnitude of average velocity, and (b) average speed of the man over the
interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii) 0 to 50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min? Ans. 5kmh‐1, 5kmh‐1, 0kmh‐1,
6kmh‐1, 1.875kmh‐1, 5.625kmh‐1 [3 marks]
11. A body travels the first half of the total distance with velocity v1 and the second half with velocity
v2. Calculate the average velocity. Ans. [2 marks]
12. A body covers one third part of its journey with speed ‘u’, next one‐third with speed ‘v’ and the
last one‐third with velocity speed ‘w’. Calculate the average speed of the body during the entire
journey. Ans. [2 marks]
‐1
13. A car travel along straight line for the first half time with speed 50kmh and the second half time
with speed 60 kmh‐1. Find the average speed of the car. Ans. 55kmh‐1 [2 marks]
14. On a 60km track, a train travels the first 30km with a uniform speed of 30kmh‐1. How fast must
the train travel the next 30km so as to average 40kmh‐1 for the entire trip. Ans. 60kmh‐1
[2 marks]
‐1
15. A car covers the first half of the distance between two plates at a speed of 40 kmh and the
second half at60kmh‐1. what is the average speed of the car? Ans. 48 kmh‐1 [2 marks]

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Session 3.2 (Graphs)
1. Slope of a Graph:
Slope of a line:‐
 The slope of a line in the plane containing the x and y axis
defined as the change in the y coordinate divided by the
corresponding change in the x coordinate between two
distinct points on the line. It is generally represented by the
letter m.
Slope at a particular point:‐

 To find slope at a particular point, draw a tangent to the curve Fig 6
at that particular point. Then take the tangent (or tan) of the angle θ made by the tangent with
the positive ‐axis. Therefore, the slope of the graph is equal to tan θ.
 Slope of the graph can have four possible values.

i. Slope = zero when angle made by tangent with the
graph is 0° i.e. θ = 0°
If slope is zero, quantity on y‐axis will not change with
change in quantity on x‐axis.
Fig 7
ii. Slope is positive when angle made by tangent is acute
i.e. 0° <θ< 90°
If slope is positive, quantity on y‐axis increases with
increase in quantity on ‐axis.
Fig 8
iii. Slope is negative when angle made by tangent is obtuse

i.e. 90°<θ< 180°
If slope is negative, quantity on y‐axis decrease with
increase in quantity on ‐axis.
Fig 9
iv. Slope is infinite when angle made by tangent is 90° i.e. θ =

90° Fig 10
If slope is infinite, quantity of x‐axis will not change with
change in quantity on x‐ axis (but if quantity on x‐axis is
time, the graph would not be possible).

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2. Area under the graph
 Area under the graph represent the product of quantity on y‐axis and quantity on x‐axis.
3. Displacement/Distance-time graphs (x-t graphs):
 Slope of x‐t graphs represent speed/velocity as = =
 Finding Average & instantaneous velocity on an t graph:
Let’s consider a particle moving along x‐axis. Suppose that at
time t1 the particle is at point A and at a later time t2 it is at
point B. So the net displacement  = during the time
interval
 =
The average velocity is given by, = = Fig 11
On a graph of displacement as a function of time, the instantaneous velocity at any point is equal
to the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point.
i. When the body is at rest
o In this case, the displacement time graph is a straight
line parallel to the time axis.
o The slope of the graph is zero that indicates the
velocity of the body is zero
Fig 12
ii. When the body is in uniform motion

o In this case, the displacement time graph is a
straight line.
o If the slope of the graph is positive, i.e. 900>
θ>00then the graph would be as follows. In this
graph, velocity will be positive.
Fig 13
o If the slope of the graph is negative, i.e. 1800>
θ>900 then the graph would be as follows. In this
graph, velocity will be negative.
iii. When the body is in accelerated motion

o In this graph, we can see that the slope of the Fig 14
graph is increasing with change in time which
indicates velocity is increasing with change in time.
Therefore the motion is accelerated. Fig 15

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o
In this graph, we can see that the slope of the graph
is decreasing with change in time which indicates
Fig 16
velocity is decreasing with change in time. Therefore
the motion is decelerated.
4. Speed/Velocity- time graphs (v-t graphs)
 Slope of v‐t graphs represent acceleration as
 Area under v‐t graphs represent distance

travelled/displacement covered.
 Finding instantaneous and average acceleration:
Let’s consider a particle moving along x‐axis.
Suppose that at time t1 the particle is at point P1 and
has velocity and at a later time t2 it is at point
P2velocity , so the change in velocity is given by Fig 17
 = during the time interval =
Its average acceleration is given by, = =
On a graph of velocity as a function of time, the instantaneous acceleration at any point is equal
to the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point.
o In this case, the velocity‐time graph will coincide with time
axis as velocity of the body is zero.
Fig 18
ii. When the body is in uniform motion
o In this case, the velocity‐time graph will be parallel to time
axis and hence the slope of the graph will be zero. Therefore
acceleration of the body will be zero.
o The following graph represents uniform motion with positive
velocity.
Fig 19

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o The following graph represents uniform motion with negative
velocity.
Fig 20
iii. When the body is uniformly accelerated motion

o In this case, the velocity‐time graph will be straight line.
o If the slope of the graph is positive, i.e. 900> θ>00then
the graph would be as follows. In this graph, acceleration
will be positive and it will be constant.
Fig 21
o If the slope of the graph is negative, i.e. 1800> θ>900 then

the graph would be as follows. In this graph, acceleration
will be negative and it will be constant. The motion will be
retarded.
Fig 22
5. Acceleration-time graphs (a-t graphs)

 Area under the acceleration time graphs represents change in
velocity.
o In this case, the acceleration‐time graph will coincide with
time axis as acceleration of the body is zero.
Fig 23
ii. When the body in uniform motion
o In this case, since the velocity of the remains constant, its
acceleration must be zero. Therefore, the acceleration‐time
graph will coincide with the time axis (both for positive
velocity or negative velocity).
Fig 24
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iii. When the body is in uniformly accelerated motion
o In this case, the acceleration‐time graph will be parallel to time axis as the value of
acceleration is constant.
o For positively accelerated motion, the graph will be as follows.
o For negatively accelerated motion, the graph will be as follows.
Fig 25 Fig 26
Free fall
 The motion of an object falling downwards under the influence of gravity, neglecting air
resistance is said to be in free fall. The magnitude of acceleration due to gravity is represented
by g.
 Since the magnitude of acceleration remains constant, free fall
is a type of uniformly accelerated motion.
 Graph of motion of an object under free fall is as shown
below.
(a) Variation of acceleration with time (a‐t graph).
Fig 27
(b) Variation of velocity with time (v‐t graph).
Fig 28
(c) Variation of displacement with time.
Fig 29

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Homework Sheet 3.2
Theory
1. (i) What does the slope of position‐time graph indicate?
(ii) What is the nature of velocity‐time graph for uniform motion?
(iii) If the x‐t graph for a particle is parallel to time‐axis, how much is the velocity of the particle.
(iv) What does the area under acceleration‐time graph represent? [4 marks]
2. What is uniform motion? How would you represent uniform motion graphically? What are the
uses of such graph? [3 marks]
3. Discuss the motion of an object under free fall and draw:‐
(a) Acceleration time
(b) Velocity time and
(c) Position –time graph for this motion. [3 marks]
4. How do we find the average and instantaneous velocities from the position‐time graph.[2marks]
5. Can position time graph have a negative slope?
Ans. Yes. The slope of position time graph give velocity, and can be negative. [1mark]
Graph based
6. Draw x‐t graph to show, (i) positive acceleration, (ii) Negative acceleration, (iii) Zero acceleration.
[3 marks]
7. Draw the v‐t graph of a body showing non uniform acceleration. [2marks]
8. An object is in uniform motion along a straight line ,sketch the position (x) vs time(t) graph for
the motion if (i) X =positive, v=negative | | is constant (ii) Both X and v are negative | | is
constantwhere X is position at t=0s [2 marks]
9. Draw the acceleration verses time graph for an object projected upwards with a velocity V ,
which comes back to the same point after some time. [1 mark]
Application based
10. If the x‐t graph for a particle is parallel to displacement axis, what should be the velocity of the
particle? [1 mark]
11. The displacement of a body is given to be proportional to the cube of time elapsed. What is the
nature of the acceleration of the body? [DPS] [2016] [1 mark]
12. Following figure gives the x‐t plot of a particle in one‐dimensional motion. Three different equal
intervals of time are shown. In which interval is the average speed greatest, and in which is it the
least? Give the sign of average velocity for each interval. [2 marks]
Fig 30

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13. According to the graph in figure given below, what are the types of motion in part I, II, III and IV?
[2 marks]
Numerical Fig 31
14. From the graph in figure given below, find
the value of average acceleration in the given time intervals, (i) 0 to 10s, (ii) 10 to 18s and (iii) 18
to 20s? Ans. 2.4ms‐2, 0ms‐2, ‐12ms‐2.
[2 marks]
Fig 32
15. Following figure gives the x‐t plot of a particle executing one‐dimensional simple harmonic
motion. Give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration variables of the particle at t = 0.3 s,
1.2 s, – 1.2 s. [3 marks]
Fig 33
16. Following figure gives a speed‐time graph of a particle in motion along a constant direction.
Three equal intervals of time are shown. In which interval is the average acceleration greatest in
magnitude? In which interval is the average speed greatest? Choosing the positive direction as
the constant direction of motion, give the signs of v and a in the three intervals. What are the
accelerations at the points A, B, C and D? [3 marks]
Fig 34

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Session 3.3 (Differentiation)
1. Differentiation & its use in Kinematics
 Some important formulas for differentiation:
Differentiation
1. ( n) = n n‐1
2. ( )=1
3. (loge ) =
4. (sin ) = cos
5. (cos ) = ‐sin
6. ( )n = na( )n‐1
7. y=u v, then = ±
8. (constant) = 0
9. For eg. ( n) = n n‐1
2. Integration and its use in Kinematics

 Some important formulas for integration:
Integration
1.
1
2.
1
3.
4.

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Solved examples
Eg 4: A particle moves along X‐axis in such a way that its x‐coordinate varies with time t as = 2 –
5t + 6t2, where x is in metres (m) and t is in seconds (s). Find the initial velocity of the particle.
[1mark]
Sol: We know that,
Hence,
‐ +
0 – 5 + 12t
For initial velocity, 0 .
Hence, 5 ‐1
Ans. Initial velocity is 5 ‐1.
Eg 5:The position of an object moving along x‐axis is given by x = a + bt2where a = 8.5 m, b = 2.5 m s‐
2
and t is measured in seconds. What is its velocity at t = 0 s and t = 2.0 s. What is the average velocity
between t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s? [2 marks]
Sol: We know that, v =
Hence, v =
= +
= 0 + 2bt
v = 2bt = 2(2.5)t = 5t
At t = 0s, v = 0ms‐1
At t = 2s, v = 5(2) = 10ms‐1
For average velocity, vavg =
Displacement (at t =4s) – (at t = 2s)
= (a + b(4)2) – (a + b(2)2)
= 16b – 4b
= 12b
= 12(2.5)
= 30m.
Time taken = 4 – 2 = 2s
Hence, vavg = = 15ms‐1
Ans. Velocity at t=0s is 0ms‐1, at t = 2s is 10ms‐1. vavg between 2 s and 4s is 15ms‐1.

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Homework Sheet 3.3
Numerical
1. A particle moves along X‐axis in such a way that its x‐coordinate varies with time t as x = 2 – 5t +
6t2, where x is in metres (m) and t in sec(s). Find the initial velocity of the particle. Ans. ‐5 m/s
[2 marks]
2. The position of an object moving along x‐axis is given by x = a + bt2where a = 8.5 m, b = 2.5 m s‐
2
and t is measured in seconds. What is its velocity at t = 0 s and t = 2.0 s. What is the average
velocity between t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s? Ans. 0ms‐1, 10ms‐1, 15ms‐1 [2 marks]
3. The displacement (in meter) of a particle moving along x‐axis is given by x=18t+5t2. Calculate:
(i) The instantaneous velocity at t=2s, Ans. 38ms‐1
(ii) Average velocity between t=2s and t=3s, Ans. 43ms‐1
(iii) Instantaneous acceleration. Ans. 10ms‐2 [3 marks]
4. The distance x of a particle moving in one dimension, under the action of a constant force is
related to time t by the equation, t=√ +3, where x is in metres and t in seconds. Find the
displacement of the particle when its velocity is zero. Ans. Zero [2 marks]
‐2
5. The displacement is given as = 2 + 4t+ 5t . Find instantaneous velocity t=1 s.
Ans. ‐6 units [2 marks]
6. The displacement x of a particle varies with time t as = 4t2‐15t+25. Find the position, velocity
and acceleration of the particle at t=0. When will the velocity of the particle become zero? Can
we call the motion of the particle as one with uniform acceleration?
Ans. 25m, ‐15ms‐1, 8ms‐2, 1.875s, yes constant acceleration. [2 marks]
2 ‐1
7. The velocity of the particle is given by the equation, v=2t +5cms . Find (i) the change in velocity
of the particle during the time interval between t1 = 2s and t2=4s, (ii) the average acceleration
during the same interval and (iii) the instantaneous acceleration at t2 = 4s. Ans. 24cms‐1,
12cms‐2, 16cms‐2 [3 marks]
8. The displacement x of a particle at time t along a straight line is given by x = α‐βt + γt2. Find the
acceleration of the particle. Ans. 2γ [2 marks]
9. The distance traversed by a particle moving along a straight line is given by 180t+50t2 meter.
Find:
(i) The initial velocity of the particle. Ans. 180ms‐1
(ii) The velocity at the end of 4s. Ans. 580ms‐1
(iii) The acceleration of the particle. Ans. 100ms‐2 [3 marks]
10. The displacement x of a particle along X‐axis is given by =3+8t+7t2. Obtain its velocity and
acceleration at t=2s. Ans. 36ms‐1, 14ms‐2 [2 marks]
2
11. The relation between t and distance is t= a +b where a and b are constants. Express the
instantaneous acceleration in terms of instantaneous velocity. Ans. ‐2av3 [3 marks]

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Session 3.4 (Equations of Motion)
1. Equations of motion by graphical method:
Consider an object moving along a straight line path with initial velocity and uniform
acceleration, .
Suppose it travels a distance in time . Its velocity‐time graph would
be a straight line.
OA = CD = , OE = CB = and OC = AD = .
(i) First equation of motion:
We know that, acceleration = slope of velocity‐time graph
Therefore, =
= [since from figure DB = BC – CD and AD = OC]
Fig 35
=
Or
Or →①
(ii) Second equation of motion:
We know that area under velocity‐time graph gives us the distance travelled by the object in
given time interval.
Here, distance travelled by object in time ,
= Area of trapezium OABC
= Area of rectangle OADC + Area of triangle ABD
= + ( AD x BD) [Area of rectangle = l x b and area of triangle = base x height]
= +[ x )] [from figure BD = BC – CD = ]
= +[ x )] [from equation ①]
Thus, →②
(iii) Third equation of motion:
Distance travelled by object in time ,
= Area of trapezium OABC
= (OA + BC) x OC [Area of trapezium = (b1+b1) x height]
= (CD + BC) x OC →②
Also, acceleration =
=
Substituting this value of OC in equation ②, we get,
= (CD + BC) x
= (BC2 – CD2) [using (a2 – b2) = (a ‐ b) (a + b)]
2 2
= ( – ) [from figure]
Or →③

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2. Equations of motion by calculus method:
(i) First equation of motion:
We know, acceleration is defined as rate of change in velocity in time interval , i.e. a =
⟹ =a →①
Let velocity = at time = 0, and
Let velocity = at time = t
Integrating equation (1) within the above supposed limits of time and velocity, we get,
⟹ =
Using 1. = and 1. =
⟹[ ] =a [For uniformly accelerated motion, acceleration a is constant]
⟹ [ ] =a[
⟹( )=a( 0)
⟹ =a ,
→②
(ii) Second equation of motion:
We know, velocity is defined as rate of change in position in time interval , i.e. =
⟹ =
=( ) [from equation ② – first equation of motion] →③
When time = 0, let distance travelled = 0, and
When time = t, let distance travelled = s
Now, integrating equation ③ within the above supposed limits of time and distance, we get,
⟹ =
⟹ [ = [ = + ]
⟹( 0) = ( 0) + a [ [ and a are constant and using = ]
⟹ = + a [ ‐ 0]
at →④
(iii) Third equation of motion:
By definitions of acceleration and velocity, a = = x [multiplying and dividing by ]
Thus, a = [since we know = ]
⟹a =
When time = 0, let distance travelled = 0 and velocity =
When time = t, let distance travelled = s and velocity =
Integrating above equation within above limits of distance and velocity, we get,
⟹ =
⟹ =[ [ is constant and using = ]
⟹ [ =[ ]
⟹ ( 0) =
⟹2 =
2 →⑤

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3. Numerical Tools:
(i) Conversion factor from kmh‐1 to ms‐1: 1kmh‐1 = = ms‐1
(ii) Conversion factor from ms‐1 to kmh‐1: 1ms‐1 = kmh‐1
Solved examples
Eg 6: A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h‐1 is brought to a stop within a
distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumed uniform), and how long does it take
for the car to stop? [Prakash] [2 marks]
Sol: u = 126kmh‐1 = 126× = 35ms‐1 , s = 200m, v = 0ms‐1
Using 3rd equation of motion, v2 = u2+2as, we get,
(0)2 = (35)2 + 2a (200)
⟹a= = ‐3.06ms‐2
Using 1st equation of motion, v = u+at, we get,
0 = (35) – (3.06)t
⟹t= = 11.43s
Ans. Retardation of car is 3.06ms‐2 and time taken to stop is 11.43s.
Eg 7: A ball thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 19.6ms‐1 from the top of a tower returns to
the earth in 6s. Find the height of the tower. [2 marks]
‐1
Sol: We know that, at maximum height, velocity = 0ms .
u = 19.6ms‐1, v=0ms‐1, a = ‐9.8ms‐2 (acceleration due to gravity)
Using 1st equation of motion, v = u+at, we get,
0 = (19.6) – (9.8)t
.
⟹t= = 2s
.
Hence, in 2 sec, ball will be at maximum height from top of tower.
Thus, in next 2 sec, ball will reach top of tower from maximum height with velocity 19.6ms‐1 in
downward direction.
Total time = 6s.
Time taken for ball to reach earth from top of tower = 6 – 2 – 2 = 2s.
Now, t = 2s, u = ‐19.6ms‐1, a = ‐9.8ms‐2.
Applying second equation of motion, s = ut + ½at2, we get,
s = (‐19.6) (2) + ½(‐9.8)(2)2
⟹ s = ‐39.2 + (‐19.6)
⟹ s = ‐58.8m
Here, ‐ve sign indicates that displacement is in negative direction.
Ans. Height of tower = 58.8m

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Eg 8: A body starting from rest accelerates uniformly at the rate of 10cms‐2 and retards uniformly at
the rate of 20cms‐2. Find the least time in which it can complete the journey of 5km if the maximum
velocity attained by the body is 72kmh‐1. [3 marks]
Sol: We can divide journey of body into 3 parts: (i) Accelerated motion, (ii) Decelerated motion, (iii)
Uniform motion.
(i) For accelerated motion, a = 10cms‐2 = 0.1ms‐2, u = 0ms‐1, v = 72kmh‐1 = 72 × = 20ms‐1. Let s1 and
t1 be the distance travelled and time taken for accelerated motion.
Using 1st equation of motion, v = u + at, we get,
20 = 0 + (0.1)t1
⟹ t1 = = 200s
.
Now, using 2nd equation of motion, s = ut + ½at2, we get,
s1 = 0×200 + ½ × 0.1 × (200)2
⟹ s1 = 2000m
(ii) For decelerated motion, a = ‐20cms‐2 = ‐0.2ms‐2, u = 72kmh‐1 = 72 × = 20ms‐1, v = 0ms‐1. Let s2
and t2 be the distance travelled and time taken for accelerated motion.
Using 1st equation of motion, v = u + at, we get,
0 = 20 + (‐0.2)t2
⟹ t2 = = 100s
.
Now, using 2nd equation of motion, s = ut + ½at2, we get,
s2 = 20 × 100 ‐ ½ × 0.2 × (100)2
⟹ s2 = 2000 – 1000 = 1000m
(iii) For uniform velocity motion, u = 20ms‐1, v = 20ms‐1, a = 0ms‐2. Let s3 be the distance travelled and
t3 be the time taken.
Total distance of journey = s1 + s2 + s3 = 5km = 5000m
⟹2000 + 1000 + s3 = 5000
⟹ s3 = 2000m
Using 2nd equation of motion, we get,
2000 = (20)t3
⟹ t3 = 100s
Hence, total time of journey = t1 + t2 + t3 = 200 + 100 + 100 = 400s
Ans. Total time of journey is 400s.

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Eg 9:A burglar’s car had a start with an acceleration of 2ms‐2. A police vigilant party came after 5
seconds and continued to chase the burglar’s car with a uniform velocity of 20ms‐1. Find the time in
which the police van overtakes the burglar’s car. [3 marks]
‐1 ‐2
Sol: For burglar, u = 0ms , a = 2ms . Let distance travelled by burglar’s car be s and time taken by
burglar be t s.
Using 2nd equation of motion, s = ut + ½ at2, we get,
s = 0 + ½ × 2 × t2
⟹ s = t2→①
For police, u = 20ms‐1, a = 0ms‐2. Since it comes 5 seconds later and covers equal distance as burglar
car, hence, distance travelled by police is s and time taken is (t‐5)s.
Using 2nd equation of motion, s = ut + ½ at2, we get,
s = 20(t‐5)
From equation ①, we get,
⟹t2 = 20(t‐5)
⟹ t2 = 20t – 100
⟹ t2 – 20t + 100 = 0
⟹ (t ‐ 10)2 = 0
⟹ t = 10s
Hence, time taken by police van to overtake burglar’s car = t – 5 = 10 – 5 = 5s
Ans. Police van overtakes burglar’s car in 5s.
Eg 10:A hundred meter sprinter increases her speed from rest uniformly at the rate of 1ms‐2upto
three quarters of the total run and covers the last quarter with uniform speed. How much time does
she take to cover the first half and the second half of the run? [Udgam] [3 marks]
‐1 ‐2
Sol: For first half of run, u = 0ms , a = 1ms , s = 50m (½ of 100m). Let t1 be the time taken and v be
the final velocity at end of 50m.
Using 3rd equation of motion, v2 = u2 + 2as, we get,
v2 = 0 + 2 × 1 × 50
⟹ v2 = 100
⟹ v = 10ms‐1
Now using 1st equation of motion, v = u + at, we get,
10 = 0 + 1 × t1
⟹ t1 = 10s
For second half of run, we divide it into 2 parts.
For starting 25m, motion is accelerated and for final 25m, motion is uniform. Let t2 be the time for
second half of run.
For 1st 25m, u = 10ms‐1 (final velocity at end of 50m is initial speed for next 25m run), a = 1ms‐2, s =
25m.
Let t21 be time taken to cover 25m.
Using 3rd equation of motion, we get,
v2 = (10)2 + 2 × 1 × 25
⟹ v2 = 100 + 50
⟹ v2 = 150
⟹ v = √150 = 12.2ms‐1

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Now, using 1st equation of motion, we get,
12.2 = 10 + (1)×t21
⟹ t21 = 2.2s
For 2nd 25m, u = 12.2ms‐1, a = 0ms‐2, s = 25m. Let t22 be time taken to cover last 25m.
25 = (12.2)t22
⟹ t22 = 2.04s
Now, t2 = t21 + t22 = 2.2 + 2.04 = 4.24s
Ans. Time taken for 1st half of run is 10s and for 2nd half of run is 4.24s.
Eg 11:From the top of a tower, a ball is dropped to fall freely under gravity and at the same time,
another ball is thrown up with a velocity of 50ms‐1. Find the position of the 2 balls during the time
interval t=0 to t=5s for each second. Take g=10ms‐2. [2 marks]
‐1 ‐2
Sol: For ball 1 dropped from top of a tower, u=0ms , a = ‐10ms .
For t=1s, s = ½ (‐10)(1)2 = ‐5m
For t=2s, s = ½ (‐10)(2)2 = ‐20m
For t=3s, s = ½ (‐10)(3)2 = ‐45m
For t=4s, s = ½ (‐10)(4)2 = ‐80m
For t=5s, s = ½ (‐10)(5)2 = ‐125m
For ball 2 thrown upward, u = 50ms‐1, a = ‐10ms‐2
For t=1s, s = (50)(1) + ½ (‐10)(1)2 = 45m
For t=2s, s = (50)(2) + ½ (‐10)(2)2 = 80m
For t=3s, s = (50)(3) + ½ (‐10)(3)2 = 105m
For t=4s, s = (50)(4) + ½ (‐10)(4)2 = 120m
For t=5s, s = (50)(5) + ½ (‐10)(5)2 = 125m

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Homework Sheet 3.4
Derivations
1. Derive the equations of motion using graphical method. [3 marks]
2. Derive the equations of motion using calculus method. [3 marks]
Numerical
3. A race car accelerates on a straight road from rest to a speed of 180kmh‐1 in 25s. Assuming
uniform acceleration of the car throughout, find the distance covered in this time. Ans. 625m
[2 marks]
‐1
4. A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h is brought to a stop within a
distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumed uniform), and how long does it
take for the car to stop? Ans. 3.06ms‐2, 11.43s. [2 marks]
5. A jet plane starts from rest with an acceleration of 3ms‐2 and makes a run for 35s before taking
off. What is the minimum length of the runway and what is the velocity of the jet at take off?
Ans. 1837.5m, 105ms‐1 [2 marks]
6. A ball thrown up is caught by the thrower after 4sec. How high did it go and with what velocity
was it thrown? How far was it below the highest point after 3 second after it was thrown?
[3 marks]
7. A ball thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 19.6ms‐1 from the top of a tower returns to the
earth in 6s. Find the height of the tower. Ans. 58.8m [2 marks]
8. Two balls are thrown simultaneously a vertically upward with speed of 20 m/s from the ground
and B dropped freely from a height of 60 m and along the same line of motion at what distance
do they collide? Take g=10 m/s2 [Udgam] Ans. 3s, 15m [3 marks]
9. A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m s‐1. (a) What is the direction of
acceleration during the upward motion of the ball? (b) What are the velocity and acceleration of
the ball at the highest point of its motion? (c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location
and time of the ball at its highest point, vertically downward direction to be the positive
direction of x‐axis, and give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration of the ball during its
upward, and downward motion. (d) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does
the ball return to the player’s hands? (Take g = 9.8 m s‐2 and neglect air resistance). Ans.(a)
vertically downward. (b) zero and 9.8 m s‐2 (c)during upward motion position is +ve, velocity is –
ve and acceleration is +ve. During downward motion position all three are +ve. (d)‐ 44.1m,
6s [3 marks]
10. An athlete runs a distance of 1500m in the following manner: (i) Starting from rest, he
accelerates uniformly at 2ms‐2 till he covers a distance of 900m. (ii) He then runs the remaining
distance of 600m at the uniform speed developed. Calculate the time taken by the athlete to
cover the two parts of the distance covered. Also find the time taken to reach centre of the
track. Ans. 30s, 10s, 27.4s [3 marks]
‐2
11. A burglar’s car had a start with an acceleration of 2ms . A police vigilant party came after 5
seconds and continued to chase the burglar’s car with a uniform velocity of 20ms‐1. Find the time
in which the police van overtakes the burglar’s car. Ans. 5s. [3 marks]
12. A ball roll downs an inclined track 2m long in 4s. Find (a) acceleration, (ii) time taken to cover
second metre of the track, (iii) speed of the ball at the bottom of the track. Ans. 0.25ms‐2,
1.17s, 1ms‐1 [3 marks]

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13. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 10s to a velocity of 8ms‐1. It then runs at a
constant velocity and is finally brought to rest in 64m with a constant retardation. The total
distance travelled by car is 584m. Find the value of acceleration, retardation and total time
taken. Ans. 0.8ms‐2, ‐0.5ms‐2, 86s [3 marks]
14. An electron started from rest, has a velocity ‘ν’ given by ν= kt, where k= 4 ms‐2 and it is the time
in second. What will be the distance covered in first 4 second? [Udgam] Ans. 32m [2 marks]
15. The acceleration of a particle in ms‐2 is given by a=3t2+ 2t+2, where t is in second. If the particle
starts with a velocity v=2ms‐1 at t=0, then find the velocity at the end of 2s. Ans. 18ms‐1
[2 marks]
16. (a)The velocity of a body is given by v=4t +3t‐2t. find the displacement of the body in 2s.
(b) The velocity time graph for a body is given below. Draw the acceleration‐time graph from it.
[2 marks]
Fig 36
17. The velocity time graph of a body projected vertically upwards is shown below. Find
(a) The maximum height achieved
(b) Position of a body at 1s
(c) Will the displacement of a body ever be negative? [3 marks]
Fig 37

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Session 3.4 (Relative Velocity)
1. Distance travelled in nth second:
Let a body with initial velocity ‘u’ and acceleration ‘a' travel Sn distance in n seconds and Sn‐1 distance
in (n‐1) seconds.
By Second equation of motion,
Sn = un + ½ an2 [s=ut + ½ at2]
Also, Sn‐1 = u (n‐1) + ½ a(n‐1)2
Let ‘S’ be the distance travelled in nth second.
∴ S = Sn – Sn‐1
= (un + ½ an2) – (u (n‐1) + ½ a(n‐1)2)
= [un – un + u + ½ an2 – ½ an2 – ½a + ½ a(2n)
½
Here, u is in ms‐1, a in ms‐2 and n in seconds.
 Using Calculus method:

Let a body with initial velocity ‘u’ and acceleration ‘a’ be travelling.
We know that, v =
⟹ ds = vdt
⟹ ds = (u + at)dt →①
When time = (n‐1) second, let distance travelled = sn‐1
When time = n second, let distance travelled = sn
Integrating equation ① within the above limits of me and distance, we get,
⟹ =
⟹ =u +a
⟹ [sn – sn‐1] = u +a
= u [n‐(n‐1)] + [n2 – (n‐1)2]
= u + [n2 – (n2 ‐ 2n + 1)]
½ , where snth= sn– sn‐1 = distance travelled in nth second.
2. Relative velocity:
Relative velocity of one object with respect to another object is the time rate of change of position
of object with respect to another object, when both the objects are in motion.
The relative velocity is given by, = –

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Solved Examples
Eg 12: A body covers a distance of 20m in the 7th second and 24m in the 9th second. How much
shall it cover in 15th second? [2 marks]
th
Sol: Distance covered in n second is given by, snth= u + ½ a(2n‐1)
Hence, s7 = 20 = u + ½ a(2 × 7 ‐ 1)
⟹20 = u +
⟹ u = 20 ‐ →①
Also, s9 = 24 = u + ½ a(2 × 9 ‐ 1)
⟹24 = u +
⟹ u = 24 ‐ →②
From ① & ②, we get,
24 ‐ = 20 ‐
⟹4=
⟹ a = 2ms‐2
Substituting value of a in equation ①, we get,
u = 20 – 13 = 7ms‐1
Now, s15 = u + ½ a(2 × 15 – 1)
⟹s15 = 7 + ½ × 2 × 29
⟹s15 = 36m
Ans. Body will cover 36m in 15th second.
Eg 13: Two parallel rail tracks run north‐south. Train A moves north with a speed of 54 km h‐1, and
train B moves south with a speed of 90 km h‐1. What is the (a) velocity of B with respect to A? (b)
velocity of ground with respect to B?, And (c) velocity of a monkey running on the roof of the train A
against its motion (with a velocity of 18 kmh‐1 with respect to the train A) as observed by a man
standing on the ground ? [3 marks]
Sol: Let direction of north be taken as +ve and south as –ve.
Hence, vA=54kmh‐1 = 54 × = 15ms‐1, vB= 90kmh‐1 = 90 × = ‐25ms‐1
(a) Velocity of B w.r.t. A, vBA= vB– vA= ‐25 – 15 = ‐ 40ms‐1
(b) Velocity of ground w.r.t. B, vGB= vG– vB= 0 – (‐25) = 25ms‐1
(c) Velocity of monkey, vMA=vM ‐ vA= 18kmh‐1 = 18 × = ‐5ms‐1,
vM= vMA+ vA = ‐5 +15 = 10ms‐1

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Homework Sheet 3.4
Theory
1. Define relative velocity. [1 mark]
2. Draw graphs position‐time graphs for two objects moving along a straight line when their
relative velocity is (i) zero, (ii) and non‐zero. [2 marks]
Derivation
3. Derive the equation of distance travelled in nth second. [2 marks]
Application Based
4. When an observer is standing on earth, the trees and houses appear stationary to him, However,
when he is sitting in a moving train, all these objects appear to move in backward direction.
Why? [1 mark]
5. How can the relative velocity of two bodies be greater or lesser than the absolute velocity of the
either body? [KV] [1 mark]
Numerical
6. A body covers a distance of 4m in the 3rd second and 12m in the 5th second. If the motion is
uniformly accelerated, how far will it travel in the next 3 seconds (From 5th to 8th second)?
Ans. 60m [2 marks]
‐1
7. An object is moving with uniform acceleration. Its velocity after 5 seconds is 25ms and after 8
seconds is 34ms‐1. Find the distance travelled by object in 12th second? Ans. 44.5m [2 marks]
8. Two trains 120m and 80m in length are running in opposite directions with velocities 42kmh‐1
and 30kmh‐1. In what time they will completely cross each other? Ans. 10s. [2 marks]
9. Two parallel rail tracks run north‐south. Train A moves north with a speed of 54 km h‐1, and train
B moves south with a speed of 90 km h‐1. What is the (a) velocity of B with respect to A? (b)
velocity of ground with respect to B?, And (c) velocity of a monkey running on the roof of the
train A against its motion (with a velocity of 18 kmh‐1 with respect to the train A) as observed by
a man standing on the ground ? Ans. ‐40ms‐1, 25ms‐1, 10ms‐1. [3 marks]
‐1
10. A jet airplane travelling at the speed of 500 km h ejects its products of combustion at the speed
of 1500kmh‐1 relative to the jet plane. What is the speed of the latter with respect to an observer
on the ground? Ans. 1000kmh‐1. [2 marks]
11. Two trains A and B of length 400 m each are moving on two parallel tracks with a uniform speed
of 72 km h‐1 in the same direction, with A ahead of B. The driver of B decides to overtake A and
accelerates by 1 m s‐2. If after 50 s, the guard of B just brushes past the driver of A, what was the
original distance between them? Ans. 1250m. [2 marks]
‐1
12. On a two‐lane road, car A is travelling with a speed of 36 kmh . Two cars B and C approach car A
in opposite directions with a speed of 54 kmh‐1 each. At a certain instant, when the distance AB
is equal to AC, both being 1 km, B decides to overtake A before C does. What minimum
acceleration of car B is required to avoid an accident? Ans. 1ms‐2 [3 marks]
13. Two towns A and B are connected by a regular bus service with a bus leaving in either direction
every T minutes. A man cycling with a speed of 20 kmh‐1 in the direction A to B notices that a bus
goes past him every 18 min in the direction of his motion, and every 6 min in the opposite
direction. What is the period T of the bus service and with what speed (assumed constant) do
the buses ply on the road? Ans.40kmh‐1, 9min [3 marks]

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18. Starting from the rest a car uniformly accelerates uniformly with 3ms‐2 for 5s and then moves
with uniform velocity. Draw the distance – time graph of the motion of the car upto t=7s.
[2 marks]
‐1
19. On turning a corner a car driver driving at 36kmh finds a child on the road 55m ahead. He
immediately applied breaks so as to stop within 5 m of the child. Calculate the retardation
produced and the time taken by the car to stop. Ans. 1ms‐2, 10s [2 marks]
‐2
20. A body starting from rest accelerates uniformly at the rate of 10cms and retards uniformly at
the rate of20cms‐2. Find the least time in which it can complete the journey of 5km if the
maximum velocity attained by the body is 72kmh‐1. Ans. 400s. [3 marks]
‐1
21. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 ms from the top of a multi‐storey
building. The height of the point from where the ball is thrown is 25.0 m from the ground. (a)
How high will the ball rise? and (b) how long will it be before the ball hits the ground? Take g =
10ms‐2. Ans. 20m, 5s. [3 marks]
22. The motion of an object is shown in figure.
(a) Describe the motion of the object for the three distinct intervals shown. Ans. Uniform
motion in 0‐2s, rest in 2‐5s, uniform motion in opposite direction in 5‐6s
(b) Determine the displacement after i) 2.00s ii) 5.00 iii) 6.00s Ans. 5m, 5m, 0m
(c) When is the object at 3.00 meters? Ans. 1.2s and 5.4s
(d) Calculate the average velocity for the time interval of 0‐5.00 s. Ans. 1ms‐1
(e) Determine the overall: i) displacement ii) distance travelled. Ans. 0m, 10m
[3 marks]
Fig 46
List of Formulas
Quantity Formula Quantity Formula
Speed or Velocity Distance travelled in Sn = u + ½ a(2n‐1)
nth second
Average Slope of the graph ∆
m= = tan Ө
∆
speed/Velocity
Three equations (i) v = u +at Area under the Δy ×Δ
of uniformly (ii) s = ut + ½ at2 graph
accelerated (iii) v2 – u2 =2as
motion
Relative velocity v21 = v2 – v1 Acceleration ∆v
∆t

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Session 4.4 (Projectile Motion)
1. Projectile motion:
Definition:
A projectile is the name given to an object which once thrown into space with some initial velocity, moves
thereafter under the influence of gravity alone . For e.g. A javelin thrown by an athlete, a bullet fired from a
rifle, etc.
Projectile fired at an angle θ with the horizontal:
Consider a body projected initial velocity , making an angle θ with the horizontal. Thus, has two
components:
(i) The horizontal component cos θ ‐ remains constant Fig 19
throughout the motion.
(ii) The vertical component sin θ ‐ changes with time
under the effect of gravity, i.e. it first decreases,
becomes zero at the highest point A and then increases
till the projectile hits the ground.
Under the combined effect of these components, the projectile follows a parabolic path.Hence, =
u cosθ, = u sinθ, =0 and =
Equation of trajectory of projectile:
The path followed by the projectile is called its trajectory.
Suppose the projectile reaches the point P(x, y) in time t, then the horizontal distance covered is given by,
x = Horizontal velocity x time
= u cos θ x t, or
t= ..... (1)
For vertical motion, a = ‐g and = sin θ. Thus, vertical distance covered in time t is given by,
s= +½ 2
= sin θ. g. ( )2 [substituting t from equation (1)]
tan θ
=p q , where p and q are constants
Thus, is a quadratic function of . Hence, trajectory of projectile is a parabola.
Time of maximum height:
Let tm be the time taken by the projectile to reach maximum height hm. As we know, at highest point, vertical
component of velocity = 0
Since
Therefore, 0 = sin θ – m
Or t
Time of flight:
The total time during which the projectile is in flight is known as time of flight, Tf. It is given by,
Net vertical displacement during time of flight = 0
Thus, since s = + ½ 2
0= sin θ.Tf gT
Thus, we can see that Tf = 2 x tm [since time of ascent = time of descent for symmetric parabola]
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Maximum height of a projectile:
It is the maximum vertical distance attained by the projectile above the horizontal plane. As we know, at
highest point, vertical component of velocity = 0
As 2
2 2
0 – ( sin θ) = 2 g) hm
Thus, h
Horizontal range(R):
It is the horizontal distance travelled by the projectile during its time of flight.
Horizontal range = Horizontal velocity x time of flight
R = cos θ x Tf
R= cos θ x
R= 2 sin θ cos θ
R [since 2sinθcosθ = sin 2θ]
2. Special Cases:
(i) Relation between h and R:
Dividing h by R, we get
= × [sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ]
= [sinθ/cosθ = tanθ]
h=
When, h=R, then
θ = tan‐1(4)≈ 76°
(ii) For maximum Horizontal range:
For R to be maximum, sin 2θ should be maximum, i.e. sin 2θ = 1.
Hence, 2θ = 900, =>θ = 450.
Thus, at 450 range is maximum.
(iii) For two complimentary angles of projection, horizontal range is same:
Horizontal range for a projectile projected at angle θ, is given by, R .
If we replace θ by (900 ‐ θ), then
R′
Hence, R’ =R.
Thus, for a given velocity of projection, a projectile has same horizontal range for angles of
projection θ and (900 ‐ θ). The same is true for angles (450 + α) and (450 ‐ α), where 00≤α<450.

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3. Projectile motion of a body thrown from a height H:
When a body is thrown with initial speed u from a height H
parallel to the ground, then its initial and final horizontal speeds
are u.
Whereas its initial vertical speed, uy=0. From second equation of
motion, H= ½ gt2, hence t = and its final vertical speed is
given by vy=0 + gt = g × = .
Itsnet final speed is given by, v = = .

Fig 20

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Solved Examples
Eg 15: A cricket ball is thrown at a speed of 28m/s in a direction 30° above the horizontal.
Calculate: (a) The maximum height (b) The time taken by the ball to return to the same level (c) The
horizontal distance from the thrower to the point where the ball returns to the same level.[3 marks]
Sol: Here u=28m/s, θ=30°
°
(a) Maximum Height, h = = 10.0m
.
(b) The time taken by the ball to return to the same level,
°
T = = 2.9s.
.
(c) The distance from the thrower to the point where the ball returns to the same level,
°
R = = 69.3m.
.
Eg 16: A ball is thrown at an angle θ and another ball is thrown at an angle (90°‐θ) with the
horizontal direction from the same point with velocity 39.2m/s. The second ball reaches 50m higher
than the first ball. Find their individual heights. Take g=9.8m/s. [3 marks]
Sol: For the first ball: Angle of projection=θ, Velocity of projection, u=39.2m/s.
As maximum height, H=
.
∴ H= …(1)
.
For the second ball: Angle of projection= (90° , Velocity of projection, u=39.2 m/s,
Maximum Height Reached= (H+50) m.
. °
∴ 50
.
.
H + 50 …(2)
.
Adding (1) and (2), we get
.
2H + 50= (
.
.
= 78.4
.
2H = 78.4‐50 = 28.4
H=14.2m.
Ans. Height of first ball= H=14.2m.
Height of second ball= H + 50 =14.2+50=64.2m.

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Eg 17: Show that there are two angles of projection for which the horizontal range is the same.
Also show that the sum of the maximum heights for these two angles is independent of the angle of
projection. [2 marks]
Sol: When a projectile is fired with velocity u at an angle θ with the horizontal, its horizontal
range
Replacing θ by (90°‐θ), we get
° °
R’ = = = i.e., R’ = R
Hence there are two angles of projection θ and (90°‐θ) for which the horizontal range R is same.
Now H= … (1)
°
And H’ = = …(2)
Adding equations (1) and (2), we get
H + H’= (
Or H+H’ =
Eg 18: The ceiling of a long hall is 25m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that a ball
thrown with a speed of 40 m/s can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall? [2 marks]
Sol: Here H=25m, u=40m/s
If the ball is thrown at an angle Ө with the horizontal, then maximum height of flight,
Ө
H=
Ө
 25=
.
.
Ө= = 0.306
sinӨ = √0.306 =0.544

cosӨ = √1 Ө = √1 0.306
= √0.694 =0.833
The maximum horizontal distance is given by
Ө Ө Ө
R= =
. .
= = 150.7 m.
.
Ans. Range is 150.7m

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Homework Sheet 4.4
Theory
1. What is a projectile? Give example. [DPS] [1 mark]
Derivation
2. (a) Show that the path of projectile is a parabola.
(b) Also deduce expressions for the time of flight, horizontal range and maximum height attained
by the projectile. [5 marks]
3. (a) Show that for two complimentary angles of projections of a projectile thrown with the same
velocity the horizontal range are equal.
(b) For what angle of projection is the range maximum?
(c) For what angles of projection, are the horizontal ranges and maximum height attained are
equal? [3 marks]
Application Based
4. What is the angle between the direction of velocity and acceleration at the highest point of a
projectile path? Ans. 90 [1 mark]
5. A bullet is dropped from a certain height and at the same time, another bullet is fired
horizontally from the same height. Which one will hit the ground earlier and why? [1 mark]
Numerical
6. A cricket ball is thrown at a speed of 28 ms‐1 in a direction 30° above the horizontal. Calculate (a)
the maximum height, (b) the time taken by the ball to return to the same level, and (c) the
distance from the thrower to the point where the ball returns to the same level.
Ans. 10m, 2.9s, 69m [3 marks]
√
7. What is the angle of projection of a projectile if its range is . [DPS]
Ans. 300 [2 marks]
8. A person observes a bird on a tree 39.6m high and at a distance 59.2m. With what velocity the
person should throw an arrow at an angle of 450 so that it may hit the bird?
Ans. 41.86ms‐1 [2 marks]
9. The ceiling of a long hall is 25 m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that a ball
thrown with a speed of 40 m s‐1 can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall?
Ans. 150.7m [2 marks]
10. A hiker stands on the edge of a cliff 490 m above the ground and throws a stone horizontally
with an initial speed of 15 ms‐1. Neglecting air resistance, find the time taken by the stone to
reach the ground, and the speed with which it hits the ground. (Take g = 9.8 m s‐2).
Ans. 10s, 99ms‐1 [2 marks]
11. Two tall buildings face each other and are at a distance of 180m from each other. With what
velocity must a ball be thrown horizontally from a window 55m above the ground in one
building, so that it enters a window 10.9m above the ground in the second building?
Ans. 60ms‐1 [3 marks]
‐1 0
12. A football is kicked with a velocity of 20ms at a projection angle of 45 . A receiver on the goal
line 25 metres away in the direction of the kick runs the same instant to meet the ball. What
must be his speed, if he is to catch the ball before it hits the ground?
Ans. 5.483ms‐1 [3 marks]

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13. A soccer ball is kicked horizontally off a 245m high hill and lands a distance of 35m from the edge
of the hill. Determine the initial horizontal velocity of the soccer ball. (Take g= 10m/s )
[2 marks]
14. A ball is projected horizontally from a tower with a velocity of 4ms‐1. Find the velocity of the ball
after 0.7s. Take g =10 ms‐2. [2016] Ans. 8.06 ms1, 60°15’ [2 marks]
15. A bullet fired at an angle of 60° with the vertical hits the ground at a distance of 2 km. calculate
the distance at which the bullet will hit the ground when fired at an angle of 45°, assuming the
speed to be the same. [2016] Ans. 2.31km [2 marks]

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CH-2 Units and Dimensions

Session 2.1(Physical Quantities, Units, Dimensions)

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Fundamental Quantities Units Symbols

Supplementary Quantities Units Diagram

Solid angle (Ω) Steradian

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∴Dimensions of density = = [ML‐3] = [ML ‐3T 0]

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11. Momentum=mass  velocity [MLT ‐1] Kgms‐1

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(iv) Surface Tension = = = [MT ‐2]

(v) Specific Heat = = = [M0L2T ‐2K‐1]

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Constant = , Coefficient of thermal conductivity= ]

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Eg 4:G = 6.67×10‐11Nm2/kg2 = _____dynecm2/g2. [DPS] [1 mark]

Eg 5:Check the dimensional accuracy of the equation of motion, s = ut + ½ at2. [1 mark]

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Thus, [a/b] = = [L ‐1/2T 2]

Thus, T = k l1/2 g‐1/2 or, T = k .

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Dimensions of various quantities are: T = [T], r = [L], M = [M], G = = = [M‐1L3T ‐2]

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(b) We know, 60’ = 10 and 1800 = π radians

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5. Definition of 7 Fundamental Units:

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Eg 21: Round off the following numbers as indicated:

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Sol:(a) Time taken for O to P = 18s

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Average velocity = = 0 kmh‐1

Total time, t = = = 1.5hr

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Slope at a particular point:‐

 Slope of the graph can have four possible values.

iii. Slope is negative when angle made by tangent is obtuse

iv. Slope is infinite when angle made by tangent is 90° i.e. θ =

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ii. When the body is in uniform motion

iii. When the body is in accelerated motion

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 Area under v‐t graphs represent distance

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iii. When the body is uniformly accelerated motion

o If the slope of the graph is negative, i.e. 1800> θ>900 then

5. Acceleration-time graphs (a-t graphs)

(b) Variation of velocity with time (v‐t graph).

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9. For eg. ( n) = n n‐1

2. Integration and its use in Kinematics