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CHAPTER - 1
Fundamentals of Physics
1.1.1 Unit:
To express the magnitude of a physical quantity a standard is chosen which is
of the same kind as physical quantity. This standard is taken as reference to
measure a physical quantity which is known as unit.
Therefore the process of measurement of a physical quantity involves.
i) The selection of the unit and
ii) Number of times the unit is contained in that physical quantity
In general,
measure of a physical quantity = numerical value of the quantity X size of its
unit
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All properties of interest to a Boiler Engineer can be derived from the above
Base and Supplementary Units as can be seen from the following:
1.1.4.3 Derived Units:
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1.1.4.4 Advantage of SI
(i) It is a rational system of units - Its makes use of only one unit for one
physical quantity. Ex. all types of energies are expressed in Joules. Whereas in
MKS system different units are used for different types of energies. For ex.
mechanical energy is measured in Joule, heat energy in calorie and electrical
energy in watt hour.
(ii) SI is a coherent system of units i.e all derived units can be obtained by
dividing and multiplying the basic and supplementary units and no numerical
factors are introduced as used to be the case with certain units of the CGS and
MKS systems.
(iii) SI is a metric system. The multiples and sub-multiples can be expressed
as the powers of 10.
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Rules
a. Derived units, when written in words, are not written with a capital letter
unless they are at the beginning of a sentence. The exception is the Celsius
degree which is always written with a capital letter.
Symbols are written with the following:
• no full stop except at the end of a sentence;
• as singular even though the written term is plural;
• a space between the numerical value and the symbol, e.g. 12 m; 1.2
kg/m 3 and 0.12 rad;
• in lower case unless the symbol has been taken from a proper name, e.g.
ampere is written as "A"; kelvin as "K"; and volt as "V";
• in lower case unless the prefix is mega, giga, tera, peta or exa, e.g.
megawatt is written as MW; gigamole as Gmol and petahertz as PHz;
• the product in a compound unit should be indicated by "." eg "N.m"; and
"cd.sr";
• "." and "/" are only used with symbols and not with unit names written
in full eg m/s and not "metre/second"; and kW.s and not
"kilowatt.second"; and
• when a unit involves the division of one symbol by another it can be
written in one of three ways eg "m/s"; "m.s-1"; and " m "
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in Hg 0.034 29.53
mm WC 98.07 x 10-4 10.2 x 103
Heat Work and Energy
MJ k cal 4.187 x 10-3 238.85
Btu 1.055 x 10-3 948.0
kg m 9.807 x 10-8 101.97 x 103
ft lb 1.356 x 10-6 737.6 x 103
kW h 3.60 1360
Power
MJ/s k cal/s 4.187 x 10-3 238.85
Btu/min 17.57 x 10-6 56.8 x 103
To obtain Multiply By Reciprocal
kg m/s 9.807 x 10-8 101.97 x 103
ft lb/s 1.356 x 10-6 73.76 x 103
metric hp 0.7355 x 10-3 1360
Calorific value and Specific Enthalpy
MJ/kg k cal/kg 4.187 x 10-3 238.85
Btu/lb 2.326 x 10-3 429.92 x 103
kg m/kg 9.807 x 10-6 101.97 x 103
ft lb/lb 2.989 x 10-8 334.55 x 103
kW h/kg 3.60 0.278
Heat Transfer Coefficient
W/m2K k cal/h m2 oC 1.163 0.860
Btu/h ft2 oF 5.878 0.176
Heat Flux
W/m2 k cal/h m2 10163 0.860
Btu/h ft2 3.155 0.317
Mass flow rate
kg/s lb/h 0.126 x 10-3 7.9365 x 103
t/h 0.28224 3.5431
g/s 10-3 1000
Specific heat and Specific Entropy
kJ/kg K Kcal/kgoC 4.1868 0.2388
Btu/lboF 4.1868 0.2388
Dynamic Viscosity
N s/m2 lb/ft h 0.41338 x 10-3 2.420 x 103
lb/ft s 1.4882 0.6720
poise 0.10 10
Kinematic Viscosity
m2/s ft2/h 25.806 x 10-6 38.7506 x 103
stoke 10-4 10000
Torque
Nm kgf m 9.806 0.102
ft lb 1.355 0.737
1.2 Matter:
All matter comprises of atoms and molecules. The extent to which these
atoms are bonded to each other decides the state of the matter. As long as the
bonding force between the atoms is large, the matter remains Solid and retains
its shape and tends to oppose any cause, which tends to change its shape. This
is the reason that solids have the property of elasticity and are stressed if
strained. The Bonding Forces are of several types such as gravitational pull
between atoms and Covalent Bonds.
The atoms and molecules of any matter is in a constant state of random
vibrations and the vibrations’ amplitude increases with temperature of the
matter. Depending on temperature the Inter-atomic Distance varies and when
the Inter-atomic Distance is such that force of attraction between tow atoms
equals force of repulsion, a threshold state is reached when state of matter
changes from Solid to Liquid and the matter no longer exhibits the property
of elasticity and does not resist a change in its shape.
At a further higher temperature the atoms and molecules reach a state of
vibration when there exist no cohesive force between its atoms or molecules.
At such a temperature the matter changes its state from Liquid to Vapour.
The temperature at which a solid matter changes its state to liquid is called its
Melting Point and the temperature at which the matter in Liquid state changes
to Vapour is called Boiling Point. These temperatures depend upon pressure.
To the extent that the three phases of matter relate to the subject of Boiler
Technology and Engineering, the reader is advised to recall that Water is
Solid when it is Ice. When heated, Ice (which is water in solid state) changes
its state to Liquid (Water) and when further heated, water changes to the third
state, which is vapour and called Steam.
Under atmospheric pressure Melting Point of Ice is 00C or 320F and Boiling
Point of Water is 1000C or 2120F. However, these points of temperature
depend on pressure. The change in melting point of ice is not relevant to
boilers and steam engines and turbines hence we will not deal with it further.
However, the boiling point of water varies greatly with its pressure.
This matter is covered in greater details under Properties of Steam in this
tutorial. The characteristics of change of state or phase of water to steam are
derived experimentally and are published by various renowned international
bodies (such as ASME) as “Steam Tables”.
It is considered relevant here to mention that in a boiler just above the surface
of water in the boiler drum, contains tiny particles of water which though
suspended above the surface of water in the drum, is not actually in vapour
state and needs to absorb heat in order to get converted into vapour or steam.
That is why the steam just above the water surface in boiler drums is called
“wet steam”. When each and every tiny water particle has got fully converted
into vapour or steam it is called “dry saturated steam”.
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1.2.1 Volume:
Volume of gas or any substance is defined as the space, which it occupies.
Unit of volume of any substance is cubic centimeter or cubic meter.
The volume is also expressed in litre.
1 liter = 1000 cm3 =106 mm3 = 10-3 m3
Therefore the specific volume of air under these conditions is 0.7734 m3/kg. It
is denoted by v
1.2.4.1 Mole/Volume
when a known number of moles of a substance is dissolved or dispersed in a
liquid to give a known volume of solution or suspension.
Moles per litre (mol/L) and moles per cubic centimetre (mol/cc) express
concentration in the terms of mole per unit volume (mol/v).
Five mol/L is equal to five mole of substance in one litre of solution.
The number of moles of a substance in one litre of solution is called the
molarity of that solution.
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1.2.4.2 Mass/Volume
when a mass of a substance is dissolved or suspended in a liquid to give a
known volume of solution or suspension.
Kilograms per litre (kg/L), grams per litre (g/L), milligrams per litre (mg/L)
and grams per cubic centimetre ( g/cc) express concentration in the terms of
mass per unit volume which is usually referred to as weight/volume (w/v).
1.2.4.3 Mass/Mass
when a mass of substance is dispersed in another mass to give a known
resultant mass.
Grams per kilogram (g/kg) and milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) express
concentration in the terms of mass per unit mass, which is usually referred to
as weight/weight (w/w).
1.2.4.4 Volume/Volume
when a volume of substance is dispersed in another volume of substance to
give a known resultant volume.
Millilitres per litre expresses concentration in the terms of volume per unit
volume, which is usually referred to as volume/volume (v/v).
Thus, if 80 millilitres of alcohol is diluted to 2000 millilitres with water the
result is a solution of 2000 millilitres or 2 litres.
1.2.4.6 Percent
Percent (%) is also used to express concentration much the same as parts per
million (ppm). The difference is that percent relates to one in a hundred
compared to ppm, which relates to one in a million.
1.2.5 Pressure:
Pressure is defined as ‘Force per Unit Area’. Take a jar of glass with a flat
bottom, filled with water and keep it over a table. The weight of water in the
jar exerts a force on the surface of the table. If this force is measured over a
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unit area of the surface, then it is called the pressure. Therefore pressure can
be defined as the force exerted by an object over the surface of unit Area.
Atmospheric Pressure
1.0332 kg/cm2
Vacuum =
Atm. Pressure - Absolute Pressure
Vacuum Gauge Pressure
Absolute Pressure
= Atm. Pressure - Vacuum
Fig. 1
1.2.7 Barometer:
The barometer is the simplest instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure.
The earth's atmosphere at sea level has a weight of 14.7 pounds over a square
inch of surface. This is the weight of a column of air that extends from sea
level at the earth's surface to the edge of the atmosphere. This weight changes
as the temperature and composition of the air mass changes. A barometer uses
a substitute column of mercury fluid in place of the air. One atmosphere in a
mercury barometer is equaled by a column of only 760 mm Hg.
h = 760 mm of Hg
Fig.2
1.2.8 Manometer:
The manometer is one of the simplest tools for measuring gas pressure
differences. A manometer is a u-tube. One side of the "U" is open to
atmosphere and the other side is connected to a closed container. The "U" is
filled with a fluid. If both sides of the "U" have the same liquid levels then the
pressure inside and the pressure outside are the same. The difference between
the liquid levels equals the pressure difference between inside and outside.
The mercury level will be lower on the side with greater pressure. The higher
pressure "pushes" the mercury down. The Manometer measures the Gauge
pressure. Mercury is particularly convenient for use in manometers (and
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barometers) because at room temperature it has low vapor pressure, does not
wet glass, and has a high density.
GA
GAS GA
GAS
S S
Fig-3
Manometer
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1.2.9.4 STP
STP is Standard Temperature and Pressure. STP is 0o Celcius and 1
atmosphere of pressure. Gases properties can be compared using STP as a
reference.
[It should be noted that in any calculations involving the gas laws, absolute
pressures and absolute temperatures must be used.]
1.2.9.8 Perfect Gas: A perfect gas or ideal gas may be considered as one that obeys
the laws of Boyle and Charles and the Characteristic equation of a gas which
is obtained by combining the above laws.
No gas is perfect, but many gases can approach this standard within the
temperature limits of applied thermodynamics.
1.3 Temperature:
Temperature is the measure of the relative warmth or coolness of an object.
The temperature of a substance does not measure its heat content but rather
the average kinetic energy of its molecules resulting from their motions. A
one-pound block of iron and a two-pound block of iron at the same
temperature do not have the same heat content. Because they are at the same
temperature the average kinetic energy of the molecules is the same; however,
the two-pound block has more molecules than the one-pound block and thus
has greater heat energy.
For measurement of Temperature there are two scales of measurements, one is
“Fahrenheit” and the other is “Centigrade” or “Celsius”. The arbitrary
reference taken is the freezing point of water under atmospheric conditions.
This point at which water freezes to a solid state is considered as ZERO in
Celsius or Centigrade Scale. Again the point of reference of water boiling at
atmospheric condition and transforming to vapor stage is taken as 100 in
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1.3.2 Thermometer:
An instrument used for measuring temperature is called a thermometer and is
constructed by using one of the following principles:
1.3.2.1 Glass Bulb (Mercury thermometer): Most common for measuring air
temperature is the liquid-in-glass thermometer, which consists of a glass tube
enlarged at the bottom into a bulb that is partially filled with mercury(or
organic liquid). The tube's bore is extremely small—less than 0.02 inch (0.5
millimeter) in diameter. Thus a small amount of expansion or contraction of
the mercury in the bulb, caused by heating or cooling, produces a noticeable
rise or fall in its level in the tube.
1.3.2.2 Bimetal thermometer: Two different metals are bonded together with one
end attached to an indicating needle which aligns with a circular scale on the
face of the instrument. Since the metals expand at different rates, movement
occurs depending on the temperature fluctuation and the needle moves.
1.3.2.3 Indicating Material: A variety of “crayons” and pellets are available that
melt at specific temperatures. These do not really measure temperature
directly, but do indicate the maximum temperature that a material was
exposed to.
1.3.2.4 Vapor/Gas Filled: Such thermometer operates on a similar principle to the
glass bulb type thermometer.
1.3.2.5 Galileo thermometer: These tend to be used in decorative settings around
the home or office. These interesting models operate based on principles of
specific gravity.
1.3.2.6 RTD and Thermistor: These are based on the change in resistance of a
conductor when the temperature of the wire changes. In both the instruments
temperatures are digitally displayed and have better accuracies.
1.3.2.7 Thermocouple: These operate based on the temperature change that occurs
at the junction of two dissimilar wires. When the temperature changes a small
current is generated by the junction. This current is then compared to a
reference junction (calibrated standard or ice water bath) and converted to a
temperature by electric or electronic means. So the system includes the
thermocouple itself, connecting wiring and some method (Generally a digital
meter) to display the temperature reading.
Another significant advantage of the thermocouple is that the indicating
instrument can be a very long distance from the thermocouple environment.
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Once the system is calibrated and the current from the thermocouple is
captured, a variety of electrical options are available for getting the
information to a display unit.
1.4 Work:
If a heavy mass is to be moved from one place to other, one has to apply force
or spend energy. The Force applied to a body multiplied by the distance
moved is the amount of work done or amount of energy spent.
Work = Force x distance (traveled in the direction of force)
Work only involves the useful part of a force, namely the part that is effective
in causing the motion.
[Suppose a pail of water weighing 7 N is carried over a distance of 10 m. In
order to hold the pail up against gravity a vertical force of 7 N is exerted on
the pail. The motion, however, is horizontal, and the force exerted does no
work, even though one might get tired of holding the pail after a while.]
In SI system, the unit for work done is Newton-metre (Nm), which is the
product of a unit force (one Newton) acting through a 1-metre distance. This
unit of work done is also called joules (J).
1 J = 1 Nm
1 kg.m = 9.81 Nm = 9.81 Joules (J)
Work can also be measured in foot pounds or Kg metres
1.5 Power:
Suppose a weight is lifted off the floor at a fixed a distance. The work done in
this case would be the product of the force exerted times the distance covered,
independent of how fast the weight was lifted. Now if the same weight is
lifted faster that is in lesser period, then one might be tempted to say that more
``work'' is done. Actually the work done in both the cases is same and it is the
Power that is different.
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The power exerted by a force is defined as change in work done over a period.
Power exerted = work / time = force x distance / time = force x velocity.
The SI Unit for Power is “Watt”. In other words Jules/sec = Watt.
In British Units the Unit of Power is “Horse Power” or “hp”, which
corresponds to a rate of work of 550 ft-lb/sec or.
1 hp = 746 Watts.
1.6 Energy:
In mechanics is defined as “capacity of doing work”. Units of Energy and
Work are same. Energy exists in two forms, namely, Potential Energy and
Kinetic Energy.
1.6.1 Potential Energy is possessed by a body due to its position relative to
other body or of parts of the same body under the action of a force or forces
tending to alter their relative position. For example, a body which is allowed
to fall towards earth may be made to do work; hence before it begins to fall it
possesses potential energy, or energy due to its position relative to earth.
PE=mgh
Gravitational
h Potential Energy
PE=0
Fig 4
A compressed spiral spring has potential energy because if it is allowed to
resume its unstrained form it can be made to do work. Likewise compressed
air possesses potential energy. The energy stored in a piece of coal is potential
energy, and under favourable conditions the atoms of the constituents of the
coal and atoms of oxygen of the air will rush together and produce heat which
may be converted into work. . If a body of W kg weight is allowed to fall from
an elevation L2 to an elevation L1, the change in potential energy.
∆PE = PE 2 - PE 1 = W (L2 – L1)
The unit of potential energy is Kilograms meter (MKS) and Newton metre
(SIS)
1.6.2 Kinetic Energy of a body is due to its being in motion with respect to another
body. A kilogram of water at rest at a height of 100 metres above level of the
sea possesses 100 kg.m of potential energy and if this water is allowed to fall
freely to the level of the sea, without doing work on the way it will in every
position of its fall possess 100 kg.m of energy, but as it descends its potential
energy will diminish, and the remainder of 100 kg.m will be stored in water as
kinetic energy. When the 1kg of water would have fallen 25 metres its
potential energy would be reduced by 25 kg.m to be only 75 kg.m and its
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1.7 Internal Energy: The molecules of all substances are continuously in motion.
The movement of molecules is more in gases than in liquids. Even when a gas
is stored in a closed vessel and is stagnant, that is not moving, it possesses a
considerable amount of internal Kinetic Energy due to motion of its molecules
within the limits of its containing vessel. In addition of the Internal Kinetic
Energy substances also have Internal Potential Energy due to the relative
position of their molecules. Thus, the Internal Energy, E of a substance may
be defined as the algebraic sum of Internal Kinetic Energy and Internal
Potential Energy of its molecules.
The internal energy of substance increases with increases of temperature of
substance due to increases of molecular activity. Thus Internal Energy is a
function of Temperature and its value increases or decreases by adding heat to
or subtracting heat from the substance.
1.8 Torque:
Torque is a measure of the 'strength' being used in turning (or attempting to
turn) something.
A common example is that of a spanner being used to move a nut. A force is
being applied at one end of the spanner. That force is multiplied by the
distance between it and the turning-point (which, in this case, is the centre of
the nut) to give a measure of the torque which is being applied. This seems to
be the same as for work which is also a force being multiplied by a distance
but look closely, in the definition for torque there is no mention of the force
moving as there is in the full definition for work.
So, they are different things even though the units are the same, and no work
is done until, in this case, the spanner moves - and even then it is a matter of
how far the force moves, and not its distance from the centre.
The SI preferred unit for torque is newton metres [Nm] and for work is
joules [J].
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1.10 Mechanical Equivalent Of Heat: Heat and Work are mutually convertible
from one form into another. In a heat engine the heat produced by combustion
of the fuel used is converted into the work done by the engine. When the
brakes are applied to the wheels of a moving train, in order to bring it to rest,
the kinetic energy of the train is converted into heat at the rubbing surfaces of
the brake blocks and wheels, or if the wheels skid the heat is produced at the
rubbing surfaces of wheels and rails. Careful experiments have shown that a
certain definite number J or foot pound of work is equivalent to one unit of
heat.
In British Units J is 778 ft.lb. for 1 Btu.
and in metric units, 4.187 Kilojoules = 1 Kilocalories &
1 Kilocalories = 427 kg-m
1.11.2 Specific Heat of a substance may be defined as the amount of heat that must
be supplied to the substance to raise the temperature of unit mass of the
substance through one degree. When a body is heated, the heat energy is used
to speed up the internal motion of its molecules and also to provide the work
necessary to expend the body. In a solid or a liquid, the amount of expansion
is very small and the work of expansion is similarly small. When a gas is
heated, expansion is considerably more and values of specific heat will
depend on nature of heating process i.e., whether the heating is at Constant
Volume or at Constant Pressure. Thus gas has a two important types of
Specific Heat, namely:
(1) Specific Heat at constant volume ( Cv)
(2) Specific Heat at constant pressure (Cp)
walls of the kettle. When the fire is put out, the water started cooling down as
transfer of heat in water occurs by Convection from centre of the Kettle to the
water layer immediately in contact with Kettle walls and by Conduction
within walls of the Kettle. Outer surface of the Kettle transfers heat to the
surroundings by way of Convection & Radiation.
.
In Boiler generally the heat transfer takes place in all the three modes of heat
transfer process namely Conduction, Convection and the Radiation.
The general equation for heat flow rate by any of the above three modes of
heat transfer from one media to other may be written as
q = US ∆t
Where q = heat flow rate in K.Cal/hr
S = Surface area involved in the heat transfer in m2
∆t = Temperature difference causing heat flow in °C
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient in K.cal/m2/hr/°C
= 1/R where R is overall resistance
1.11.4.1 Conduction:
Conduction is the process of transfer of heat through solids from one part of
the body to the other, by physical contact, without the molecules moving, but
imparting vibration from one molecule to the neighbouring one.
In a Boiler the water tubes are exposed to fire. The heat travels by Conduction
from outer surface to inner surface of water tubes and then transfers to water
at centre of the tubes and in the drum from the water immediately in contact
with inner surface of the tubes by convection. In a metal the heat transfer
takes place by passing on heat from particle to particle by contact without any
physical movement of the particles themselves.
The quantity of heat conducted depends on:
a. the differential temperature between combustion chamber and the water
inside the tube,
b. the thickness of the tube,
c. surface area of the tube,
d. the characteristics of the metal and
e. the cleanliness of the surface.
If a flat plate is heated on one side and cooled on other side, heat will flow
from hot side to the cold. The heat flow rate q can be expressed as below:
q = KS (t1 – t2) / l
Where q = rate of heat flow – K.Cal/hr
K = Thermal conductivity for 1 cm thickness – K.cal/m2/hr/°C
S = Heating surface in m2
t = temperature difference causing heat flow (t1 – t2) in °C
l = length or thickness of the plate in cm.
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1.11.4.2 Convection:
This process can occur only in fluids or gases. This process of heat transfer
takes place when the molecules are displaced physically. The fluid or gas
when heated expands, becomes less dense and raises up causing movement
and allowing the colder and more dense gas or liquid to replace it. In the
Boiler the heat from tube metal goes to water flowing inside. Similarly when
gas or liquid is heated, it expands, becomes less dense and rises up causing
movement and allowing the colder and denser gas or liquid to replace it.
Mainly in Superheater, Reheater and Economizer the heat from hot gas is
getting transferred to metal outer surface by way of convection process.
Heat transfer by convection depends on the specific characteristics of the
medium i.e. gas or liquid.
Heat transfer by convection between a fluid and a solid such as in a boiler
tube is expressed as below:
qc = Uc S ∆t .. (3)
Where qc = rate of heat flow by convection in K.Cal/hr
U = Convection film conductance in K.cal/m2/hr/°C
S = heat transfer surface in m2
∆t = temperature difference between fluid bulk temperature
and solid surface temperature in °C.
1.11.4.3 Radiation:
Heat when it travels from source to another substance through an empty space
(often imagined as ether) or through vacuum or gas or air in straight lines, the
process of heat transfer is called radiation. The tube metal surface at the top of
the furnace of a Boiler gets heat by way of radiation. We get heat from Sun by
radiation.
All substances emit heat energy by radiation depending on their temperature.
Radiation emitted by a body depends upon its surface area and temperature.
The relationship between them is given by Stefan-Boltzman law
q = σ S T4
q – rate of heat flow
σ – Stefan-Boltzman constant
S – surface area of body
T – absolute temperature of the emitter
For bodies other than black bodies whose emissivity will be less than 1, the
formula will be changed as
q = σ ES T4
where E is emissivity of the body
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If we consider two parallel planes of infinite size and they are black bodies,
then heat transfer from the hot plane (at T1 °K) to the other plane (at T2 °K) is
given by the formula
q = σ S (T14 – T24)
If all the radiation emitted by one does not fall on the other it is essential to
introduce an angle factor in the formula
In boiler the radiation becomes luminous by entrained particles such as
pulverised coal, soot etc. and calculation of luminous radiation is complex.
The gases such as oxygen and nitrogen absorbs or emit only slight amount of
radiation. But water vapours, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon
monoxide which are part of flue gases in the boiler also absorb and emit. They
emit and radiate only in certain wave length bands that lie outside of the
visible range and are called as non-luminous gas radiation.
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Examples
2. Question: Give in a tabular form a list of devices which are used to measure the
temperatures between that of liquid air (- 1830C) and the melting point of
Platinum ( 17700C) and show the range of temperature over which each can be
used
Answer:
Devices Temperature Effect utilised
range in 0C
Mercury in glass thermometer - 40 to 525 Expansion of fluid
Mercury thermometers, fused silica - 40 to 650 Expansion of fluid
Gas expansion thermometer (N2) 260 to 1600 Expansion of fluid
Metal expansion thermometer 0 to 500 Expansion of solid
Resistance pyrometer - 180 to 1000 Change of electrical resistance
Thermoelectric pyrometer (le-Chateleir) 0 to 1500 Thermo-electric effect
Thermo-electric pyrometer (base metal) 0 to 1000 Thermo-electric effect
Seger cones 600 to 2000 Fusion (softening)
Radiation pyrometer 400 upwards Radiation (total)
Optical pyrometer 650 upwards Radiation (mono-chromatic)
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TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ I/1692001
Answer:
When the mass of the gas is not known, we use the equation
p1V1/ T1 = p2V2/ T2
p1 = 7 x 105 N/m2; V1 = 3 cu metre; V2 = 9 cu metre
T1 = 150 + 273 = 423 K and T2 = 273 + 10 = 283 K
Therefore, (700000 x 3) / 423 = p2 x 9 / 283
or p2 = 156200 N/m2
or p2 = 1.562 bar.
Answer:
We know,
p1V1/ T1 = p2V2/ T2
We have,
p1 = 100 kN/m2 ; T1 = 115 + 273 = 388 K ; T2 = 180 + 273 = 453 K
V2 = V1/12
On substitution of values, we get
100 x V1 / 388 = p2 x V1/(12 x 453)
or p2 = 1401 kN/m2 (14.01 bar) absolute
6. Question: Calculate the molecular volume of all gases at 200 kN/m2 and 30ºC.
According to the characteristic equation of a gas we have pV = mRT where p is
the pressure of the gas in N/m2, V is the volume of mass m kg of gas in cu metre,
R is the characteristic gas constant and T is the absolute temperature of the gas in
kelvin.
Answer:
If V is the molecular volume, then ‘m’ will be molecular mass of the gas and
mR = 8314.3 J/kg mole/K
We have, P = 200 x 103 N/m2 ; T = 273 + 30 = 303 K
Therefore, 200 x x V = 8314.3 x 303
V = (8314.3 x 303) / (200 x 103) =12.596 m3
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TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ I/1692001
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TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ I/1692001
ASSESSMENT SHEET
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TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ I/1692001
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