INTRODUCTION: MATTER AND MEASUREMENT - Alter only appearance - Composition

not composition changes

Chemistry
 The study of materials and the changes that  (examples)  (examples)
material undergoes.
 Where is chemistry present in your life?

THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY

The Atomic and Molecular Perspective
Matter
- Anything with mass and occupies space
Property
- Characteristic that helps recognize a type of
matter and distinguish from other types
Elements
- 100+ basic substances that make up matter
either alone or in various combinations SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
Atom: Individual sorting by color shape
- Submicroscopic particle Use of physical properties
- Fundamental building blocks
 Magnetic
Molecules
 Filtration
- Two or more atoms joined in specific
geometric arrangement  Distillation
Bonds  Chromatography
- Electronic force that holds atoms together in Chemical reactivity
molecules - One substance reacts while the other does
not. Need to be able to get back original
Why Study Chemistry? substance.
 Impacts daily lives
THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO KNOWLEDGE
 Informs citizens
Empirical
 Fulfills curriculum requirements
- Observation and experimentation
Hypothesis
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
- Tentative explanation of observations
Substance: specific instance of matter
Experiments
Solid: mq close and little movement
- Highly controlled experiments
 Fixed volume, rigid shape - reproducible
 Crystalline or amorphous Theory
Liquid: mq close but free to move - Well-established hypotheses
 Fixed volume, no fixed shape Scientific Law
Gas: mq far apart, compressible - Summarize past observations and predicts
 No fixed volume, no fixed shape future ones
Classification according to Composition
 Kinds and amt of substances that make up
matter
Pure substance: single type of atom/mq
 Element—cannot be broken down further
 Compound—can be broken down into
elements
o Fixed definite composition
Mixture
 Heterogeneous
 Homogeneous UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES International System of Units (SI)

Property Length m m
Physical Property Chemical Property Mass Kilogram Kg
- displays w/o changing - only displayed by Time Seconds S
appearance changing Temperature Kelvin K
composition Amt of Subst Mole Mol
Electric current Ampere A
 (examples)  (examples) Luminous Candela cd
intensity

Changes
Physical Change Chemical Change
 LENGTH AND MASS
Length
 Meter
 Distance light (598 nm) travels in 1 second
 Just a bit more than a yard

Mass
 Amount of material in an object
 Not weight (which is a force)
 1 kg ~ 2.2 pounds
 Cube of Platinum in Sorbonne????
DERIVED UNITS
TEMPERATURE Combination of other units
Hotness or coldness of an object Volume - amount of space matter occupies
Direction of heat flow  Vol of cube = (edge length)3
Heat flows from higher T to lower T spontaneously  Liter or milliliter (L or mL) for liquids
Celsius and Kelvin Density - mass per unit volume
 Kelvin is absolute scale and does not have  Density = mass/volume = m/V
negative values
Conversion Factor INTENSIVE VS. EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
 °F = 1.8(°C) + 32 Intensive – Independent of the amount of substance
 K = °C + 273.15
Extensive – dependent upon the amount of substance

UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
Precision vs. Accuracy
 Precision is measure of how closely individual
measurements agree with one another
 Accuracy is how closely measurement agrees
with the correct or “true” value
 Perform several trials and average the results
 Standard deviation reflects how much results
differ from average

Scientific measures are reported so that every digit is

certain except the last, which is
estimated.

Significant Figures - only for

measured values
  The greater the number of significant figures,
the greater the certainty for the measurement  Sort
Exact Numbers - actual counts  Strategize
 No uncertainty, unlimited sig fig  Solve
 Check
SIGNIFICANT FIGURE RULES
1. All nonzero digits are significant
2. Interior zeros are significant
3. Leading zeros are not significant
4. Trailing zeros
 After decimal point always significant
o 3.9000
 Before decimal point are significant
o 40.00
 Before implied decimal point are ambiguous
o 1200 use sci notation 1.200 x 103 or 1.20
x 103
5. Multiplication/division—result uses fewest number
of sig fig
6. Addition/subtraction—fewest number of decimal
places
7. Rounding—4 or less round down, 5 or greater
round up
8. Round at the end of all calculations not individual
steps
9. Calculators are stupid & do not know rules

SOLVING CHEMICAL PROBLEMS

Generally 2 types:
 Unit conversion (dimensional Analysis) or
specific equation

Dimensional Analysis

Calculate the displacement of a 5.70 L automobile

engine in cubic inches

THE HISTORY OF THE ATOM

Timeline: 400 BC
Scientist: Democritus (Greek
Philosopher)
Watch units raised to a power and account for that
mathematically Democritus was a Greek philosopher
who was the first person to use the term
GENERAL PROBLEMS SOLVING STRATEGY atom (atomos: meaning indivisible).
1. Identify starting point (given info)
2. Identify the end point (what you want)
He called this the theory of the
3. Devise a way to get from start to end—conceptual universe:
plan
  All matter consists of atoms, which are bits of
matter too small to be seen.
 There is an empty space between atoms
 Atoms are completely solid
 Atoms have no internal structure
 Each atom (of a different substance) is
different in size, weight and shape.
___________________________________________
Timeline: 1800’s
Scientist: John Dalton
John Dalton was the first to adapt
Democritus’ theory into the first modern
atomic model.
JOHN DALTON’S ATOMIC MODEL:
1. All matter consists of tiny
particles called atoms.
2. Atoms are indestructible and
unchangeable.
3. Elements are characterized by
the weight of their atoms
4. When elements react, it is their
atoms that have combined to form new
compounds.
Timeline: 1890’s
Scientist: J. J. Thomson
J.J Thomson was a physicist who
is credited for discovering the
electron. He used his research
on cathode ray tube technology
in this discovery.
CATHODE RAY TUBE
How does this
tube work?
1. Nearly Empty tube (Air has been sucked out)
2. An electric charge is passed through the tube.
Travels from cathode to anode.
3. The charge is invisible, so to see where it
traveled a fluorescent screen is placed at back
of tube. Where the beam hits, a dot will appear
on the screen. You could also use a
fluorescent gas and the whole tube will light
up.
4. This beam will always travel straight if not
interfered with.
5. The deflection coils each have a specific
charge. One is positive and the other is
negative.
6. Thomson showed (as in the diagram above)
that the charge would deflect away from the
negative coil. He then stated that this charge
was thus a negative charge.
J.J Thomson was an excellent physicist and thus did
not stop when he had found this negative charge.
Through a series of clever experiments he was able to
predict the mass of this charge.
SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION AT ITS BEST
He then found out that this charge was 1000
times lighter that a hydrogen atom. He made a bold
statement saying that this negative charge must be
inside an atom. This negative charge (he called
corpuscles) later became known as the electron.
THOMSON’S ATOMIC MODEL
Using what he had discovered, Thomson
predicted what an atom should look like.
These are the key points to Thomson’s
Atomic Model:
Because of its design this model is known as
1.
the plum pudding model
Each atom is a sphere filled with positively
2.
charged ‘fluid’. This resembles the sticky jam
part of a pudding.
Corpuscles (later called electrons), are the
3.
negatively charged particles suspended in this
‘fluid’. This resembles the plums in the
pudding.
4. He did not predict the movement of these
electrons
Timeline: 1910’s
Scientist: Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford was not convinced
about the model of the atom
proposed by Thomson. He thus set
up his now famous Gold Foil
Experiment.
1. He fired alpha particles (positively charged) at
a gold foil.
2. He measured the deflection as the particles
came out the other side.
3. Most of the particles did not deflect at all.
Every now and then a particle would deflect all
the way back.
4. . He said that there must
be a positive centre of
the foil. He called this
centre the nucleus.
RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC
MODEL
(AKA THE PLANETARY MODEL)
 1. The nucleus of the atom is a 3. We cannot say for certain where it is, but only
dense mass of positively where it ought to be
charged particles. 4. The type of probability orbit is dependent on
2. The electrons orbit the the energy level described by Bohr.
nucleus
3. A problem raised was: Why
are the negatively charged
particles not attracted by the positively
charged nucleus
4. Rutherford stated that the atom was like a mini
solar system and that the electrons orbited the
nucleus in a wide orbit. That is why it is known
as the planetary model.

Timeline: 1910’s SUMMARY OF ATOM

Scientist: Niels Bohr
 The smallest part of an
Niels Bohr agreed with
element is called an atom
the planetary model of
the atom, but also  Each atom (of an element)
knew that it had a few is different in structure
flaws. Using his from other atoms (of other
knowledge of energy elements)
and quantum physics he was able to perfect  An atom can be divided in smaller subatomic
Rutherford’s model. He was able to answer why the
particles: Protons, Electrons and Neutrons
electrons did not collapse into the nucleus.
 The nucleus is the centre of an atom. It
BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL contains protons and neutrons.
(AKA THE RUTHERFORD-BOHR MODEL)  Electrons orbit the nucleus
 As we go up the periodic table, an electron
1. Electrons orbit the and proton is added.
nucleus in orbits that
 Electrons occupy a certain energy level (of a
have a set size and
energy certain size)
2. The lower the energy  Once the energy level is full, a new level
of the electron, the begins
lower the orbit.  Within each of these levels are specials types
3. This means that as electrons fill up the of orbitals. These depend on the energy level
orbitals, they will fill the lower energy level first.
 Each orbital can
4. If that energy level is fill (or at capacity), a new
energy level will begin contain two
5. Radiation is when an electron moves from one electrons
level to another.

Problems with this theory:

 Electrons do not travel on a specific orbit or
path.

Timeline: 1920’s
BALANCING EQUATIONS
Scientist: Erwin Schrödinger
Chemical reactions occur when
bonds (between the electrons
Erwin Schrödinger was a revolutionary physicist who
of atoms) are formed or broken
used Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle to come up
Chemical reactions involve
with the atomic model that we still use today.
 changes in the chemical
composition of matter
SCHRÖDINGER’S ATOMIC MODEL
(AKA THE CLOUD MODEL)
- the making of new
materials with new
1. An electron does not travel in an exact orbit properties
2. We can predict where it will probably be.  energy changes:
 - Bond breaking absorbs Energy
(endothermic process)
- Bond making releases Energy (exothermic
process)
Symbols represent elements
Formulas describe compounds
Chemical equations describe a chemical reaction
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
A chemical equation is written as an expression similar
to a mathematic equation that can be compared to a
recipe that a chemist follows in order to produce
desired results.
Their Job: Depict the kind of reactants and products
and their relative amounts in a reaction.
4 Al (s) + 3 O2 (g) ---> 2 Al2O3 (s)
The numbers in the front are called stoichiometric
coefficients
The letters (s), (g), and (l) are the physical states of
compounds.
 Because of the principle of the conservation of
matter (matter can not be created or destroyed)
an equation must be balanced.
 It must have the same number of atoms of the
same kind on both sides.
 Law of Conservation of Energy MUST ALSO BE
FOLLOWED!
 Energy changes are written in (endo-/ exothermic
reactions)
Driving forces:
a. Color change
b. Formation of a solid/precipitate
c. Evolution of a gas
d. Evolution or absorption of heat
When balancing a chemical reaction you may add
coefficients in front of the compounds to balance the
reaction, but you may NOT change the subscripts.
 Changing the subscripts changes the
compound. Subscripts are determined by the
valence electrons (charges for ionic or sharing
for covalent)
- Think back to naming compounds/
determining formulas. NaCl exists,
because Na is + and Cl is -, but NaCl 2
does NOT exist since you would not have
a neutral compound! You can’t just add a
number to a formula to balance an
equation.
The subscripts tell you how many atoms of a particular
element are in a compound. The coefficient tells you
about the quantity, or number, of molecules of the
compound.

All chemical equations have reactants and products.

We express a chemical equation as follows:

Reactants  Products
The arrow is equivalent to an “=“ math. When we
describe the equation we use the word “yields”
or “produces” instead of equals
 Example
C + O2  CO2
- This reads “carbon plus oxygen react to CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
yield carbon dioxide”
4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) ---> 2 Al2O3(s)
A chemical equation is balanced when the ions or
atoms found on the reactant side of the equation This equation means
equals that found on the product side. 4 Al atoms + 3 O2 molecules ---produces--->
2 molecules of Al2O3
The arrow can be considered the balance point. AND/OR
4 moles of Al + 3 moles of O2 ---produces--->
SYMBOLS USED IN EQUATIONS 2 moles of Al2O3
 Solid (s)
 Liquid (l)
 Gas (g)
 Aqueous solution (aq) (dissolved in water)
 Catalyst H2SO4 or Pt

 Escaping gas ()

 Change of temperature/ heat energy

( or + 3kJ or – 3kJ) *there is no subtraction…a
negative sign means released/exothermic

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL

EQUATIONS

Reactants Products
 BALANCE THIS EQUATION!
Na + Cl2 -- NaCl
Na-1 Na-1
Cl-2 Cl-1
**note that the number of sodiums balance but the
chlorine does not. We will have to use coefficients in
STEPS TO BALANCING EQUATIONS order to balance this equation.
There are four basic steps to balancing a chemical
equation. ** Now the chlorine balances
1. Write the correct formula for the reactants and but the sodium does not! So
the products. DO NOT TRY TO BALANCE IT we go back and balance the
YET! You must write the correct formulas first. sodium.
**And most importantly, once you write them
correctly DO NOT CHANGE THE FORMULAS! **Since the number of each
2. Find the number of atoms for each element on element on the reactant side
the left side. Compare those against the and the product side of the
number of the atoms of the same element on equation are equal, the
the right side. equation is balanced.
3. Determine where to place coefficients in front
of formulas so that the left side has the same
number of atoms as the right side for EACH 2 Al(s) + ___
___ 3 Br2(l) ---> ___ Al2Br6(s)
element in order to balance the equation.
4. Check your answer to see if:
 The numbers of atoms on both sides
of the equation are now balanced.
 The coefficients are in the lowest
possible whole number ratios.
(reduced) Sodium phosphate + iron (III)
oxide  sodium oxide + iron (III) phosphate
Some helpful hints for balancing equations:
 Take one element at a time, working left to 2 Na3PO4 + Fe2O3 ----> Na2O3 + FePO42
right except for H and O. Metals, then
nonmetals are a good way, too. Save H for
next to last, and O until last.
 IF everything balances except for O, and there
is no way to balance O with a whole number,
double all the coefficients and try again.
(Because O is diatomic as an element)
 (Shortcut) Polyatomic ions that appear on
both sides of the equation should be balanced
as independent units

BALANCING EQUATIONS

__H
2 2(g) + ___ O2(g) ---> __H
2 2O(l)

What Happened to the Other Oxygen Atom?????

This equation is not balanced!

Two hydrogen atoms from a hydrogen molecule (H 2)

combine with one of the oxygen atoms from an oxygen
molecule (O2) to form H2O. Then, the remaining
oxygen atom combines with two more hydrogen atoms
(from another H2 molecule) to make a second H2O
molecule.