GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Dr. Jhon Zapata Rivera

Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry

e-Mail: jhon.zapata.rivera@correounivalle.edu.co
Of ce: Block E20, Floor 2nd, of ce 2080

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medida en que se cuente con la autorización previa y expresa por escrito de la Universidad del Valle.
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 PROPERTIES AND MEASUREMENTS OF
MATTER
• Classi cation of the Matter and Physical Properties

• Signi cant Figures

• Unit Conversions

• Atoms, Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons

• Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes.

Bibliography:
1. Atkins P., Jones L., "Chemical Principles". 5th Edition, Ed. Freeman and Comp. 2009.
2. Chang R., “The Essential Concepts ", 5th Edition, Ed. McGraw-Hill, 2008.
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 States/Phases of the Matter
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
The main phases of the matter are:

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 Properties of the Matter

Physical Changes keep unchanged the composition of the matter.

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 Properties of the Matter
Physical Properties can be measured and observed without changing the
composition of a substance

An extensive property depends on how much matter is being considered.

An intensive property does not depend on the amount of matter being
considered.
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 Properties of the Matter

Chemical Changes modify the composition of the matter.

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 Properties of the Matter

Chemical Properties must carry out a chemical change.

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 Classi cation of the matter

Matter
no yes
Can be separated by a
physical process?
Pure substance Mixture

no Can be yes yes no

decomposed by a is it totally uniform?
chemical process?
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Element Compound
mixture mixture

Element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.
Compound is a substance composed of two or more elements chemically united in xed
proportions.
Substance is matter that has a constant composition and distinct properties.
Mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their
distinct identities. 8
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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Measure = Compare

Magnitud + Unidad

50 L
25 g
60 s
2 mL 25 mL 70 mL 1L
25 ºC

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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Le Système International d’Unités (SI): Basic Units

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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Derived Units of SI used in chemistry

Measurements that we will utilize frequently in our study of chemistry include time,
mass, volume, density, and temperature.

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 Measure of the Matter Properties
Some de nitions:

Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object. (kg)

Volume is a measure of space occupied by an object. (m3)
Density is the mass of an object divided by its volume. (kg/m3 or g/cm3)

Temperature is a measure of the degree of heat of an object. (K)

Time is a measure of the progress of an event that occur in an apparently

irreversible succession from the past, through the present, to the future. (s)
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 Measure of the Matter Properties
Some Exercises:
1. Gold is a precious metal that is chemically “unreactive”. It is used mainly in jewelry,
dentistry, and electronic devices. A piece of gold ingot with a mass of 301 g has a
volume of 15.6 cm3. Calculate the density of gold.

2. Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in electronic circuits. A certain
solder has a melting point of 224 ºC. What is its melting point in degrees Fahrenheit?

3. Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature, melts at -38.9 ºC.
Convert its melting point to kelvins.

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 Measure of the Matter Properties
Some Exercises:
4. A cubic piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5 g/cm3 has an edge of 1.65 cm.
What is its mass in kg?

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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Pre xes used with SI units

In some cases the magnitude is either very large or very small. Then it is convenient
use some pre xes in the units, like this:

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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Scienti c Notation
Chemists often deal with numbers that are either extremely large or extremely small.
Regardless of their magnitude, all numbers can be expressed in the form
N x10n
where N is a number between 1 and 10 and n, the exponent, is a positive or negative
integer (whole number). Any number expressed in this way is said to be written in
scienti c notation.
• You can write a very large number in scienti c notation by moving the decimal point to the
left until only one digit remains to the left. The number of moves of the decimal point gives
you the exponent, which is always positive for a big number.
For example:
3’454 000 m = 3.454 x 106 m
• For very small numbers, you move the decimal point to the right until only one digit
remains to the left of the decimal point. The number of moves to the right gives you a
negative exponent.
For instance:
0.0000005234 m = 5.234 x 10-7 m
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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Signi cant Figures

Signi cant gures are the meaningful digits in a measured or calculated quantity.

Guidelines for Using Signi cant Figures:

1. Any digit that is not zero is signi cant.
• 845 cm has three signi cant gures
• 1.234 kg has four signi cant gures

2. Zeros between nonzero digits are signi cant.

• 606 m contains three signi cant gures
• 40.501 kg contains ve signi cant gures

3. Zeros to the left of the rst nonzero digit are not signi cant. Their purpose is to
indicate the placement of the decimal point.
• 0.08 L contains one signi cant gure
• 0.0000349 g contains three signi cant gures
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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Signi cant Figures

4. If a number is greater than 1, then all the zeros written to the right of the decimal
point count as signi cant gures.
• 2.0 mg has two signi cant gures
• 40.062 mL has ve signi cant gures
• 3.040 dm has four signi cant gures.
If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end of the number and
the zeros that are between nonzero digits are signi cant.
• 0.090 kg has two signi cant gures
• 0.3005 L has four signi cant gures
• 0.00420 min has three signi cant gures

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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Signi cant Figures

5. For numbers that do not contain decimal points, the trailing zeros (that is, zeros after
the last nonzero digit) may or may not be signi cant.
• Thus, 400 cm may have one signi cant gure (the digit 4), two signi cant gures (40),
or three signi cant gures (400).

We cannot know which is correct without more information. By using scienti c

notation, however, we avoid this ambiguity. In this particular case, we can express the
number 400 as:
• 4 x102 for one signi cant gure
• 4.0 x102 for two signi cant gures
• 4.00 x102 for three signi cant gures

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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Signi cant Figures

Guidelines to handle signi cant gures in calculations:
1. In addition and subtraction, the answer cannot have more digits to the right of the
decimal point than either of the original numbers.

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 Measure of the Matter Properties

Signi cant Figures

Guidelines to handle signi cant gures in calculations:
2. In multiplication and division, the number of signi cant gures in the nal product or
quotient is determined by the original number that has the smallest number of
signi cant gures.

3. Keep in mind that exact numbers obtained from de nitions (such as 1 ft =12 in, where
12 is an exact number) or by counting numbers of objects can be considered to have
an in nite number of signi cant gures.

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 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Chemical Problems

Unit Conversions: Conversion Factor

Let us consider the conversion of 57.8 meters to centimeters. This problem can be
expressed as

By de nition

Because we are converting “m” to “cm,” we choose the conversion factor that has meters in
the denominator:

and write the conversion as

Note that scienti c notation is used to indicate that the answer has three signi cant gures.
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 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Chemical Problems

Unit Conversions - Conversion Factor

In general, to apply dimensional analysis we use the relationship

given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity

and the units cancel as follows:

desired unit
given unit x = desired unit
given unit

In dimensional analysis the units are carried through the entire sequence of calculations.
Therefore, if the equation is set up correctly, then all the units will cancel except the desired
one.

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 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Chemical Problems

Examples: Unit Conversions - Conversion Factor

1. A person’s average daily intake of glucose (a form of sugar) is 0.0833 pound (lb). What is
this mass in milligrams (mg)? (1 lb = 453.6 g)

2. An average adult has 5.2 L of blood. What is the volume of blood in m3?

3. Liquid nitrogen is obtained from lique ed air and is used to prepare frozen goods and in
low-temperature research. The density of the liquid at its boiling point (-196 ºC or 77 K)
is 0.808 g/cm3. Convert the density to units of kg/m3.

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 The Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

In 1808 the Dalton’s work marked the beginning of the modern era of chemistry. The
hypotheses about the nature of matter on which Dalton’s Atomic Theory is based can be
summarized as:

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles, called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical
properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.

Atoms of some element: Hydrogen, Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Fluor.

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 The Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the
ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or
a simple fraction.
• This idea is an extension of the law of de nite proportions published in 1799 by
Joseph Proust. The Proust’s law states that “different samples of the same compound
always contain its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass”.

This Compound (H2O) is always formed from atoms of elements

H (11.11% in mass) and O (88.89% in mass) in ratio 2:1.

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 The Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• The Dalton’s third hypothesis also supports the law of multiple proportions. This law,
states that “if two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of
one element that combine with a xed mass of the other element are in ratios of small
whole numbers”.

Ratio of Oxygen:Carbon

Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide

4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of

atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction.
• This is another way of stating the law of conservation of mass, which is that “matter
can be neither created nor destroyed”.
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 The Structure of the Atom

Subatomic Particles
The Dalton’s atomic theory (1808) and the experiments of Thomson (1890), Rutherford
(1910), and Chadwick (1932) led to the discovery of three such particles: electrons,
protons, and neutrons.

The protons and neutrons of an atom are packed in an extremely small nucleus. Electrons
are shown as “clouds” around the nucleus.
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 The Structure of the Atom

Subatomic Particles: Mass and Charges

• Protons are the basis of atoms. While an atom can gain or lose neutrons and
electrons, its identity is tied to the number of protons. The number of protons in the
nucleus of each atom of an element is called the atomic number (Z) .
• The number of Neutrons in an atom is indicated by the letter N. The mass number
(A) is the total number of neutrons (N) and protons (Z) present in the nucleus of an
atom of an element. The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons together to
form the nucleus of an atom.

• Electrons are much smaller than protons or neutrons and orbit around them.
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 The Structure of the Atom

Isotopes
The accepted way to denote the atomic number and mass number of an atom of element
X is as follows:
mass number
Symbol of the element
atomic number

In most cases atoms of a given element do not all have the same mass. Atoms that have the
same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes.
Thus, for the isotopes of hydrogen, we write

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

Hydrogen has one proton and no neutrons. The Deuterium isotope has one proton and
one neutron, and Tritium has one proton and two neutrons.
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 The Structure of the Atom

Examples
1. How can be written the isotopes of the Carbon?

2. Give the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of the following
species:
1) 178O

2) 178O-

3) 19980Hg

4) 2311Na+
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