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Physic 960
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Chapter 1 Physical Quantities and Units

1.1 Basic Quantities and International System of Units (SI units)

1.2 Dimensions, and Physical Quantities
1.3 Scalar and Vectors
1.4 Metrology

Introduction
What is physic ?
1. Definition of physics - derives from Greek word means nature.
2. Each theory in physics involves:
(a) Concept of physical quantities.
(b) Assumption to obtain mathematical model.
(c) Relationship between physical concepts.
- proportional
- inversely proportional
- exponential
(d) Procedures to relate mathematical models to actual measurements from
experiments.
(e) Experimental proofs to devise explanation to nature phenomena.

1.1 Quantities and International System of Units (SI units)

Learning outcome:
(a) list base quantities and their SI units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s), current (A),
temperature (K) and quantity of matter (mol);
(b) deduce units for derived quantities

Physical quantity
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured.
Physical quantity consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
Example:
250 ml (magnitude and unit)

Basic quantity
Basic Quantity is a physical quantity that is cannot be derived from other quantities.
This quantity is important because it
- can be easily produced

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- does not change its magnitude

- is internationally accepted
SI units
SI unit is the unit of a physical quantity is the standard size used to compare different
magnitudes of the same physical quantity.

Systems of units
Several systems of units have been in use. Example:
- The MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system
- The cgs (centimetre-gram-second) system
- British engineering system: foot for length, pound for mass and second
for time.
Today the most important system of unit is the Systems International or Sl units.

Physical Quantity and the SI Base Units

1. Physical quantities can be divided into two categories:
a) basic quantities and
b) derived quantities.
2. The corresponding units for these quantities are called base units and derived
units.

Basic Quantities
1. In the interest of simplicity, seven basics quantities, consistent with a full
description of the physical world, have been chosen.
Dimension
Basic quantity Symbol (base Definition SI units Name
quantity
symbol)
length most commonly refers to the
Length L L Meter
longest dimension of an object

Mass , more specifically inertial

mass, can be defined as a
Mass m M Kilogram
quantitative measure of an object's
resistance to acceleration
Time is a dimension in which events
can be ordered from the past through
Time t T Second
the present into the future, and also
the measure of durations of events
and the intervals between them

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Dimension
Basic quantity Symbol (base Definition SI units Name
quantity
symbol)
Electric Electric current is a flow of electric
I A Ampere
current charge through a conductive medium

Temperature is a physical property of

Thermodynamic
T  matter that quantitatively expresses Kelvin
temperature
the common notions of hot and cold.
Amount of substance is a
Amount of standards-defined quantity that
substances, measures the size of an ensemble of
n N Mole
Quantity of elementary entities, such as atoms,
matter molecules, electrons, and other
particles
luminous intensity is a measure of
Luminous the wavelength-weighted power
Iv J Candela
intensity emitted by a light source in a
particular direction per unit solid angle
Table 1- 1

Base Units
There are only seven base unit in SI system.

SI Base units Symbol Definition

"The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
Metre m interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second."
17th CGPM (1983, Resolution 1, CR, 97)
"The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international
Kilogram kg prototype of the kilogram."
3rd CGPM (1901, CR, 70)
"The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the caesium 133 atom."
Second s
13th CGPM (1967/68, Resolution 1; CR, 103)
"This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K."
(Added by CIPM in 1997)

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SI Base units Symbol Definition

"The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight
parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and
Ampere A placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per metre of length."
9th CGPM (1948)
"The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of
the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water."
13th CGPM (1967/68, Resolution 4; CR, 104)
"This definition refers to water having the isotopic composition defined
Kelvin K
exactly by the following amount of substance ratios: 0.000 155 76 mole of 2H
per mole of 1H, 0.000 379 9 mole of 17O per mole of 16O, and 0.002 005 2
mole of 18O per mole of 16O."
(Added by CIPM in 2005)
"1. The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as
many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12;
its symbol is 'mol.'

2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and
may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified
Mole Mol
groups of such particles."
14th CGPM (1971, Resolution 3; CR, 78)
"In this definition, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest
and in their ground state, are referred to."
(Added by CIPM in 1980)

"The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that

emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 10 12 hertz and that has a
Candela cd
radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian."
16th CGPM (1979, Resolution 3; CR, 100)
Table 1- 2

Prefixes
•For very large or very small numbers, we can use standard prefixes with the base units.

Prefix tera giga mega Kilo deci centi mili micro nano pico

Factor 1012 109 106 103 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12

Symbol T G M K d c m µ n P

Table 1- 3

Example 1- 1:

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Write 2 x 10-7 in a suitable prefix.

Solution:
2 x 10-7 ---- 2 x 10-6 x 10-1 ---- 2 x 10-1 – 0.2

Derived quantities and derived units

Derived Quantity is derived from basic quantities through multiplication and division.
•For example,

Derived quantity Derive from base quantity of Derived unit

Area length x length m2
Volume length x length x length m3

mass
Density kg m-3
volume

L
Velocity m s-1
t

velocity
Acceleration m s-2
time
1
Frequency s-1/hz
T
Momentum Mass x velocity kg ms-1

Force Mass x acceleration kg ms-2

Pressure
force N m-2
Area
1 2
Energy mv Kg m2 s-2
2
Table 1- 4

 The derived unit conversion.

Example 1- 2 :
7854 kg m-3 change into g cm-3.
Solution:
3
7854kg 7854×10 g 7854×103
gcm−3
1m3 ---- 100 cm×100 cm×100 cm ----- 10
6
--
7.854 g cm-3

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1.2 Dimensions and Physical Quantities

(a) use dimensional analysis to determine the dimensions of derived quantities;
(b) check the homogeneity of equations using dimensional analysis;
(c) construct empirical equations using dimensional analysis;

The dimension of a physical quantity is a product of the basic physical dimensions each
raised to a rational power.

1. Each derive quantity in physic can be represent by basic quantity. The dimension
of a physical quantities is the relation between the physical quantity and the base
quantities
2. The Bracket ‘[ ]’ meant The dimension of (pronounce its loudly) or the power of
base quantity of
Example :
[v] “the dimension of velocity” , this means that the power of base quantities in the
velocity.

Example 1- 3
Write the dimensions for the following physical quantity
(a) Acceleration

Solution:
−1 −1

(a)
[ ]
[ a ] = v−u = LT −LT =LT −2
t T

Use of dimensions
•To check the homogeneity of physical equations

Concept of homogeneous
•The dimensions on both sides of an equation are the same.
•Those equations which are not homogeneous are definitely wrong.
•However, the homogeneous equation could be wrong due to the incomplete or has
extra terms.
•The validity of a physical equation can only be confirmed experimentally.
•In experiment, graphs have to be drawn then. A straight line graph shows the
correct equation and the non-linear graph is not the correct equation.

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•Deriving a physical equation

•An equation can be derived to relate a physical quantity to the variables that the
quantity depends on.

Example 1- 4
Determine the homogeneous of the equation v2 = u2 +2as.
Solution:
Left hand side :
[v2] = [v]2 = (LT-1)2 = L2 T-2

Right hand side :

[u2 + 2as] = L2 T-2 + L T-2 . L = L2 T-2

Conclusion ; the RHS dimension as same as the LHS dimension, meaning that the above
equation is homogenic.

Derivation of Physical Equation

From observations and experiments, a physical quantity may be found to be dependent on a
few other physical quantity. To find this relationship we use dimension method.

Example 1- 5
From the observations speed of sound in medium maybe affected by density d, wavelength
, and Young Modulus E. Derive an equation for the speed of sound in the medium.
([E] = ML-1T-2)

Solution:
a b c
It’s observe that vαd λ E suppose the a,b and c are dimensionless constant.
a b c
Then v=kd λ E

Assume that k is the dimensionless constant.

LHS : [ v ]=LT −1
RHS :

[ d a ]=( ML−3 )a=M a L−3 a

[ λb ]=Lb

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[ Ec ]=( ML−1 T −2)c=M c L−c T −2 c

d a  bE c �
�
�
a + c -3 a + b -c -2 c
�= M L T

So LHS = RHS
−1 a+c −3 a+b −2c
LT =M L T
Pairing the similar physical quantities Dimension indices of both sides.
LHS RHS
0
M Ma+c
L1 L-3a+b-c
T-1 T-2c
Table 1- 5

M: 0=a+c
L : 1 = -3a + b - c

T: −1=−2c
Solve the above equation :
1 1
a=- c=
2 , b=0 and 2

So the equation v = kd a  b E c will become :

1 1
-
v = kd 2  0E 2
Meaning that the equation of v is

E
v =k
d

Example 1- 6
(a) Given below are the equation of the liquid flow inside the horizontal pipe.

(1) p + A rv 2 = W
BTg
p+ =X
(2) v2

(3)
p + Cg rv = Y
Where;
W,X,Y have the dimension as same as pressure
A,B,C are the constant without dimension.
g represent gravitational acceleration.

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T represent liquid surface tension (it’s dimension is MT-2)

r represent liquid density
v represent liquid velocity
p represent the pressure change
Determine the homogeneity of the above equation.

(b) Below are the reading for p and v :

v (m s-2) 1.0 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1
p (Nm-2) 2.0  103 1.5  103 1.2  103 0.7  103 0.3  103
Table 1- 6. The table of reading after the experiment is done.

Using the above reading ,

(i) Determine the correct equation.
(ii) Determine the constant for the correct equation using the information below.
[r = 1.0  103 kg m-3, T = 7.4  10-2 N m-1]
Solution :
(a) Equation (1),
has no dimension so it’s should be term P and Arv2 have the same dimension.
[P] = M L-1 T-2
[rv2] = M L-3 x L2 T-2 = M L-1 T-2

Equation (2)
Tg
2
X has no dimension so it’s should be term P and v have the same dimension.
Tg �
� 1
�2 �
= MT -2 �LT -2 � 2 -2 = ML-1T -2
v �
� LT

Equation (3)

Y has no dimension so it’s should be term P and gρv have the same
dimension.

[ g rv ] = LT -2 �ML-3 �LT -1 = ML-1T -3

It’s meant that equation (3) is dimensionally wrong.

(b) Verily we can conclude that equation (1) and equation (2) are dimensionally correct.

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(i) Equation (1) and equation (2) have to be rearrange into y = mx + c , where y axis is
the responsive variable of the data and x axis is the manipulated variable. And the
gradient and intercept will be the constant for the equation.

(1) p = - Arv 2 + W meaning graph p vs v2 is should be a straight line

BTg 1
p=- 2
+X 2
(2) v meaning graph p vs v is should be a straight line
To confirm which equation is correct the we have to plot both of the graph
according to the data given in the table.

p (Nm-2) 2.0  103 1.5  103 1.2  103 0.7  103 0.3  103
v (m s-2) 1 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1
2
v 1 1.96 2.56 3.61 4.41
1
1.000 0.510 0.391 0.277 0.227
v2
Table 1- 7

P, Pressure(103)Nm-2
2.5

equation (1)
equation (2)
1.5
Linear (equation (1))
Log. (equation (2))

0.5

y = -0.5011x + 2.5
1
v2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Graph 1

From the graph it’s confirm that the equation (1) is correct because it is a linear graph with
negative gradient.

(ii) to find A ;

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From the graph the gradient is -0.5011.

From the equation (1) the gradient is −Aρ

\- Ar = -0.5011
0.5011
A=
ρ r = 1.0  103 kg m-3
0.5011
A= = 5 �10-4
1.0 �103
And
3
W=2.5×10 N m-2, W is the intercept of the graph.

1.3 Scalar and Vectors

(a) determine the sum, the scalar product and vector product of coplanar vectors;
(b) resolve a vector to two perpendicular components;

> A scalar quantity is a physical quantity which has only magnitude.

For example, mass, speed , density, pressure, ....

> A vector quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude and direction.
For example, force, momentum, velocity , acceleration ....

In most cases in physic, the physic quantity is express in vector. If the number(magnitude)
can be operated through Subtract, Add, multiplication and fraction. Then the vector also can
be threat the same way except fraction, but it’s have to follow the rule that govern them.

Graphical representation of vectors

•A vector can be represented by a straight arrow,

Figure 1- 1. Vector drawing

The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector.

The vector points in the direction of the arrow.

Basic principle of vectors

• Two vectors P and Q are equal if:
a) Magnitude of P = magnitude of Q

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(b) Direction of P = direction of Q

• When a vector P is multiplied by a scalar k, the product is k P and the direction remains the
same as P.
The vector -P has same magnitude with P but comes in the opposite direction.

Principles of vectors
(a) Subtraction of Vector
(i) To show the relative vector.
Let’s assume there are two vectors A and B.

Figure 1- 2. Vector A-B  Vector B-A.

Let us look at two cases:
Let’s the two object VA = 10 ms-1 (faster) VB = 3 ms-1. (slower), moving in the same
axis-x
Case one
The velocity of A relative to B = (VA - V=AB (comparing faster toward slower)
= (10- 3) ms
= 7 ms -1 (in forward direction).(mean that A is 7 ms -1 faster than B)
Case two
The velocity of B relative to A = (VB - VA)=BA
= (3 - 10) ms
= -7 ms -1 (in backwards direction).
We may see that(VB - VA) and (VA – VB) are same magnitude but different direction.

Figure 1- 3. Connecting the vector head to head.

(ii) to show change of vector

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Figure 1- 4. Change = Final - Initial

Let’s the same object VA = 10 ms-1 (faster), then after a while it’s decrease into VA
= 3 ms-1. (slower), on the same axis.
So the change of the velocity is 3 ms-1 (final velocity) subtract with 10 ms-1 (initial
velocity) then it’s -7 m s-1 which negative sign mean that the object is reducing its
velocity.

(b) Sum of vectors (Resultant of) : Superposition

If there are two or more vector , these vector can be add to form a single vector called a
Resultant vector.
To solve the problem involving vectors in two dimension, we usually used any one of these
method depend on the information given.
Method 1: Parallelogram of vectors
It’s the drawing method. The drawing of the parallelogram need to be draw
according scale and angle given in the question. The instrument used for this
drawing are:
(a) ruler
(b) protractor
(c) sharp pencil
r r
It two vectors OA and OB are represented in magnitude and direction by the
adjacent sides OA and OB of a parallelogram OABC, then OC represents their
resultant.

Figure 1- 5. Drawing the length of arrow according to the scaled of the vector quantity and the angle
between two vectors. These vector is connected to it tails.

This method is used when there are information about angle and magnitudes of the vector.

Method 2: Triangle of vectors and polygon of vector

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It’s the drawing method. The drawing of the vectors need to be draw according
scale and angle given in the question. The instrument used for this drawing are:
(d) ruler
(e) protractor
(f) sharp pencil
•Use a suitable scale to draw the first vector.
•From the end of first vector, draw a line to represent the second vector. (attaching
the head with the it’s tail)
•Complete the triangle/polygon. The line from the beginning of the first vector to the
end of the second vector represents the sum in magnitude and direction.

Figure 1- 6. Drawing the length of arrow according to the scaled of the vector quantity and the angle
between two vectors. These vector is connected between tail and head or head and tail of different
vector.
Example 1- 7 1

Figure 1- 7. Someone flying a kite.

A kite flies in still air is 4.0 ms-1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant velocity of
the kite when the air flows across perpendicularly is 2.5 ms-1. If the distance of the kite is 30
m from the player, what is the time taken for the kite to fly? Calculate the height of the kite
from the ground.

Solution:
Draw a straight line from A to B with the length of 4 cm, (scaled to 1 cm : 1 m s-1). And
another line B to C with the length of 2.5 cm. the angle of ABC is 90 degree. The resultant of
the vector can be measured from A to C, 4.72 cm.
This answered can be converted into 4.72 ms-1.

1 We need to identify vector quantity from the problem arises. It magnitude and direction.

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Using the protractor the angle of DAC is 58 degree. Meaning that the kite is moving at
speed of 4.71 m s-1 and 58 degree from the ground.

2.5 cm
B C

4 cm 4.72 cm

A D

Scaled to 1 cm : 1 m s-1

Figure 1- 8

The distance from A to C is 30m, the time taken from A to C is :

s 30m
t= = = 6.37s
v 4.71ms -1
And the height of the kite is :
DC
= sin
AC
DC = 30m �sin58 = 25.44m

Example 1- 8

Figure 1- 9

Five coplanar forces act on a particle, as drown in Figure above. Draw a scaled force
polygon for these forces. State the magnitude and direction of the resultant of these forces.

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Solution:

Draw the polygon using a scaled 1 cm : 1N, refer to figure1- 10. The angle of the vector
must be referred to the figure 1-11 while connecting the head and tail of every vector.

45
D
5 cm
4 cm

45 C

2 cm
4 cm
F

3 cm
G
A B

Scaled to 1 cm: 1 N

Figure 1- 10
The resultant of the vector can be measured using metre ruler from A to F and it’s length is
3.5 cm, meaning that 3.5 N
And it’s direction or angle, is 21 degree from the ground.

Method 3 : Component Method 2

It’s is a calculation method , because every vector can be replace into x-component and y-
component. Replacing a single vector into its components is called Resolving.
To determine the resultant of the vector using this method, it’s need to follow these four
keyword carefully.
1. Axis
2. Resolve vector
3. Angle
4. direction
5. add vector component
6. Resultant
Axis
Need to be determine before resolving the vector.

2 This is the physic methode that is used to solve problem involving adding vector in physic

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•Resolving vector
The vector that is not on any axis have to be resolve into its component. Resolving vector
mean resolving :
(a) magnitude
(b) Direction
A vector R can be considered as the two vectors. R refers to the resultant vectors. There are
two mutually perpendicular components Rx and Ry

Resultant, R

Ry: component of vector R on y-axis (+ )

Rx: component of vector R on x-axis (+)

Figure 1- 11. The relation between a vector (Resultant vector, R) and it components. A vector
direction can be stated in 360 degree angle, the direction of it components only have two option
whether it is positive or negative.

Adding a few Vector Component

�Fx = Fx 1 + Fx 2 + Fx 4 ..............
and �Fy = Fy 1 + Fy 2 + Fy 4 .......

Only the same axis component can be added.

Calculating the vector Resultant

�Fy
( �F ) + ( �F )  = arctan
2 2
R= x y �Fx
Magnitude, and Direction of R,

Example 1- 9
The figure below shows 3 forces F1, F2 and F3 acting on a point O. Calculate the resultant
force and the direction of resultant.

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Figure 1- 12

Solution:

Figure 1- 13

Step one : Draw the axis x and y

Step two : resolve the vector that is not on any axis into two component, x and y
Step three : determine their angle
Step four : tabulate the component according their axis.
Force Component X Component Y
Mag: 3N No Component
F1 +3N 0
Dir : to the Right (+)
Mag : 5N Cos 30= Mag : 5N sin 30 = 2.5 N
F2 4.33N -4.33N Dir : upward (+) +2.5N
Dir : to the left (-)
Mag: 4N Cos 60= 2N Mag: 4N sin 60
F3 -2N -3.46N
Dir : to the left (-) Dir : downward (-)
∑ Fx -3.33N ∑ Fy -0.96N

Table 1- 8

Step Five : Calculate magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

( �F ) + ( �F )
2 2
R= x y
Magnitude,

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( -3.33N ) + ( -0.96N )
2 2
R=
R = 3.47N
And

θ=arctan
∑Fy
Direction of R, ∑ Fx
−0.96 N
θ=arctan =16.08°
−3.33N

(c) Multiplication of vector

It’s have been discuss about subtraction and addition of the vector. From subtraction and
addition of vector we can explain most of the physical quantity. Now is about multiplication
of vectors. When two vectors were multiply the result is called product.
There are two kind of product produced :
1. Dot Product
2. Cross Product
Dot Product :The dot product is fundamentally a projection.

Figure 1- 14

The dot product of a vector with a unit vector is the projection of that vector in the direction
given by the unit vector. This leads to the geometric formula
rr r r
v .w = v w cos 
Furthermore, it follows immediately from the geometric definition that two vectors are
orthogonal if and only if their dot product vanishes, that is
r r
v .w = 0

Example 1- 10
Calculate the scalar product of vector F and s below.

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F = 5N

= 60
S = 5M

Figure 1- 15

Solution:

F �S = (5N )(5m )cos60�= 12.5Nm

Cross Product : The cross product is fundamentally a directed area.

Figure 1- 16

whose magnitude is defined to be the area of the parallelogram. The direction of the cross

product is given by the right-hand rule, so that in the example shown v×ω points into
the page.

|⃗v ×⃗ω|=|⃗v|sinθ|⃗ω|
To determine the direction of the cross product we used the right hand rule. In mathematics
and physics, the right-hand rule is a common mnemonic for understanding notation
conventions for vectors in 3 dimensions. It was invented for use in electromagnetism by
British physicist John Ambrose Fleming in the late 19th century.

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v w
amimo

Figure 1- 17

Example 1- 11
There are two vector a and b, calculate the a  b.

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b = 18 unit

a = 12 unit

Figure 1- 18

Solution:
r r
a �b = (12)(18)sin90�= 216
Magnitude,
Direction :

a
⃗ ⃗
a b
Figure 1- 19

1.4 Metrology (Uncertainties in measurements)

Learning outcome:
(a) calculate the uncertainty in a derived quantity (a rigorous statistical treatment is not
required);
(b) write a derived quantity to an appropriate number of significant figures.

Metrology is the science of measurement and its application.

Terminology related to measurement uncertainty is not used consistently among experts. To
avoid further confusions lets refer to BIPM-VIM(International Vocabulary of Basic and

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General Terms in Metrology) and GUM (Guide to the expression of uncertainty in

measurement).

1.4.1 Error
VIM define the error as below:
error (of measurement) [VIM 3, 2.16] - measured quantity value minus a reference
quantity value
There are two type of error
(a) Systematic Error
Characteristics of systematic error in the measurement of a particular physical quantity:
-Its magnitude is constant.
-It causes the measured value to be always greater or always less than the true
value.
Corrected reading = direct reading - systematic Error
Sources of systematic Error:
- Zero Error of instrument.
- Incorrectly calibrated scale of instrument.
- Personal error of observer, for example reaction time of observer.
- Error due to certain assumption of physical conditions of surrounding for example,
g = 9.81 ms-2
Systematic error cannot be reduced or eliminated by taking repeated readings using the
same method, instrument and by the same observer.

(b) Random Error

Characteristics of Random Error :
- It’s magnitude is not constant.
- It causes the measured value to be sometimes greater and sometimes less than
the true value.
Corrected reading = direct reading ± Random Error
The main source of random error is the observer.
The surroundings and the instruments used are also sources of random error.

Example of random Error:

- Parallax Error due to incorrect position of the eye when taking reading
Parallax Error can be reduced by having the line of sight perpendicular to the scale
reading.

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- Error due to the inability to read an instrument beyond some fraction of the
smallest division
Reading are recorded to a precision of half the smallest division of the scale.
Random Error can be reduced by taking several readings and calculating the
mean.

Error contributes to but is different from Uncertainty

1.4.2 The Uncertainty of the Instrumental

VIM define the Uncertainty as below
uncertainty of measurement [VIM 3, 2.6] non-negative parameter characterizing the
dispersion of the quantity values being attributed to a measurand (quantity intend to
measure), based on the information used and it’s have a statistical concept of standard
deviation means.

Instrumental Measurement
When handling the experiment the reading is given by the apparatus used, these apparatus
have their own uncertainty.
Instrumental measurement uncertainty(VIM 3, 4.24) - the amount (often stated in the
form ±x) that along with the measured value, indicates the range in which the desired or
true value most likely lies. Instrumental measurement uncertainty is used in a Type B
evaluation of measurement uncertainty

Here the magnitude of ±x is called the absolute Uncertainty.

Absolute Uncertainty is the smallest scale of the instrument or half of the smallest scale if it’s
can be determine “easily”.

Instruments Absolute Uncertainty Example of readings

Millimetre ruler 0.1 cm (50.1 ± 0.1)cm

Vernier calliper 0.01 cm (3.23 ± 0.01)cm
Micrometer screw gauge 0.01 mm (2.63 ± 0.01)mm
Stopwatch (analogue) 0.1 s (1.4 ± 0. 1 )s
Stopwatch(Digital) 0.01 s (1.452  0.01)s
Thermometer 0.5 °C (28.0 ± 0.5)°C
Ammeter (0 - 3A) 0.05 A (1.70 ± 0.05)A
Voltmeter (0 - 5V) 0.05 V (0.65 ± 0.05)V

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Table 1- 9

The smaller absolute uncertainty of the instrument is contribute to the high accuracy,
precision and sensitivity of the measuring system of the experiment.

1.4.3 Analysing Uncertainty of the data

- specifically Uncertainty analyzing is refer to Uncertainty that cause by repetition
measurement to produce more accurate data.
- Meaning that if we want to measure a mass of cube, of course we cannot just used
a single measurement then we will get the answer. We have to measure the mass
with the triple balance beam more than one time for example 3 time.
- While doing the measurement actually we have continually increasing the
Uncertainty.
- It is a good idea to mention the Uncertainty for every measurement and calculation.
- In this subtopic we deal with the repetition reading or data. It’s known that if we
have more than one reading so the true value is the mean of the reading.
a1 + a2 . .. .. ..+ an
⟨ a⟩=
- Mean value for a is n

- Mean value of Uncertainty of a, Δ⟨a⟩ should be calculated this way

1. Calculated the deviation of every data given:

s1 = a1 - a

s2 = a2 - a
.

sn = an - a
2. Find the sum of deviation
1
s = �sn = s1 + s2 + ..... + sn
n

s
s =
3. find the mean of deviation n
It’s known that the mean deviation is equally the same as the Uncertainty
of the mean value(true value).
Or

 a = s

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Working example on a single quantity :

1. Aim : to determine the diameter, d of a wire
2. Theory : used outer jaw of ernier caliper
3. Precaution : measure more than one reading
4. Choosing Apparatus and Determine the absolute uncertainty:
Uncertainty
Instruments
(Absolute/actual)
Vernier calliper 0.01 cm
Table 1- 10

5. Manage the reading/data:

Diameter ,d of a wire was measured several time to reduce the Uncertainty and the
reading is given in the table below. Find the true value(mean value) and the Uncertainty
of the diameter.

I ii iii iv v vi
(d0.01)/c 1.55 1.52 1.54 1.53 1.54 1.53
m
Table 1- 11

6. Determine the quantity and it’s uncertainty

a. Calculating the true value of diameter (mean value) <d>:
1 .55+1 . 52+ 1. 54+1 .53+1 . 54+1 .53
⟨d ⟩= =1 . 54 cm
6
b. Calculating the uncertainty of diameter:

|1.55−⟨d⟩|+|1.52−⟨d⟩|+|1.54−⟨d⟩|+|1.53−⟨d⟩|+|1.54−⟨d⟩|+|1.53−⟨d⟩|
Δ⟨d⟩= =0.01cm
6
So the diameter of a wire should be written (1.54  0.01)cm

Note: calculating the uncertainty this way is refer to a single quantity and not involving with
the graph.

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1.4.4 Primary data and secondary data

1. Primary data are raw data or readings (taken directly from apparatus) in an
experiment. Primary data obtained using the same instrument have to be recorded to
the same degree of precision i.e to the same number of decimal places.

2. Secondary data are derived from primary data. Secondary data have to be
recorded to the correct number of significant figures. The number of significant figures
for secondary data may be the same (or one more than) the least number of
significant figures in the primary data. Measurement play a crucial role in physics, but
can never be perfectly precise.

3. It is important to specify the Uncertainty or Uncertainty of a measurement either by

stating it directly using the ± notation, and / or by keeping only correct number of
significant figures while taking measurement.
Example: 51.2  0.1

Processing significant figures

• Addition and subtraction
When two or more measured values are added or subtracted, the final calculated
value must have the same number of decimal places as that measured value which
has the least number , of decimal places.
Example
1. a = 1.35 cm + 1.3251 cm
= 2.6751 cm
= 2.68 cm
2. b = 3.2 cm - 0.3545 cm
= 2.8465 cm
= 2.8 cm
1 . 15+1. 13+1 .16+1 . 14+1 .13
cm
3. c= 5
= 1.142 cm
= 1.14 cm

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 Multiplication and division

When two or more measured values are multiplied and/or divided, the final
calculated value must have as many significant figures as that measured value
which has the least number of significant figures.
Example
1. Volume of a wooden block = 9.5 cm x 2.36 cm x 0.515 cm
= 11.5463 cm3
= 12 cm3
2. If the time for 50 oscillations of a simple pendulum is 43.7 s, then the period of
oscillation = 43.7 ÷ 50 = 0.874 s, because 43.7 is the measured value (primary
data) whereas 50 is only a constant.
9.15 - 3.0 6.15
= = 15.375 = 15
3. The gradient of a graph 0.450 - 0.050 0.400 . The gradient is
15 (2 SF) because the least SF in the calculation.

Note: Sometimes the final answer may be obtained only after performing several
intermediate calculations. In this case, results produced in intermediate
calculations need not be rounded off. Round only the final answer.

1.4.5 Analysing Uncertainty of a derive quantity.

1. Actual Value
- is in the scale reading (pointer reading) of an instrument.(single reading)
Or
- is in the mean value.(of the repetition reading)
2. Fractional and percentage Uncertainty,
R
R=
(a) The fractional Uncertainty of R : R
R
R= �100%
(b) The percentage Uncertainty of R : R
3. Consequential Uncertainties/Uncertainty- to state the Uncertainty of a derive
quantities
Given
R 1  R1 = Data  Absolute Data Uncertainty = 51.2  0.1
R 2  R2 = Data  Absolute Data Uncertainty = 30.1  0.1

(a) Addition
W = R1 + R2 = 51.2 + 30.1 = 81.3

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W = R1 + R2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2

So W  W = 81.3  0.2

(b) Subtraction
S = R1 - R2 = 51.2 - 30.1 = 21.1
S = R1 + R2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2

So S  S = 21.1  0.2

(c) Product
P = R1  R2 = 51.2  30.1 =1541.12

Fraction Percentage
ΔP ΔR 1 ΔR2 R1 % Uncertainty is
= +
From P R1 R2
0.1
�100 = 0.195%
51.2

ΔR 1 ΔR2 R2 % Uncertainty is
∴ ΔP=
( R1
+
R2
P
) 0.1
�100 = 0.332%
30.1
Percentage Uncertainty of
P = R1 �R2 is
0 . 1 0.1
ΔP= ( +
51. 2 30 .1)1541.12
0.195% + 0.332% = 0.527%
0.527
\P = 1541.12 = 8.13
\P = 8.13 100

P  P = 1541.12  8.13 P  P = 1541.12  8.13

(d) Quotient
R1 51.2
Q= = = 1.70
R2 30.1

ΔQ ΔR 1 ΔR 2
= +
From Q R 1 R2

ΔR 1 ΔR 2
∴ ΔQ=
( R1
+
R2) Q

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ΔQ=( 51.0.12 +300.1.1 ) 1.7

∴ ΔQ=0. 01
Q  Q = 1.70  0.01

(e) Powers

T = R12 = R1 �R1 = 2621.44

Percentage Uncertainty T = 2 �0.195% = 0.39%
\T = 10.22
T �T = 2621.44 �10.22

the rules for uncertainties therefore :

Operator Uncertainty
addition and subtraction ADD absolute uncertainties
multiplication and division ADD percentage uncertainties
powers Multiply the percentage Uncertainty by the power
Table 1- 14

Working example:
1. Aim : to determine the value of B
2. Theory :
B is given by

(a - b )d 2
B=
q T
3. Precaution : B have a combine uncertainty from various apparatus (quantity)
4. Choosing Apparatus and Determine the absolute uncertainty:

Uncertainty
Quantity Instruments
(Absolute/actual)
a,b meter ruler 1 cm
q Stopwatch(Digital) 0.01 s
Table 1- 12

5. Manage the reading/data:

After the measuring and calculating the uncertainty of the quantity a,b,d,q
and T(refer 1.4.2). The true value (mean value) and the uncertainty of the
quantities are written as below :

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a =(1.83±0.01)m,
b=(1.65 ±0.01) m,
d=(0.00106±0.00003)m,
q = (4.28 ± 0.05) s
T = (3.7 ± 0.1) x 103 s.
6. Determine the quantity and it’s uncertainty
(a) Find B use the equation given

(a - b)d 2
B=
q T
(1.83m - 1.65m )0.00106m 2
=
4.28s 3.7 �103 s
B = 7.8 x 10-11 m3 s-

(b) Find the uncertainty of B

1. Fisrt check the equation for addition and subtraction, by applying 1.4.3
no 3 (b) , subtraction so (a - b) = (0.18±0.02)m

2. Second calculate the percentage uncertainties in each of the 4 terms:

Fractional Uncertainty
Term Magnitude and uncertainty
Uncertainty percentage
0.02
(a - b) = (0.18±0.02)m 11%
0.18
0.00003
d = (0.001 06 ± 0.000 03) m 3%
0.00106
0.05
q = (4.28 ± 0.05) s 1.2%
4.28
0.1�103
T = (3.7±0.1) x 103 s 3%
3.7 �103
Table 1- 13

- The Uncertainty in (a - b) is now very large, although the readings them-

selves have been taken carefully. This is always the effect when subtracting
two nearly equal numbers.
- The percentage Uncertainty in d2 will be twice the percentage Uncertainty in
d;

- The percentage Uncertainty in √T will be half the percentage

1
Uncertainty in T because a square root is a power of 2 .
This gives:

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1
Uncertainty percentage in B = 11% + 2(3%) + 1.2% + 2 (3%) = 19.7% ≈
20%
This gives
B = (7.8 ± 1.6) x 10-11 m3 s-1.

1.4.6. Uncertainty of a Linear graph

Figure 1- 20: where n is the number of points plotted.

1. The usual quantities that are deduced from a straight line graph are
(a) the gradient of the graph m, and the intercept on the y-axis or the x-axis
(b) the intercepts on the axes.

First calculate the coordinates of the centroid using the formula

��x i �y i �
�n , n
� �
�
� �where n is the number of sets of readings4,5.

2. The straight line graph that is drawn must pass through the centroid
Figure . The best line is the straight line which has the plotted points closest to

it. This line will give m the best gradient together with c.

3. Two other straight lines, one with the maximum gradient

mmax and

another with the least gradient mmin , are then drawn. For a straight line

graph where the intercept is not the origin , the three lines drawn must all

pass through the centroid. Here also we can find

cman and c min

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4. To find the Uncertainty for the gradient and intercept used this equation

m =
( mmax - mmin ) c =
( cmax - cmin )
2 and 2

Working Example
1. Aim
To determine the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.

2. Theory : the theory of the simple pendulum, the period T is related to the
length l, and the acceleration due to gravity g by the equation
l l
T 2 = 4p 2 g = 4p 2 2
g Hence, the acceleration due to gravity, T
2
A straight line graph would be obtained if a graph of T against l is
plotted.
3. Precaution :
The time t for 50 oscillations of the pendulum is measured for different lengths
l of the pendulum. The period T is calculated using
t
T=
50
4. Choosing Apparatus and Determine the absolute uncertainty:
Uncertainty
Instruments
(Absolute/actual)
Millimetre ruler 0.1 cm
Stopwatch (analogue) 0.1 s
Table 1- 15

5. Manage the table

Note the various important characteristics when tabulating the data as shown
in the table below.
Period
Time for 50 oscillation (t  0.1)s
Length T(s)
T2(s2)
(L  0.05) cm t
(i) (ii) Average T=
50
90.00 94.7 94.9 94.8 1.90 3.61
80.00 88.5 88.5 88.5 1.77 3.13
70.00 84.0 83.8 83.9 1.68 2.82
60.00 78.4 78.6 78.5 1.57 2.47
50.00 70.1 69.9 70.0 1.40 1.96
40.00 63.2 63.0 63.1 1.26 1.59

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30.00 55.8 55.8 55.8 1.12 1.25

20.00 44.7 44.9 44.8 0.896 0.803
10.00 31.9 32.0 32.0 0.640 0.410
Table 1- 16

(a) Name or symbol of each quantity and its unit are stated in the
heading of each column. Example: Length and cm, and T(s).
The Uncertainty for the primary data, such as length and t time
for 50 oscillations, is also written. Example: (l  0.05) cm and (t
 0.1)s.

(b) All primary data, such as length and time, should be recorded to
reflect the precision (absolute uncertainty) of the instrument
used.
For example, the length of the pendulum l is measured using a
metre rule. Hence it should be recorded to two decimal places
of a cm, that is 10.00 cm, and not 10 cm or 10.0 cm.
The time for 50 oscillations t is recorded to 0.1 s, that is 32.0 s
and not 32 s.
The average value of t is also calculated to 0.1 s. The average
value of 31.9 s and 32.0 s is recorded as 32.0 s and not 31.95
s.

(c) The secondary data such as T and T2, are calculated from the
primary data. Secondary data should be calculated to the same
number of significant figures as I hat in the least accurate
measurement. For example, T and T2, are calculated to three
significant figures, the same number of significant figures as the
readings of t.

(d) For a straight line graph, there should be at least six point
plotted. If the graph is a curve, then more points should be
plotted, especially near the maximum and minimum points.

From the graph we can determine the intercept and the gradient, both of them also have
their own uncertainty. In order to find the uncertainty of intercept and gradient , it’s have to
calculate the centroid point. Centroid point is the average reading of both in x-axis and y-
axis4.

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�Li
The x-coordinate of the centroid = n
1
= ( 10 + 20 + 30 + 40 + 50 + 60 + 70 + 80 + 90 ) cm
9
= 50 cm

�T i
2

The y-coordinate of the centroid = n

1
= ( 0.410 + 0.803 + 1.25 + 1.59 + 1.96 + 2.47 + 2.82 + 3.13 + 3.61) s 2
9
= 2.00s2

The coordinate for the centroid is (50cm, 2.00s2)

Figure 1- 21

l
g = 4p 2
from the equation T2

l
T 2 = 4p 2
g
Hence a graph of T 2 against l is a straight line, passing through the origin,
and gradient,

4p 2
m=
g

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From the graph,

gradient of best line,

2.00s 2
m=
0.50m
= 4.00s 2 m -1
Maximum gradient,

3.05s 2
mmax =
0.75m
= 4.07s 2 m -1
Minimum gradient,

2.35s 2
mmin =
0.60m
= 3.92s 2 m -1

Absolute Uncertainty in the gradient,

m =
( mmax - mmin ) (4.07 - 3.92)s 2 m -1 0.15
= = = 0.075s 2 m -1
2 2 2
Fractional Uncertainty in the gradient
m 0.075
= = 0.01875 �0.0188
m 4.00
percentage Uncertainty in gradient
m
�100% = 1.88%
m

4p 2 4p 2
g= = = 9.870ms 2
Acceleration due to gravity, m 4.00
Hence the percentage Uncertainty in g is the sum of the percentage
Uncertainty in m only because 4p2 is a constant.
Therefore percentage Uncertainty in gravity,

g = �uncertainty percentage = 1.88 % according to above equation

Hence acceleration due to gravity,
Written in percentage Uncertainty
g = (9.8701.88%) m s2
also can be write in absolute Uncertainty

g = 1.88% �9.870 = 0.2ms 2

g = (9.9  0.2) m s2 Since there is Uncertainty in the second significant figure,
the value of g is given to two significant figures.

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Chapter 01 Physical Quantities Summary Skill

Symbol/Formulae:define
No. Item
symbol used
1. Circle Area
2. Density
3. Circle Perimeter
4. Sin , in length
5. Cos , in length
6. Tan , in length
7. Sphere Area
8. Sphere volume
9. Cylinder volume
10. Kinetic Energy
11. Potential Energy
12. Work
13. Phytagoras Theorem
14. Basic Quantity Dimension
15. Vector subtraction
16. Vector addition
17. Secondary data rule
18. Uncertainty rule
19. Sine rule
20. Cosine rule
21. Quadratic equation

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