Units and

Measurements
MEASUREMENT

Quantifying the unknown quantity with known one is called Measurement.

“If you can't measure something, you can't understand it. If you can't understand it, you can't control it. If
you can't control it, you can't improve it”.

The measurement of physical quantities involves two parts.

The Numeric Part – The first part, gives how many times of the standard Concept Mania
Chemistry, from the ancient
unit. The Unit – The second part, it gives the name of the unit.
The FPS system is not a metric
UNITS system. This system is not in
much use these days.
The standard of reference chosen to measure a physical quantity. The drawback of CGS system is
that many of the derived units
SYSTEM OF UNITS on this system are
inconveniently small.
The common set of units which are in practice are given below. The advantages of MKS system
is that some of the derived units
(i) FPS – It is the British engineering system which uses Foot, Pound, are of convenient size.
Second as units of length, mass and time respectively.
(ii) CGS – It is known as Gaussian system of units which uses, Centimeter,
Gram, Second as units of length, mass and time respectively.
(iii) MKS – It is uses on Meter, Kilogram, Second as units of length, mass
and time respectively.

SI UNITS

The International standard of measurement chosen for measuring physical

quantities. Hypothesis
CGPM, General Conference on Weights and Measures (Conference Generale
des Poids at Measures) has the authority to decide units. In 1971 CGPM held What if everyone choose his or
her own unit for the quantities?
its meeting and decided a system of units which is known as the
"International system of units", It is abbreviated as SI (From French name Le
Systeme International d’Unités).

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

The quantities which we can measure are called Physical quantities. It may be mass, length, time, etc…

Properties of physical units,

(i) It should be easily accessible

(ii) It should be invariable, i.e., not changing

(iii) It should not vary with time

(iv) It should not depend on other conditions like temperature, pressure, etc.

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Units and
Measurements
The physical quantities are basically classified into two as given below,

1. FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES

The quantities which can neither be derived or simplified further and that are independent of each other are
called Fundamental quantities. There are only seven fundamental quantities and all other quantities can be
derived from these.

2. DERIVED QUANTITIES

All quantities which can be expressed in terms of fundamental quantities are called as Derived quantities.
For Example, Time and Length are fundamental quantities

Distance Length
Speed= =
Time Time

unit of length m
Speed= =
unit of time s

Physical Quantity Symbol SI Unit Symbol of SI Unit

Length l Metre m

Mass m Kilogram Kg

Time t Second s Concept Mania

Chemistry, from the ancient
Electric current I Ampere A
Fundamental units are the basis
of derived units... Derived units
Thermodynamic
T Kelvin K are obtained when fundamental
Temperature units are divided or multiplied
together but cannot be obtained
Amount of Substance n Mole mol on addition or subtraction.

Luminous Intensity Iv Candela cd

DEFINITION OF BASE UNITS

One of the most important things about a base unit is how it’s defined.
That is, what is one meter or what is one kilogram or one second?

1) Metre

To define the SI unit of length, we had a rod which was literally the meter. To make the definition more
precise, if we take an atom krypto-86, a particular isotope of the 36TH element krypton, and let it oscillate in a
vacuum emitting light that would look red or orange to our eyes, then knowing the wavelength of that
radiation, if we take 1650763.73 of those wavelengths, then we’ll have a total distance which is now the
definition of a meter. In this definition, this number here may seem arbitrary at first glance. But by defining a
meter to this level of precision, the accuracy of length measurements can be improved.

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Units and
Measurements
Or

Light travels 299,792,458 metres in 1 second (in vacuum), then time taken by light to cover a distance of 1
1
metre in vacuum = s
299,792,458

1
Thus, a metre is defined as the distance travelled by light in s
299,792,458

2) Kilogram

The definition of a kilogram, in defining this unit, we take a platinum (Pt) and iridium (Ir), which is kept under
vacuum in an air tight container at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris. And the mass
of this particular object is considered to be the mass of a kilogram. So, if someone asks, what is the mass of a
kilogram? The answer is the mass of this object right here. Isn't that easy-peasy!

Or

It can be defined with Planck's constant.

3) Second

The way to define a second now involves taking an atom of cesium-133. And as this atom naturally oscillates,
it will emit electromagnetic radiation. Now, if we were to stand at a point along this passing wave and count
the amount of time it took for 9192631700 wavelengths to pass us, then that amount of time is defined as
one second. So just like the meter, the second is defined in terms of emissions from atoms.

4) Ampere

The ampere is defined in terms of the basic unit of charge, the charge of an electron. If we take the charge of
an electron to be exactly 1.602176634 x 10-19 coulombs. So, charges carried by 6.2421 x 1018 unit charges is
one coulomb. Now we can use this number along with the fact that a coulomb is equal to an ampere times a
second to define the unit of the ampere.

Coulomb = Ampere x second

Looking at this equation, we could say that we’ve already defined the left side because that’s the charge of
an electron. And then, the SI base unit of second is defined as we saw above. And that means, in this
equation, coulombs and seconds are precisely defined, which means that we can define the ampere in terms
of them

5) Kelvin

We are going to define this using Boltzmann constant (k), the relation between the thermodynamic
temperature of a gas and the average relative kinetic energy of the particles in the gas.

Heat
k= =JK−1
Temperature

Heat
Temperature= (Representing SI units)
k

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 Units and
Measurements
K = Kg m2 s-2 / 1.380649 x 10-23 (So, we can define Kelvin in terms of Kilogram, metre, second and Boltzmann constant)

6) Mole

Now, as we consider the basic definition of a mole, it’s a bit more straightforward than the ones we’ve seen
so far. We simply state that one mole of a substance is equal to 6.02214076 x 1023 entities of that substance.

And this word “entities” might refer to atoms or molecules or ions or any particles.

7) Candela

Looking at this word “candela”, we might guess what it refers to. It looks like the word for candle. And
indeed, one candela of luminous intensity is about how much light a single candle gives off. To define it more
precisely, taking a monochromatic light that emits radiation at a certain particular frequency of 540 x 1012
hertz, is exactly equal to 683 candelas times steradians (solid angle) divided by watts.

683 cd . sr 12
=540 x 10 Hz (Representing SI units)
W

Cd = Kg-1 m-2 s3/683 sr (Where kilogram, metre, second are already defined)

SUPPLEMENTARY QUANTITIES AND THEIR SI UNITS

1) Plane angle

Its SI unit is radian (rad), one radian is the angle (2D) subtended at the center of a circle by an arc equal in
length to the radius of circle.

2) Solid angle

Its SI unit is steradian (str), one steradian is the solid angle (3D) subtended by a portion of surface of sphere
at the center of sphere whose area is equal to the square of sphere's radius.

SI PREFIXES

The magnitude of physical quantities vary over a wide range. So, they are represented as power of ten and
given special prefixes.

Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Power of 10 Prefix Symbol

18 exa E -1 deci d

15 peta P -2 centi c

12 tera T -3 milli m

9 giga G -6 micro μ

6 mega M -9 nano n

3 kilo k -12 pico p

2 hecto h -15 femto f

1 deka da -18 atto a

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Units and
Measurements

PRACTICAL UNITS

A large number of units are used in general life for the mesurement of different quantities in comfortable
manner and these are neither fundamental nor derived quantities.

Practical Units of Length Practical Units of Mass Practical Units of Time

1 Chandrasekhar limit 1
1 parsec = 3.08 x 1016 m 1 year = 364 solar
(or) 3.26 light years
= 1.4 times the mass of sun 4
= 2.8 x 1030 kg days
1 lunar month = 27.3
1 light year = 9.46 x 1015 m 1 metric ton = 103 kg solar
days
1 astronomical unit
1 quintal = 102 kg 1 solar day = 86400 s
Or 1 AU = 1.5 x 1011 m

1 micron Concept Mania

= μm = 10-6 m
1 angstrom = 10-10 m
1 fermi = 10-15 m
1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 pound = 0.453 kg
1 atomic mass unit
(amu) = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
Chemistry, from the ancient
1 hour = 3600 s
Resolution stands for least count
1 minute = 60 s
or minimum reading which an
instrument can read.
1 shake = 10-8 s The least count of an instrument
is indirectly proportional to
precision of the measurement.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

ACCURACY

The closeness of measured value to the true value, that is, how close is our measurement to the true value or
mean value.

PRECISION

The closeness of measured values to each other, that is, the measured values remain unchanged or have very
little difference even after many repetitions of the activity.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMNET

The difference between the measured value and true value is called error of a measurement. The errors in
measurement can classified as given below.

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

Systematic errors are errors that tend to occur systematically in one direction, that is, either (+) or (-)

(a) Instrumental errors

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 Units and
Measurements
Errors that arise due to imperfect design or calibration of measuring instrument. For instance, we can't
measure a 13 cm long stick with 15 cm scale (broken at 10 cm).

(b) Imperfection in experimental techniques

Errors that arise due to appropriate procedure or techniques during

Factourism
Keeping the thermometer
experiments.
under armpit will always give a
temperature lower than actual
(c) Personal errors
body temperature.
Errors that arise due to an individual's bias or carelessness in taking
observations.

RANDOM ERRORS

Random errors are errors that occur irregularly or randomly during

scientific procedure. These errors arise due to, Formula
Least count of certain measuring
1. Unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions instruments,
2. Nature of measurement, that is when the same person repeats the Vernier Caliper = 0.1 mm
Screw Gauge = 0.01 mm
same experiment, he gets different readings every time. Travelling Microscope = 0.01 mm
Spectrometer = 1⁰
LEAST COUNT ERRORS

The smallest value which can be measured accurately with an instrument is

called Least Count (LC). Least count error arise due to the resolution of the
measuring instrument.

Value of 1 main scale division

LC =
Total number of vernier scale division Train ur Brain
Is there any instrument which
ABSOLUTE, RELATIVE AND PERCENTAGE ERROR
measures the size of atoms and
molecules? If yes, what is least
In case we perform a single experiment many times, we get many values. count of that instrument?
Let the values be a1, a2, a3..., an
Then the arithmetic mean is given as below

amean = (a1 + a2 + a3... + an) / n

(i) Absolute error

The difference between the true value and measured value of the quantity is called an absolute error.
Usually, the amean is taken to be the true value. The absolute error is denoted by │∆a│.

If
amean = (a1 + a2 + a3... + an) / n

then absolute errors are

∆a1 = amean – a1 ∆a2 = amean – a2 ∆a3 = amean – a3 ....., ∆an = amean – an

(ii) Mean Absolute error

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 Units and
Measurements
It is the arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors of a measurement. It is represented by ∆amean

∆amean = (│∆a1│ + │∆a2│ + │∆a3│... + │∆an│) / n

Finally, the true value can be written as a = amean ± ∆amean. This means that the value of a is likely to lie
between a = amean – ∆amean and a = amean + ∆amean

(iii) Relative error

Relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error (∆amean) to the mean value (amean) of a measured
quantity.

∆ amean
Relative error =
amean

(iv) Percentage error

When relative error is expressed in percent, it is called as percentage error. It is denoted by (δa).

∆ amean
δa= x 100 %
a mean

Q1The average speed of train is measured by 5 students. The results of measurements are given below.

A1 Mean value,
10.2+10.4 +9.8+10.6+10.8 51.8 −1
v mean= = =10.4 ms
5 5
Absolute error,

∆a1 = amean – a1 = 10.4 – 10.2 = 0.2 ∆a2 = amean – a2 = 10.4 – 10.4 = 0

∆a3 = amean – a3 = 10.4 – 9.8 = 0.6 ∆a4 = amean – a4 = 10.4 – 10.6 = -0.2
∆a5 = amean – a5 = 10.4 – 10.8 = -0.4

Mean absolute error,

│ ∆ a1 │+│ ∆ a2 │+ │∆ a3 │+│ ∆ a 4 │+│ ∆ a5 │

∆ v mean=
5
0.2+ 0+0.6+│−0.2│+│−0.4 │ 1.4 −1
¿ = =0.28 m s
5 5
∆ v mean 0.28 −1
Percentage error =± x 100 %=± x 100 %=± 2.6 m s
v mean 10.4

COMBINATION OF ERRORS

When dealing with errors from many measurements or conversions, the errors need to be combined.

Addition

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 Units and
Measurements
In a combined measurement, if Z = A + B, where A = A ± ∆A and B = B ± ∆B
Then,
Z + ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B)
Inserting the value of Z ,
(A + B) + ∆Z = A + B ± ∆A ± ∆B

∆Z = ± ∆A ± ∆B

Thus, when two physical quantities are added, then the maximum absolute error in the result is the sum of
the absolute errors of the individual quantities.

Difference

In a combined measurement, if Z = A – B, where A = A ± ∆A and B = B ± ∆B

Then, the maximum absolute error is ∆Z = ± ∆A ± ∆B

Q2volumes of two bodies are measured to be V1 = (10.2 ± 0.02) cm3 and V2 = ± (6.4 ± 0.01) cm3. The sum
The
and difference in volumes with error limits is.

A2 So, it is given that V1 = 10.2 ± 0.02 and V2 = 6.4 ± 0.01

The error limit, ∆V= ± (V1 + V2) = ± (0.02 + 0.01) = ± 0.03 cm3

V1 + V2 = 10.2 + 6.4 = 16.6 cm3

V1 – V2 = 10.2 + 6.4 = 3.8 cm3

Thus, The sum of volume = (16.6 ± 0.03) cm3

The difference of volume = (3.8 ± 0.03) cm3

Product

In a combined measurement, if Z = AB, where A = A ± ∆A and B = B ± ∆B

Then,

Z ± ∆Z = (A ± ∆A) (B ± ∆B) Concept Mania

Chemistry, from the ancient
Z ± ∆Z = AB ± ∆A.B ± ∆B.A ± ∆B. ∆A
Maximum Relative error in
Divide LHS by Z and RHS by AB, product or division of two or
more quantities is equal to sum
Z ∆ Z AB ∆ A . B ∆ B . A ∆ B . ∆ A of relative errors in the
± = ± ± ± individual quantities
Z Z AB AB AB AB

∆Z ∆ A ∆B ∆ B.∆ A
1± =1 ± ± ±
Z A B AB

Here, the product of ∆A and ∆B, that is, ∆A x ∆B will be very small and negligible, so we do not consider
them in calculations.

±
∆Z
Z
=± (
∆ A ∆B
A
+
B )
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Units and
Measurements
∆Z ∆ A ∆B
Thus, when two physical quantities are multiplied, then maximum absolute error is = +
Z A B

Division

In a combined measurement, if Z = A/B, where A = A ± ∆A and B = B ± ∆B

∆Z ∆ A ∆B
Then, maximum absolute error is = +
Z A B

Exponent

If Z = A2
The error in case of a measured quantity raised to power,

∆Z ∆ A ∆ A
Z
=
A
+
A
=2
∆A
A ( )
So, the relative error in a measured quantity raised to power K is the K times the relative error of individual in
the measured quantity.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Every measure has some errors. The uncertainty in the experimental or the calculated values is indicated by
mentioning the number of significant figures. Significant digits are meaningful in which uncertainty is
indicated by writing the certain digits plus uncertain digits. Larger the number of significant figures obtained
in a measurement, greater is the accuracy of the measurement.

RULES FOR COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Factourism
For a number greater than 1 Remember, even if you change
the units of a digit, the number
1. All the non-zero digits are significant of significant figures remain
constant!
2. All zeroes occurring between two non-zero digits are significant, no Suppose we have a rod of length
matter about the location of decimal point 3.500 m (The zeroes indicate
3. All zeroes to the right of the non-zero digits without decimal point are precision of measurement).
Now, this number has 4
not significant
significant digits. When we
For Example: The number 3500 has only two significant digits convert it into cm, 350.0 cm,
4. The trailing zeroes of the non-zero digits with decimal point are even now it has 4 significant
significant digits.
For Example: The number 3.500 has four significant digits

For a number less than 1

1. The zero on the right of a decimal point but to the left of the first non-
zero digit is not significant
For Example: The number 0.005 has only one significant digit DeFinition
Chemistry, from the ancient
2. After a decimal point, any zero to the right of a non-zero digit is
Scientific Notation
significant. it is the representation of a
For Example: The number 0.0050 has two significant digits number in its exponential form.
In scientific notation, a number
is expressed as N x 10n form.
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Note: 'N' should always lie
between 1 and 9.99
 Units and
Measurements
ROUNDING OFF THE UNCERTAIN DIGITS

Certain rules are applied in order to round off the measurements.

1. If the number lying to the right of digit to be rounded is less than 5, then the rounded digit is retained as
such. However, if it is more than 5, then the digit to be rounded is increased by 1.
For Example: x = 74.33 is rounded off to x = 74.3 to three significant figures and x = 9.7576 is rounded off
to x = 9.758 to four significant figures.

2. If the digit to be dropped is simply 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is left unchanged if it
is even and it is raised by one if it is odd.
For Example: x = 4.365 is rounded off to x = 4.36 to three significant figures and x = 11.435 is rounded off
to x = 11.44 to four significant figures.

3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by non-zero digits, then the preceding digit is increased by 1.
For Example: x = 8.252 is rounded off to x = 8.3 to two significant figures.

ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS WITH SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Concept Mania
Chemistry, from the ancient
Addition and Subtraction
Order of magnitude, it is the
The number of decimal places in the final result of any of these operations power of 10 required to
has to be equal to the number which has the least decimal place in given represent a quantity.
49 = 4.9 x 101
operation.
Order of magnitude = 1
For Example: 1.2 + 5.79 = 6.99, here 1.2 has the least decimal place. So, the
final result should be 7.0 after rounding off.

Multiplication and Division

The number of significant figures in the final result has to be equal to the factor which has least significant
figures.
Q3respective number of significant figures for the numbers 0.0003 and 2.1 x 10 -3 are
The
For Example: 65.34 x 4.007 = 261.8173, here 65.34 has the least significant figures, that is, 4 significant
figures. Thus, the result will be 261.8 which has 4 significant figures.

A3 For the number 0.0003, the number is less than 1, the zeroes on the right of a decimal point but to
the left of the first non-zero digit is not significant. So, number of significant figures is 1.
Q4
A body of mass m = 3.513 kg is moving
For the number 2.1 x 10 -3
, it is
along the X-axis with a speed of 5.00 ms -1 . Determine the magnitude
in scientific notation, The power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination
of its momentum and number of significant figures.
of significant figures. So, number of significant figures are 2.

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 Units and
Measurements

A4 Momentum, p = mv, where m = 3.513 kg and v = 5.00 ms-1

As the number of significant digits in m is 4 and v is 3, so, p must have 3 significant digits.

P = 3.513 x 5.00 = 17.565 kg ms-1 = 17.6 kg ms-1

DIMENSIONS

All the derived quantities can be expressed in terms of base (or) DeFinition
Chemistry, from the ancient
fundamental quantities. So, when a quantity is expressed in terms of the
base quantities, it is written as a product of different base quantities with Dimensionless Quantity
In an equation [Ma Lb Tc], if
different exponents. "Dimension is the power to which the base quantities
a = b = c = 0, then the quantity is
are raised to express the physical quantity". called dimensionless. For
instance, plane angle.
DIMENSIONAL FORMULA AND EQUATIONS

The expression of physical quantity in terms of the base quantties is called

the dimensional formula.

I1 Force = mass x acceleration Note this!

Chemistry, from the ancient
velocity
= mass x While writing the dimensional
time formula the magnitude of
length / time quantity is not considered. In
= mass x only is taken to be considered.
time
= mass x length x (time)-2

In the above illustration, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length

and -2 in time. The dimesions in all other base quantities are zero.

NOTE:

While writing the dimensional formula or equation, generally, mass is denoted by M, length by L, time by T,
electric current by I, thermodynamic temperature by K, amount of substance and luminous intensity by mol
and cd respectively.

USES OF DIMENSION

1. To check the correctness of a given equation

PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY

According to this principle, a correct dimensional equation must be homogenous, that is, dimensions of all
the terms in a physical expression must be same.

Q5
Given equation mv
LHS (dimension)
2
= RHS= mgh, where m is the mass of the body, v is velocity, g is the acceleration due to gravity
(dimension)
and h is the height. Check whether the given equation is dimensionally correct or not.
As per principle of homogeneity, if the dimensions of each term on both sides of a physical relation are same,
then the relation is dimensionally correct otherwise wrong

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Units and
Measurements

1 2
A5 Given, 2 m v = mgh
The dimensions of LHS are,

( )
2
length
mass x = [M1] [(L/T)2] = [M1 L2 T-2]
time
The dimensions of RHS are,

mass x ( velocity
time )
x length = [M1] [(L/T2)] [L1] = [M1 L2 T-2]

The dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same and hence the
equation is dimensionally correct.

2. To convert the units of physical quantity

When we choose to work with different set of units for the base quantities, the units of all the derived
quantities must be changed. Dimensions can be useful in finding the conversion factors.

Let dimensional formula of a given physical quantity be [M a L b T c ].

Suppose, there is a unit system having the base units [M 1 L 1 T 1 ] with numerical value (n 1 ) and another unit
system having the base units [M 2 L 2 T 2 ] with numerical value (n 2 ), then

a b c a b c
Q = n 1 [ M1 L1 T 1 ] = n 2 [ M2 L2 T 2 ]
a b c a b c
n 1 [ M 1 L1 T 1 ] = n 2 [ M2 L2 T 2 ]

[ ][ ][ ]
a b c
M1 L1 T1
n2 = n 1
M2 L2 T2

I2 Conversion of pascal into CGS pressure

force
Pressure =
area
1 1 -2
M L T 1 -1 -2
P= 2
=M L T
L

1 pascal = (1 kg) (1 m)-1 (1 s)-2

and 1 CGS pressure = (1 g) (1 cm)-1 (1 s)-2

( )( ) ( )
−1 −2
1 pascal 1kg 1m 1s
=
1CGS pressure 1g 1 cm 1s

( )( )
3 2 −1
10 g 10 cm
¿
1g 1 cm

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Units and
Measurements
−1
¿ ( 103 ) ( 102 )

1 pascal = 10 CGS pressure

This is how conversion of units has to be done using dimensional formula

3. To derive the formula by deducing

The dimensional method is used to deduce relationship among the physical quantities. For which one should
know the dependence of the physical quantities on the other. We can learn to derive the formula using
dimensions by looking at the below illustration.

I3 The time period T of simple pendulum depends upon length L of the pendulum, mass of bob and
gravitational acceleration. The formula for time period is given by,

We assume the dependence of time period on length and gravitational acceleration is of product type
or it is directly proportional.
a b c
T =k l m g
Where k is the dimensionless constant. Taking the dimensions on both sides,
a b
T =L M ¿
Since the dimensions on both sides must be same,

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