SAT CHEMISTRY NOTES

5/28/2019

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

MATTER

- Matter: anything that occupies space

+ Mass is universal while weight is dependent

- Inertia: what resists motion

-
- Density: D=m/v
- Activation energy: energy necessary to get the
*ex. Gold vs Styrofoam -> gold: less space -> reaction going by increasing the energy of the reactants
denser
Conservation of Mass
States of Matter
- Law of Conservation of Mass: mass if products = mass
- Changes by adding or subtracting heat energy of reactants
- Solid: has a definite size and shape - matter can be neither created nor destroyed
- Liquid: has a definite volume but follows the shape of ENERGY
the container
- Energy: capacity to do work
- Gas: has neither definite shape nor volume
- Work is measured in J (joules), but energy is measured
Composition of Matter in kcal (kilocalorie)
- 2 categories: pure substances and mixtures - 4180J = 1 kcal
- Law of Definite Proportions (Composition): compounds Forms of Energy
are made by combining atoms in definite proportions
- can be converted from one another (ex. Electrical ->
- Molecule: smallest naturally occurring unit of a mechanical)
compound
- 2 general classifications: potential and kinetic
- Mixtures vs pure substances
Types of Reaction
*mixtures may be homogeneous or heterogeneous,
but for pure substances (both elements and - H: heat content; aka enthalpy
compounds), all are homogeneous
- ΔH= Hproducts – Hreactants
*properties of compounds are distinct from the
- ΔH > 0 -> endothermic
individual elements
- ΔH < 0 -> exothermic
PHYSICAL VS CHEMICAL PROPERTIES/CHANGE
Law of Conservation of Energy
- Exothermic: energy will be given off
- energy is neither created nor destroyed
- Endothermic: energy will be absorbed to form the
product Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy (Einstein)

- mass and energy are interchangeable under special

conditions

-E= mc 2
SCIENTIFIC METHOD

- how researchers carry out their investigation

- Hypothesis composed of a “if-then” statement

- models are used to explain the phenomenon

METRIC SYSTEM

- SI: most common unit of measurement in the world

*kg, meters, seconds, ampere, kelvin, candela

- volume = 1mL = 1cm 3

- 1 gram was intended to be 1 cubic centimeter of

water at 4° Celsius (1g = 1cm 3)

* 1000cm 3 = 1L = 1000g = 1kg of water

Temperature Measurements

- Celsius scale: 0° = freezing point; 100° = boiling point

- Kelvin scale 0 -> absolute zero (lowest possible

temperature; particles are motionless; -273.15° Celsius)

Heat Measurements

- form of energy that transfers among particles in a

substance by means of the kinetic energy of those
particles

*ex. 100° water in a pail vs cup -> pail will be able 6/6/2019
to melt more ice that that if the cut -> pail contains
greater number of calories CHAPTER 7: LIQUIDS, SOLIDS, AND PHASE CHANGES

Scientific Notation LIQUIDS

- Multiplication -> notations are added Importance of Intermolecular Interaction

- Division -> notations are subtracted
PRECISION, ACCURACY, AND UNCERTAINTY
- Precision: reliability of a measurement
- Accuracy: how close you have come to the actual
value
- Uncertainty: it is an “estimate”
Significant Figures
- certain digits plus one uncertain digit
- Liquid: a form of matter that has a definite volume
and takes the shape of its container
- In a liquid, the volume of the molecules and the inter
molecular forces between them are much more
important than in a gas
*In a gas, the molecules constitute far less than 1%
of the total volume, while in a liquid, the molecules
constitute 70% of the total volume.
- because of this, liquids don’t expand and compress
that much than a gas

- multiplication & division: answer’s significant figure= Kinetics of Liquids

significant figure of quantity with the least significant
- Liquids are still in motion
figure (ex. 4.29x3.2=14)
- The motion is verified under a microscope when
- addition & subtraction: the same number of decimals
colloidal particles are suspended -> they have a zigzag
as the less decimal quantity (ex. 3.56+2.6=12.3)
path called Brownian movement.

* This indicates molecular motion and supports the

Kinetic-Molecular Theory.
- Increases in temperature -> increase in average kinetic
energy
- If a particular molecule gains enough energy when
near the surface of the liquid, it can overcome the
attractive forces of the liquid phase and become a gas.
* This is called as change of phase
Viscosity
- Viscosity: the friction or resistance to motion that
exists between the molecules of a liquid.
- the stronger the attraction, stronger resistance,
stronger viscosity
- the viscosity of a liquid depends on its intermolecular
forces
- Thus, liquids with hydrogen bonds tend to have high
viscosity because hydrogen bonds have high
intermolecular forces.
Surface Tension
- The molecules at the surface of the liquids experience
the downward attraction, towards the inside of the
liquid, while the molecules at the center experience
evenly distributes forces. This imbalance of the forces at
the surface of the liquid is called surface tension.
- the uneven force makes the surface behave like as if a
tight film stretches over it
Capillary Action
- the attraction of the surface of the liquid to the
surface if a solid
- Liquids will rise high in a narrow tube if a strong
attraction exists between the liquid molecules and the
molecules on the surface.
- The process continues until the weight of the liquid
balances the gravitational force.
- Paper chromatography: when the ink moves up in the
paper and separates into its various components
because water and paper attracts different components
of the ink.
Phase Equilibrium
- Phase equilibrium: when rates of evaporation and
condensation equalizes over time.
- Detailed explanation -> at first, more energetic
molecules near the surface will escape to the gaseous
phase (evaporate) faster than some molecules returning
to the liquid phase (condensate). But as time passes by,
the rate that both change happens will be the same.
- The system is said to have dynamic equilibrium when
the opposing changes are taking place at equal rates.
- At higher temperature, the energy will increase and
the molecules at gaseous phase will increase and at
liquid phase decrease. However, the rates will become
equal over time.
- The behavior above illustrates what is known as Le
Chatelier’s Principle: when a system of equilibrium is
disturbed by a stress (temp, pressure, or concentration),
it reacts so as to minimize the stress and attain a new
equilibrium position
- The molecules in the vapor that are in equilibrium
with the liquid at a given temperature exert a constant
pressure -> equilibrium vapor pressure at that temp.
Boiling point
-Boiling point: the temperature at which the liquid’s
vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure.
- The vapor pressure increases until it becomes equal to
the pressure above the liquid
Critical Temperature and Pressure
- There are conditions where a particular substance
can’t exist in a liquid or gaseous phase.
- There is a temperature at which the kinetic energy is
so great that the IMFA is insufficient for the liquid
phases to remain.
- Critical temperature: the temperature above which the
liquid phase of a substance cannot exist.
- Above this, no gases can be liquefied unless pressure
is placed.
- the minimum gas required to liquefy the gas at a
critical temperature is called critical pressure.
SOLIDS
- Has the most ordered system; particles are fixed in a
definite position
- Three categories of solids
*a.) Crystalline solids: have a 3-D representation like
a brick wall. They have a regular structure in a repeating
pattern.
*b.) Amorphous solids: have a random structure
with little if any long-range order
*c.) Polycrystalline solids: are aggregate of a large
number of crystals or grains in which the structures are Composition of Water
regular, but they are arranged randomly.
- Water can be analyzed (broken into components)
- Particles in solids vibrate in position and may even through electrolysis
diffuse (ex. Gold clamped to lead and diffused some
*electrolysis -> electrical current flows through a
gold atoms)
liquid that cause chemical change
- Others don’t show diffusion because of the strong
- Composition by volume= 2 parts of hydrogen and 1
ionic and covalent bonds
part of oxygen
- Sublimation: some solids vaporize directly when hated
- Synthesis: the formation of a compound by uniting its
at certain pressure because of unusually high vapor
components.
pressure (ex. Solid CO2 and solid iodine)
- Water can be made by mixing hydrogen and oxygen
- Melting point: the temperature when the atomic
in a eudiometer over mercury and passing an igniting
vibrations are so great that it breaks the particles apart
spark through the mixture.
from their fixed positions (and be in a liquid state)
* in an eudiometer, 2 volumes of H combine w 2
- Heat of fusion: the amount of energy required at the
volumes of 0 to form 2 volumes of steam
melting point to change the phase. The amount
depends on the nature of the solid. - Another method is the Dumas experiment
PHASE DIAGRAMS *Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water in a
ratio of 1:8 by mass (9 grams of water)
- Phase diagram: ties together the effects of
temperature and pressure on the phase change of a * CuO + H2 -> Cu + H2O
substance
- Heavy water: contains an isotope of hydrogen,
deuterium (1 proton and neutron), rather than ordinary
hydrogen nuclei (one proton)

- Hydrogen peroxide: the prefix “per-“ means that this

compound contains more than the usual oxide. (H2O2)

Water Calorimetry Problems

- a calorimeter is a container that is well insulated from

the outside sources of heat or coldness.

- Triple point: the only temperature and pressure at

which three phases of a pure substance can exist in
equilibrium with one another in a system only
containing pure substance.

WATER
- one gram of ice at 0°C needs 80 cal or 334 J to melt
Purification of Water
*this is called heat of fusion
- distillation involves evaporation and condensation of
- one gram of water at 100° C needs 2257.2J to change
the water molecule
to steam -> this is called heat of vaporization
- this process will remove any substance that has a
-molar heat of fusion: the amount of heat energy
higher boiling point than water. It will not remove
required to melt one mole of solid at its melting point
dissolved gases r liquids that has lower boiling point
(for ice, 6.01Kj/mole)
than water.
6/7/2019 - molar heat of vaporization: amount of heat required
to vaporize one mole of liquid at its boiling point (for
water, 40.79kJ/mole)
- q = mc (heat measurement = mass x heat of fusion)
- q= m x (change in temp) x specific heat
Water’s Reactions with Anhydrides
- Anhydrides: certain oxides that react with water to
form two classes of compounds -> acids and bases
- Many metal oxides react with water to for bases. They
are called, base anhydrides
* ex. sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, etc.
- Nonmetallic oxides react with water to form an acid.
They are called, acidic anhydrides
*ex. carbonic acid, sulfuric acid, etc.
Polarity and Hydrogen Bonding
- water reaches its greatest density at 4° C
- it is different from other liquids that as water freezes,
its volume increases by 9 % while most liquids contracts
as they become solids
- the explanation to this phenomenon is that water
molecules are bound into larger molecules in which
each oxygen atom is connected through hydrogen
bonds to four other oxygen atoms
- as structure forms (<0°C), the density decreases & as
the bonds collapse (0°C < 4°C), the density increases &
at 4°C, greatest density & as it goes about 4°, the
density decreases again
- As temperature increases, the added kinetic energy
tends to distribute the molecules farther apart, but at
4°C, the opposing forces are in balance -> thus greatest
density
- these bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attraction
SOLUBILITY
- Water is the “universal solvent”
- Saturated solution: when no more of that substance
can be dissolved
- solute: what is being dissolved
- solvent: dissolving medium
- three factors of the solubility of the substance
*amount of solute, amount of solvent, and the
temperature of the solution
General Rules of Solubility
1. all nitrates, acetates, and chlorates are soluble
2. all common compounds of sodium, potassium, and
ammonium are soluble
3. all chlorides are soluble except those of silver,
mercury(I), and lead (lead chloride is noticeably soluble
in hot water)
4. all sulfates are soluble except those of lead, barium,
strontium, and calcium (calcium sulfate is slightly
soluble)
5. the normal carbonates, phosphates, silicates, and
sulfides are insoluble except those of sodium,
potassium, and ammonium
6. all hydroxides are insoluble except those of sodium,
potassium, ammonium, calcium, barium, and strontium
- solubility of solids usually increases as temperature
increases
-solubility of gases decreases as temperature increases
while the solubility is in direct proportion to the
pressure applied (Henry’s Law)
Factors that Affect Rate of Solution Making
The following increases the rate
- pulverizing: increases surface exposed to solvent
- stirring: brings more solvent that is unsaturated into
contact with solute
- heating: increases molecular action and gives rise to
mixing by convection currents
Summary of Types of Solutes and Relationships of
Type to Solubility
- like dissolves like
- polar molecules that don’t ionize -> have molecules
as solute particles
- polar molecules that partially ionize -> have a mixture
of molecules and ions as solute particles
- polar molecules that completely ionize -> have ions as
solute particles
WATER SOLUTIONS
- to make molecules go into solution, water molecules
must overcome the forces that hold these molecules
together
- to make the sugar molecules go into solution, the
water molecules cluster around the sugar molecules, causing them to change direction randomly
pull them off, and disperse
EXPRESSIONS OF CONCENTRATION
- for ionic crystals, the water molecules orient
- Dilute: small amount of solute is dispersed
themselves around the ions, overcoming the forces that
hold the ions together. - Concentrated: large amount of solute is dissolved in
the solvent
- since water molecules are polar, the orientation
around the atom is an attraction of the polar ends of - Saturated: the solution is holding all the solute
the water molecule possible at that temperature; it is not a static condition
- Hydrated ion: when the water molecules surround the - Unsaturated: more solute can go into solution; the
ion solvent can hold more solute
- miscible: when the two liquids are mixed and they - Supersaturated: when solutes can hold more solvents
dissolve each other than what it is capable at that temperature; possible
through cooling saturated solutions from a higher
- Alloy: solid solution
temperature
06/10/2019
- a solution can be a saturated dilute solution -> when
CONTINUUM OF WATER MIXTURES only a small amount of solvent can be dissolved
- The basic difference between a colloid and a Specific Terms of Concentration
suspension is the diameter of the particles dispersed
a. Percentage Concentration: is based on the percent of
a. solutions (less than 1nm): solute in the solution by mass
- Clear; may have color but the particles don’t settle grams of solute
x 100= percent concentration
- particles pass through ordinary filter paper grams of solution
- particles pass through ordinary membranes * if the formula mass is expressed in grams, it is called a
gram-formula mass*
- particles are not visible.
*gram-molecular mass can be used in place of gram-
b. Colloids (greater than 1 nm but lesser than 1000nm): formula mass when the substance is of molecular
composition*
- do not pass through semipermeable membranes such
as animal bladders, cellophane, and parchment, which b. Molarity: the number if moles of a substance
have very small pores (separation of a solution from a dissolved in 1 liter solution
colloidal dispersion through a semipermeable
membrane is called dialysis) No of moles of solute
=M
1 L of solution
- visible in ultramicroscope
c. Molality: number of moles of the solute dissolved in
- show Brownian movement 1000 grams of the solvent
c. Suspensions (greater than 1000nm): Moles of solute
=m
- cloudy; opaque color; settle on standing 1000 grams of solvent
- do not pass through ordinary filter paper d. Mole Fraction: number of moles of that component
divided by the total moles of all the components
- do not pass through semipermeable membranes such
as animal bladders, cellophane, and parchment, which na
=X a
have very small pores na +n b+ nc …
- visible with microscope or naked eye DILUTION
- no Brownian movement - the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of
- Brownian movement: molecules in dispersing medium solution is equal to the product of the concentration
is in motion and bumps into the colloidal particles times the volume
- M x V = amount of solute in moles
- if you dilute a solution. The amount of moles remains
while the concentration changes
- M1V1 = M2V2
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
- Colligative properties: depend primarily on the
concentration of particles
- is usually a direct relationship
- vapor pressure is lowered as the solute increases ->
because there will be fewer water molecules in the
vapor phase are required to maintain the equilibrium
- if vapor pressure increases, the freezing point is
lowered while boiling point is increased
- for molecules that don’t dissociate, 1m solution
freezes at -1.86°C & boils at 100.51°C
- 1 molal solution of NaCl has 2 moles (true for ions);
but for 1 molal solution of sugar molecules, there is
only 1 mole because they don’t dissociate into ions
- ex. CaCl2 -> 3 moles & C2H5OH -> 1 mole
CRYSTALLIZATION
- The structure bounded by plane surfaces that make
definite angles with each other to produce a geometric
form called crystal
- the smallest portion of the crystal lattice that is
repeated is called as the unit cell
-Hydrate: a substance that holds a definite proportion
of water in its crystal structure
- ex. CuSO4 * 2H2O
- when gently heated, the water can escape the crystal.
Then, the structure collapses into anhydrous powder (ex.
CuSO4)
- some hydrated crystals lose the water of hydration on
exposure to air at ordinary temperature. These are
considered as efflorescent (ex. MgSO4)
- some hydrates absorb water from air -> this is called
as deliquescent or hydroscopic (ex. CaCl2)
06/14/2019
CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
THERMOCHEMISTRY
- There are four types of chemical reactions
a. combination (synthesis): formation of a compound
from the union of its elements
b. decomposition (analysis): breakdown of a compound
to release its components as individual elements or
other compounds
c. single replacement (displacement): one substance is
displacing another
d. double replacement (displacement): an actual
exchange of “partners” to form new compounds
PREDICITON REACTIONS
1. Combination
- a good source to predict a chemical combination is
the heat of formation (ΔHf): gives the number of
kilojoules evolved or absorbed when a mole of the
compound is formed by a direct union of elements
- positive number indicates absorption of heat and
negative number indicates that the heat is evolved
- 4.18joules -> heat needed to raise the temperature of
1g of water by 1K
- if the ΔHf is a big negative number, combination is
likely to occur and it is exothermic
- ex. 2Mg + O2 -> 2MgO + 2(601.6kJ)
* thus the energy released is –(2x601.6kJ)
2. Decomposition
- prediction of decomposition also uses the heat of
formation
- if the heat is highly exothermic, the compound will be
difficult to decompose as the same amount of energy
must be returned
- a relatively low heat of formation (ex. -90.8kJ)
indicates decomposition of a compound
- a high positive heat of formation indicates extreme
instability of a compound -> can explosively decompose
3. Single Replacement
- a prediction of the feasibility of this reaction can be
based on a comparison of the heat of formation of the
original compound and that of the compound to be
formed
- ex. Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl2 + H2
*2 moles of HCl have ΔHf = 2 x -92.3kJ and ZnCl2
has ΔHf = -415.5kJ. Thus, the reaction is likely to occur
- another way to predict single replacement reactions is
to check the reactivity series
- if the element that is to replace the other is higher on
the chart, the reaction is likely to occur
4.
Double Replacement
- for double replacement reaction to happen (proceed
until one of the reactants are exhausted), one of the
following conditions must be present:
a. insoluble precipitate is formed
- in order to predict the formation of insoluble
precipitates, you have to know the solubility of
compounds
-
ex. KCl + AgNO3 -> AgCl + KNO3
*according to the table, silver ions combine with
chloride ions to form insoluble precipitates
b. nonionizing substance is formed
- another reason for this reaction to happen is the
formation of nonionizing substance (ex. water)
- the weak electrolyte keeps its component ions in
molecular form and eliminates the possibility of
reversion the reaction
- all neutralization reactions are of this type
- ex. HCl + NaOH -> KNO3 + NaCl
*since water doesn’t not ionize to any extent, the
reverse reaction cannot occur
c. gaseous product is given off
- the last reason is when gases are formed
- ex. CaCO3 + HCl -> CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
- in general, acids with carbonates or sulfites are good
examples of this type of equation
Hydrolysis Reactions
- the opposite of neutralization reactions where salt and
water reaction to form an acid and a base
- the same number of hydrogen ion and hydroxide ions
are released
- there are four possibilities
a. ex. (Na + Cl) + H2O -> (Na + OH) + (H + Cl)
- this occurs because sodium hydroxide is a strong base
and hydrochloric acid is as strong acid
- because they are both strong, the essentially exists as
ions in solution
- they have neither excess hydrogen ions nor hydroxide
ions -> neutral solution
b. ex. (2Na + CO3) + 2H2O -> (2Na +2OH) + H2CO3
- H2CO3 is written as a single entity because it is a
slightly ionized acid (weak acid)
- since hydroxide ions are free in the solution, this is a
basic solution (strong base + weak acid)
c. ex. (Zn + 2Cl) + H2O -> (2H + Cl) + Zn(OH)2
- in this, hydroxide ions are held in weakly ionizing
compound while hydrogen ions are free -> makes an
acidic solution (strong acid + weak base)
d. ex. (NH4)2CO3 +2H2O -> 2NH4OH + H2CO3
- both ammonium hydroxide and carbonic acid are
written as nonionized compounds because they are
both a weak acid and a weak base
Entropy
- a more fundamental driving force to reaction is the
state of disorder or of randomness
- the measure of disorder is called entropy
- a reaction is driven by the need for a greater degree
of disorder
THERMOCHEMISTRY
- all reactions absorb or liberate heat
- energy changes in a reaction are due to the changes
in the potential energy that accompanies the breaking
of the bonds to form new bonds
- Enthalpy: the change in quantity of energy
CHANGES IN ENTHALPY
- FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES
ΔH for endothermic reaction is positive while for
exothermic, it is negative
- since the quantity of the heat absorbed or released
varies with temperature, 25°C and 1 atm is considered
as the standard state
- Δ H 0-> the subscript zero represents that the process
was carried out under standard conditions
- standard enthalpy of formation (Δ H f 0 ): change in
enthalpy that accompanies the formation of 1 mole of a
compound from its elements with all substances in their
standard state -> this value is called molar heat of
formation
- heat of combustion (ΔHc): the heat released by the
complete combustions of 1 mole of a substance
- heat of combustion is defined in terms of 1 mole of
the reactant while heat of formation is defined in terms
of 1 mole of the product
ADDITIVITY OF REACTION HEATS AND HESS’S LAW
- chemical equations and ΔH0 values may be
manipulated algebraically
- Hess’s Law of Heat Summation: principle that states
when a reaction can be expressed as the algebraic sum
of two or more reactions, the heat of the reaction is the
algebraic sum of the heats of these reactions
- First Law of Thermodynamics: where the Hess’s Law is
based upon, which states that the total energy of the
universe is constant and cannot be created nor be
destroyed
- an alternative way of calculating enthalpies is
Δ H 0reaction = sum of Δ H f 0 (products) – sum of Δ H f 0
(reactants)
06/22/2019
CHAPTER 9: RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
- measurement of reaction rate is based on the rate of
appearance of the product and disappearance of the
reactants
*expressed in terms of change in concentration of
one participant over time
- for most of the reactions, the participants change
most rapidly at the start of the reaction (concentration
of the product greatly increases while concentration of
the reactants greatly decreases)
a. Nature of the Reactants
- since some bonds break and some bonds form, the
rate of reaction is affected by the nature of the bonds
of the reactants
- ex. ions in aqueous solutions have short reaction rate
(silver nitrate and sodium chloride)
- usually, the rate is slower if covalent bonds have to be Acids
broken
- important characteristics of acids
b. Surface area exposed
a. Water (aqueous) solutions of acids conduct electricity:
- most reactions depend on the reactants becoming in - the degree of conduction depends on the acid’s
contact degree of ionization

c. Concentrations b. Acids will react with metals that are more active than
hydrogen ions to liberate hydrogen:
- reaction rate is usually proportional to the
concentration - however, some acids that are also strong oxidizing
agents will not release hydrogen
- if more molecules are in the reaction area, greater
chance that more reactions will occur c. Acids have the ability to change the color of
indicators
d. Temperature
- some common indicators are litmus and
- when the room temperature is increased by 10°C,
phenolphthalein
usually, the reaction rate is either doubled or tripled
* litmus: purple -> red
- temperature increases -> average kinetic energy of
the particles increases -> particles move faster -> * phenolphthalein: colorless
bigger possibility of hitting other reactant particles
*insert table 10
- increased energy -> they can cause an effective
d. Acids react with bases so that the properties of both
collision
are lost to form water and salt
e. Presence of Catalyst
- this is called neutralization
- a catalyst can either increase or decrease the rate of
- acid + base -> salt + water
reaction
e. Acids react with carbonates to release carbon dioxide
- no permanent chemical changes caused
- ex. CaCO3 + 2HCl -> CaCl2 + H2CO3
ACTIVATION ENERGY
- Arrhenius Theory: an acid is the substance that yields
- Activation energy: energy required for reactions to
hydrogen ions in aqueous solution
happen
* more of hydronium ion (H3O+) than hydrogen ion
- catalyst: speeds up the reaction by lowering the
activation energy required * HX + H2O -> H3O + X
REACTION RATE LAW Bases
- Law of Mass Action: rate of a chemical reaction is - important characteristics of bases:
proportional to the product of the concentrations of the
reactants a. bases are conductors of electricity in an aqueous sol

Reaction Mechanism and Rates of Reaction - their degree of conduction depends on the degree
of ionization
- usually, the reaction rate is proportional to the
concentration of the reactants -> occurs because some * insert table
reactions don’t directly occur
b. bases cause a color change in indicators
- Reaction mechanism: series of steps by which the
- litmus: red -> blue
reactants rearrange themselves to form the products
06/23/2019
- phenolphthalein -> colorless -> pink

CHAPTER 11: ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS c. bases react with acids to neutralize each other and
form salt and water
DEFINITION AND PROPERTIES
d. bases react with fats to form a class of compounds
called soaps

e. aqueous solutions of bases feel slippery and stronger

bases are very caustic to the skin

- Arrhenius Theory: bases as a substance that yields

hydroxide ions (OH) in an aqueous solution

- much of the sodium hydroxide comes from Hooker

cell electrolysis

Broader Acid-base Theory

- Bronsted- Lowry Thoery: acids as proton donors and

bases as proton acceptors

- ex. HCl + NH3 -> NH4Cl

Conjugate Acids and Bases

- in an acid-base reaction, the original acid gives up its

proton to become a conjugate base -> because after
losing the proton, the remaining ion is capable of
gaining a proton

- the original base will gain a proton to become a

conjugate acid -> because the newly gained proton
can be released and thus act like an acid

- ex. HCl + NH3 -> NH4 +Cl

Strength of Conjugate Acids and Bases

- the extent of the reaction between acids and bases

depend on the strength of the substances involved

- ex. HCl, a strong acid, readily donates a proton and

Cl-ion has a little tendency to attract a proton, thus
the Cl-ion is a weak base