HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY

LABORATORY MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS

KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY 2

BACKGROUND 2
PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER 2
STATES OF MATTER 2
CHANGES IN THE STATES OF MATTER 4

LABORATORY EXPERIMENT NO. 1: DIFFUSION AND KINETIC ENERGY 7

I. OBJECTIVE 7
II. BACKGROUND 7
III. PROCEDURE 7

SAMPLE LABORATORY REPORT 9

LABORATORY ACTIVITY RUBRIC 11

LABORATORY REPORT RUBRIC 13

1
 KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY
BACKGROUND

PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. This
definition allows us to distinguish matter from other observable phenomena
such as energy.

The kinetic particle theory states that matter is made up of tiny particles in
constant random motion.

The basic assumptions of this theory can be summarized as follows:

1. Matter is made of tiny particles

2. Particles are in constant motion

3. Space exists between these particles

4. Forces of attraction exist between and act upon these particles

STATES OF MATTER

Matter exists in different forms and we refer to these as states of matter we

may also refer to these as phases of matter. The most common states are the
solid, liquid, and gas states.

Solids have definite volumes and shapes. These are rigid and are not
appreciably compressible. The kinetic particle theory attributes these
properties to the following conditions of particles in the solid state.

• Particles are packed tightly in fixed positions in an ordered manner.

Repeating patterns may be observed.

• Particles are held tightly together by forces of attraction that the particles’
level of kinetic energy cannot overcome. This leaves them in fixed positions.

• Particles cannot move around freely and simply vibrate in place.

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 Liquids have definite volumes but indefinite shapes. These can take the shape
of their container. Like solids, these are also not appreciably compressible.
The kinetic particle theory attributes these properties to the following
conditions of particles in the liquid state.

• Particles are close together but do not have fixed positions.

• Particles are held close together by forces of attraction but, because of the
level of the kinetic energy of the particles, are not enough to hold these in
fixed positions.

• Particles can move freely around nearby particles. The attractive forces limit
motion around nearby particles.

Gases have indefinite volumes and indefinite shapes. Substances in gaseous

form can take both the volume and the shape of their containers. Gases are
highly compressible.

• Particles are far apart from each other.

• The forces of attraction cannot hold particles together. The level of the kinetic
energy of the particles ensures that the particles move around at speeds
enough to overcome attractive forces even when collisions occur.

• Particles in this state move rapidly in random directions and engage in

inelastic collisions.

• The space between the particles allows for compression and the ability to
overcome attractive forces allows for expansion of the gas.

The same substance can exist in multiple states and is dependent on pressure
and temperature conditions.

An example of a pure substance existing in multiple states is that of water. At

1.0 atm (atmosphere) of pressure, water (H2O) exists in the following states at
these temperature ranges:

Solid T ≤ 0.0oC, Liquid 0.0oC ≤ T ≤ 100.0oC, and Gas 100.0oC ≤ T .

Solid T ≤ 273.15 K, Liquid 273.15 K ≤ T ≤ 373.15 K, and

Gas 373. 15 K ≤ T .

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CHANGES IN THE STATES OF MATTER

The kinetic particle theory also answers the questions as to why matter changes
states or why they undergo phase changes.

The assumption that particles are in constant motion, implies that particles have
a certain amount of kinetic energy at any given state. Holding other variables
constant, the interaction between the particles’ kinetic energy and the forces of
attraction dictates what state of matter is present at a given time.

Temperature is a physical quantity expressing how hot or cold a substance is. It is

also a proportional measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a
system. We use a thermometer to measure temperature and this can be done
using different scales and units of measure. For physical sciences the Celsius
scale is most often used whereas in the engineering sciences, the Kelvin scale is
used.

Phase changes are linked to the expression of the first law of thermodynamics
which is the conservation of energy. This law states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed. It can be transferred or transformed into another form of
energy.

Phase changes involve the transfer and transformation of energy from one form
to another. We will concern ourselves with thermal energy and kinetic energy.
Heat (q or Q) is the thermal energy transferred between two systems with
different temperatures in contact. Energy is transferred until both systems reach
thermal equilibrium and are transferred from the system with higher energy to the
system with lower energy.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems in contact are at
thermal equilibrium, no heat is transferred between the two systems. These
systems are at the same temperature. When using a thermometer we wait until
thermal equilibrium is achieved between the thermometer and what we are
measuring before we take a reading. This is why we wait for the temperature
reading to stay constant.

Taking these two laws into account let us scrutinize what happens during melting,
a phase change from solid to liquid. Let us outline what happens when you place
an ice cube on an electric hotplate:

• Heat is continuously transferred from the hotplate (system with higher thermal
energy) to the ice cube (system with lower thermal energy).

• Thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy. Before phase change, the
temperature increases reflecting the increase in kinetic energy.

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• During phase change, the temperature remains constant despite continuously
receiving thermal energy. The thermal energy is used to overcome the attractive
forces keeping the solid particles fixed in place. A mixture of solid and liquid
water exists at this point.

• Once sufficient energy is present, the water particles overcome the attractive
forces and begin to move about freely. They are still held together by the
attractive forces but due to the kinetic energy, they are no longer fixed in place.
At this point, liquid water is in the present phase. The temperature continues to
increase as heat is continually added.

Another common phase change is that of freezing. This involves a change from
liquid to solid. Outlining what happens to liquid water when placed in a freezer
over some time:

• Heat is transferred from the liquid water (system with higher thermal energy) to
the freezer (system with lower thermal energy).

• Kinetic energy in the liquid particles is transformed into thermal energy and is
transferred to the freezer system. This results in a continuous decrease in kinetic
energy in the liquid water. We will also observe a continuous decrease in
temperature.

• During phase change, the temperature remains constant. Here, energy is used
to establish order and fixed positions as dictated by the attractive forces present
between the water particles. A mixture of solid and liquid water exists at this
point.

• Once the attractive forces overcome the kinetic energy of the water particles,
the water particles become fixed in place. These are no longer free to move
about but simply vibrate in place. At this point, solid water is the present phase.
The temperature continues to decrease as more heat is removed from the water.

The melting and freezing point of pure substances are the same. The last of the
common phase changes encountered is that of boiling. This involves a change
from liquid to gas. Let’s outline what happens when you heat liquid water on a
hotplate.

• Heat is continuously transferred from the hotplate (system with higher thermal
energy) to the liquid water (system with lower thermal energy).

• Thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy. Before phase change, the
temperature increases reflecting the increase in kinetic energy.

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• During phase change, the temperature remains constant despite continuously
receiving thermal energy. The thermal energy is used to overcome the attractive
forces keeping the liquid particles together. A mixture of liquid and gaseous
water exists at this point.

• Once sufficient energy is present, the water particles overcome the attractive
forces keeping them together and begin to move about rapidly. They are no
longer affected by attractive forces due to kinetic energy. They can still come in
contact with each other through inelastic collisions but their level of kinetic
energy allows them to overcome any attractive force that tries to keep them
together. At this point, gaseous water is in the present phase. The temperature
continues to increase as heat is continually added.

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LABORATORY EXPERIMENT NO. 1: DIFFUSION AND KINETIC ENERGY

I. OBJECTIVES

1. Observe the diffusion of food dye in water at different temperatures.

2. Determine the effect of temperature on diffusion time.

II. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND HYPOTHESIS

Problem statement: (this is usually a general question but often does not include a
proposed relationship)

Hypothesis:
● Formalized hypothesis using an “if and then” format.
● Identify the dependent and independent variables of the experiment and include
these in the formalized hypothesis.

III. PROCEDURE

A. Safety
Use of safety goggles is a must. Care must be given when heating substances
in a water bath. Use proper protective equipment when handling hot
glassware. Dropping hot glassware can cause both cuts and burns. In the
event of a burn run the affected area with copious amounts of cool running
water. Immediately inform the teacher of any injuries. PPE must be worn
during laboratory day: closed-toe shoes, lab coat, safety goggles, and hair tie
(for those with long hair)

B. Materials and Equipment

• distilled water
• ice
• liquid food coloring (red or blue)
• three 600 ml beakers
• one 250 ml beaker
• three identical colorless and transparent glass or plastic cups
• three Pasteur pipets
• three stopwatches
• laboratory thermometer
• graduated cylinder
• plastic basin
• water bath
• electric hot plate

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 C. Hot water setup
1. Fill the water bath halfway with tap water and set the water bath on top of the
electric hot plate.
2. Set the electric hot plate to medium, while consistently checking the temperature.
3. Once the temperature of the water bath is at 40°C, turn the electric hot plate off.
4. Fill one of the 600 ml beakers approximately up to 400 ml and place in the hot
water bath for 10 minutes or until the temperature of the water in the beaker is at
40°C.

D. Cold water setup

1. Fill the plastic basin halfway with ice.
2. Pour salt on the ice before adding water.
3. Fill one of the 600 ml beakers approximately up to 400 ml and place in the ice
bath for 10 minutes or until the temperature of the water in the beaker is at 5-10°C.

E. Data Gathering
1. Label your glass/plastic containers as A, B, and C.
2. Using a graduated cylinder, measure 100.0 ml of cold water and place cold water
in container A. Measure 100.0 ml of room temperature and hot water and place
these in containers B and C respectively. Check the temperature of the water in each
container and record this in your data table.
3. Prepare a stopwatch for each diffusion setup. The stopwatch for a setup is to be
started as soon as the first drop of food coloring is introduced.
4. Place two drops of food coloring into each container. When placing the dye, make
sure it is dropped into the liquid and not along the sides of the containers.
5. Monitor the containers for 10 minutes. Stop the stopwatch when the dye is fully
diffused in the container. If the dye is not yet diffused within the 10-minute
observation period take note of the appearance of the mixture and record this in
your data table.
6. More time is available, repeat the experiment but make sure to label the setups as
A-2, B-2, and C-2

IV. Data table

Setup Temperature (°C) Time of Diffusion (seconds)

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V. Interpretations and Conclusion

1. What were the independent and dependent variables of this experiment?

2. Why is it important to measure and transfer a precise amount of water in each

setup container?

3. Compare the time of diffusion from the setup with the lowest temperature to
that of the highest temperature. Define the trend, if any, that you see.

Conclusion: Write a conclusion for the experiment that relates to your hypothesis.
Describe how the independent and dependent variable are related

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SAMPLE LABORATORY REPORT
Name: ____________________________________________ Experiment Date: _______________
Group No. : _______________________________________ Date Submitted: ________________

Experiment No. 1
Kinetic Energy of Particles

I. Objectives
1. Observe the diffusion of dye in water at different temperatures.
2. Determine the effect of temperature on the speed of diffusion.

II. Hypothesis

III. Materials and Equipment

• distilled water • three Pasteur pipets
• ice • three stopwatches
• liquid food coloring • laboratory thermometer
• three 600 ml beakers • graduated cylinder
• one 250 ml beaker • plastic basin
• three identical colorless and transparent glass or • water bath
plastic cups • electric hot plate

IV. Procedure
A. Preparation of hot water setup
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B. Preparation of cold water setup

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C. Data Gathering
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commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum
dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur.

V. Data

A. Data Table
Setup Temperature (°C) Time of Diffusion (seconds)

B. Bar Graph - Temperature (°C) vs. Time of Diffusion (seconds)

VI. Interpretations
1. What were the independent and dependent variables of this experiment?

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labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
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Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.

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2. Why is it important to measure and transfer a precise amount of water in each setup
container?

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labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in
voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.

3. Compare the time of diffusion from the setup with the lowest temperature to that of the
highest temperature. Define the trend, if any, that you see.

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labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in
voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.

VI. Conclusion
(Write a conclusion for the experiment that relates to your groups’ hypothesis. Describe how
the independent and dependent variable are related.)
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labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
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voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pa

12
 LABORATORY ACTIVITY RUBRIC

Name: ____________________________________________ Experiment Date: ______________

Experiment: _______________________________________

Safety 10 9 8 7

Personal Complete set of Incomplete set of Complete set of Incomplete set of

Protective PPEs. All PPEs PPEs. PPEs. Some PPEs.
Equipment are used All present PPES PPEs were NOT Some PPEs were
properly. were used used properly. NOT used
properly. properly.

Laboratory The lab is carried The lab is The lab is carried Safety
Safety out with full generally out with some procedures were
Procedures attention to carried out with attention to ignored and/or
relevant safety attention to relevant safety some aspect of
procedures. relevant safety procedures. the experiment
The setup, procedures. The setup, posed a threat
experiment, The set-up, experiment, to the safety of
and clean-up experiment, and and clean-up the student or
posed no clean-up posed posed no others.
safety threat to no safety threat safety threat to
any individual. to any any
individual, but individual, but
one safety several safety
procedure procedures need
needs to be to be reviewed.
reviewed.

Attitudes and Skills 10 9 8 7

Preparedness: Brought all Brought all Missed one (1) Missed one (1)
Materials & assigned assigned assigned assigned
Equipment materials. materials. material. material. The
Appropriate The equipment Appropriate equipment
Equipment was requested was Equipment was requested was
requested. not suited for the requested. not suited for the
activity. activity.

Preparedness: Accurately Accurately Accurately Cannot recall the

Knowledge remembers the remembers most remembers the procedure.
whole procedure. of the whole procedure. Does not
Understands the procedure. Understands the understand the
importance of Understands the importance of importance of
each importance of most parts of the parts of the
procedure. each the procedure.
procedure. procedure.

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 Cleanliness and Kept the work Kept the work Kept the work Kept the work
Order area area area area
organized during organized during organized during organized during
the whole most of the the whole most of the
activity. activity. The activity. activity. Left
The left work left work area Left work area work area
area was very was very mostly clean uncleaned
clean after the clean after the after the after the
activity. activity. activity. activity.

Participation Used time well in Used time pretty Did the lab Participation was
the lab and well. Stayed but did not minimal OR
focused attention focused on the appear very the student
on the experiment most interested. The was hostile
experiment. of the time. focus was lost about
on several participating.
occasions.

Laboratory Performed the Committed Committed Committed a

Technique correct one (1) minor two (2) minor major error in
technique for error in errors in technique for
equipment used technique for technique for equipment used
equipment used equipment used

TOTAL SCORE:

14
 LABORATORY REPORT RUBRIC

Name: ____________________________________________ Experiment Date: ______________

Experiment: _______________________________________

10 9 8 7

Overview: All required All required One required Several required

Components of elements are elements are element is elements are
the Report present and present. missing, but missing.
additional additional
elements that elements that add
add to the report to the report (e.g.,
(e.g., thoughtful thoughtful
comments, comments,
graphics) have graphics) have
been added. been added.

Objectives The purpose of The purpose of The purpose of The purpose of

the lab or the the lab or the the lab or the the lab or the
question to be question to be question to be question to be
answered during answered during answered during answered during
the lab is clearly the lab is the lab is partially the lab is
identified and identified but is identified and is erroneous or
stated. stated in a stated in a irrelevant.
somewhat somewhat
unclear unclear manner.
manner.

Hypothesis The hypothesis is The hypothesis is

testable with not testable.
independent and
dependent
variables clearly
stated.

Procedures The procedures Procedures are Procedures are Procedures do

are listed in clear listed in a logical listed but are not not accurately
steps. Each step is order, but steps in a logical order list the
numbered and is a are not numbered or are difficult to steps of the
complete and/or are not in follow. experiment.
sentence. complete
sentences.

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 Data professionals Accurate Accurate Data are not
looking for an representation of representation of shown OR are
accurate the data in tables the data in inaccurate.
representation of and/or graphs. written form, but
the data in tables Graphs and no graphs or
and/or graphs. tables are labeled tables are
Graphs and and titled. presented.
tables are labeled
and titled.

Analysis The relationship The relationship The relationship The relationship

between the between the between the between the
variables is variables is variables is variables is not
discussed and discussed and discussed but no discussed.
trends/patterns trends/patterns patterns, trends,
are logically are logically or predictions are
analyzed. analyzed. made based on
Predictions are the data.
made about what
might
happen if part of
the lab were
changed or how
the experimental
design could be
changed.

Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion No conclusion

includes includes includes what was included in
whether the whether the was learned the report OR
findings findings from the shows little effort
supported the supported the experiment. and reflection.
hypothesis, hypothesis and
possible sources what was learned
of error, and from the
what was learned experiment.
from the
experiment.

TOTAL SCORE:

===

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