THE PARTICULATE

NATURE OF MATTER
States of matter
 1. State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases
2. Describe the structures of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle
separation, arrangement and motion
3. Describe changes of state in terms of melting, boiling, evaporating,
freezing and condensing
Objectives 4. Explain changes of state in terms of kinetic particle theory, including the
interpretation of heating and cooling curves
5. Describe the effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas
6. Explain, in terms of kinetic particle theory, the effects of temperature and
pressure on the volume of a gas
The Particle (0r
Kinetic) theory
of matter

5. Particles are attracted to each other. There are forces that attract

particles to each other.
 Kinetic theory of particles
 Kinetic theory of particles states that particles are always in random motion
 Their speed of movement depends on the temperature
 Higher the temperature the faster the particles will move
  Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space is called matter.

 The three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases

 The kinetic particle theory explains the properties of the different states of matter.

The Three The particles in solids, liquids and gases have different amounts of energy. They are
arranged differently and move in different ways.

States of
Matter
 Solids ,
Liquids and
Gases
Properties of
states of Incompressible
matter
  Why do solids have a fixed shape and fixed volume?

The particles in a solid are held together by strong forces of attraction. They
cannot move freely. They only have enough kinetic energy to vibrate about
their fixed positions.

The Solid  Why is it not possible to compress solids?

State  The particles in a solid are very close together and have no space to move
into.
 Why does a liquid not have a fixed shape?
The forces of attraction between the particles in a liquid are weaker than those in a
solid. They can move freely by sliding over one another, not giving the liquid a
fixed shape.
The particles in a liquid have greater kinetic energy as compared to the particles of
a solid.

The liquid Why does a liquid have a fixed volume?

state The particles of a liquid are further away from each other
than the particles of a solid. However, liquids cannot be
easily compressed, because their particles are close
together and have no space to move into, giving them a
fixed volume
 Why does a gas not have a fixed shape?

The particles of a gas:

The • Are spread far apart from one another

• Have weaker forces of attraction than the particles of a

Gaseous liquid
• Have a lot of kinetic energy and are not held in fixed
State positions
• Can move about rapidly in any direction
• Thus, a gas has no fixed shape
 Why does a gas not have a fixed volume?
• The particles of a gas have a lot of space between them as compared to the
particles of a liquid or solid.
• This space allows gases to be compressed when pressure is applied and have
space to move into.
• Therefore, gases can easily be compressed.
The Gaseous
State
 Packing/Separation of Losely packed/closer
particles
Tightly packed together
Far away from each other

Kinetic
Particle
Theory

Forces of attraction Strong forces of attraction Weaker forces of attraction Weakest forces of attraction
State Changes
 State Changes & Kinetic Particle Theory
• When matter is either heated or cooled, the kinetic energy of the particles changes causing a change of state.

• The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas depends on the strength of the forces
between the particles
• The stronger the forces of attraction, the more energy that is needed to overcome them for a state change to occur

• Therefore, the stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point and boiling point of the substance

• When matter changes from one state to another due to changes in temperature or pressure, the change is called
an interconversion of state

• It is a physical change involving changes in the forces between the particles of the substances, the particles themselves remain
the same, as do the chemical properties of the substance

• Changes in state are relatively easy to reverse as no new substance is formed during interconversions of state
 Melting
• Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid
• The process requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the
particles to move
• It occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point which is unique to
each pure solid 
Heating Curve  A heating curve shows how the temperature of a pure solid
changes as it is heated to its melting point and beyond.

 The temperature of heating naphthalene is recorded at

half minute intervals until all the naphthalene has melted.

 The melting point of naphthalene is 80°C.

 When the temperature is plotted against time, a graph is

obtained called the heating curve of naphthalene.
 Freezing
• Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid
• This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting, hence the melting point
and freezing point of a pure substance are the same
• Water for example freezes and melts at 0 ºC
• It requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at a specific temperature
which is unique for each pure substance 
Changes in the particles of a liquid when it freezes
  A cooling curve shows how the temperature of a pure liquid

changes as it is cooled to its freezing point.

 The temperature of cooling naphthalene is recorded at half

Cooling
minute intervals until all the naphthalene has solidified.
Curve
 The freezing point of naphthalene is 80 °C.

 When the temperature is plotted against time, a graph is

obtained called the cooling curve of naphthalene.

Cooing curve of napthalene
 Boiling
• Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas
• This requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid, allowing
for liquid particles to escape from the surface and from within the liquid
• It occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point which is unique to each pure liquid
 What happens to the particles of a liquid that
is heated until it boils?
• Heat energy is absorbed by the particles of a liquid and is converted into
kinetic energy,
• As a result of this the particles start to move faster as temperature rises
• When the temperature is high enough, there is enough energy to overcome
the forces of attraction between the particles
THINK! • The particles spread far apart changing into a gas escaping from the surface
and from within the liquid
Heating curve of tetrachloromethane

Q1. What is the boiling

point of
Tetracholoromethane?

Q2. Why does the

temperature remain
constant when the
substance is boiling?
 Heating curve of water
Ice melts at 0oC and water boils at 100oC. Plot the
heating curve of water.
Changes in State &
Kinetic Theory
During phase change, why no
temperature change?

Since the energy involved

in a phase changes is used
to break bonds, there is no
increase in the kinetic
energy of the particles, and
therefore no rise in
temperature

Heating curve for water with interconversions of state

Sketch the cooling curve for water
 Evaporation
 Process by which a liquid changes into a gas at temperatures lower
than its boiling point.
 Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids because some
particles have enough energy to escape from the liquids surface by
breaking free from the forces of attraction.
 Evaporation cools liquids as a result of this energy loss.
 The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface, the
more quickly a liquid can evaporate
 Evaporation occurs over a range of temperatures, but heating will
speed up the process as particles need energy to escape from the
surface
 Liquids that evaporate quickly at room temperature are called volatile
liquids e.g. petrol, perfume
Evaporation
different from
boiling?
Difference between evaporation and boiling
 Condensation
• Condensation occurs when a gas changes into a liquid on cooling and it takes
place over a range of temperatures
• When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other
they lack the energy to bounce away again, instead they group together to form a
liquid
 THINK!
What happens to the particles of a gas when the gas
condenses?
• Reverse of Boiling
• Heat energy is given out by the gas particles
• As temperature drops, the gas particles lose kinetic energy and move
slowly
• Forces of attraction become stronger allowing the gas to change into a
liquid
 Sublimation
• When a solid changes directly into a gas without going through the liquid state
• This happens to only a few solids, such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide (dry ice)
• The reverse reaction also happens and is called desublimation or deposition
Interconversio
n of solids,
liquids and
gases
Effect of temperature
and pressure on
volume of a gas
Temperature and pressure in gases

 Molecules of a gas move randomly. In a sealed

container they exert a force when they collide with the
container walls and this applies a pressure to the
container. The force and the pressure is equal
throughout the container.
Effect of temperature on gases
Temperature in gases
 When gases in containers are heated, their
molecules increase in average speed. This means
that they exert a greater force when they
collide with the container walls, and also collide
with the walls more frequently.

 The gas is therefore under greater pressure

when its temperature is higher. This is why
fires near sealed gas cylinders are extremely
dangerous. If the cylinders heat up enough, their
pressure will increase and they will explode.
Effect of pressure on gases

• When the volume

decreases, the
pressure increases.
• Pressure of a gas
is inversely
proportional to its
volume.
 Pressure and temperature in
gases
• Gaseous particles are in constant and random motion
• An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of each
particle, so they move faster
• They hit the container's walls more frequently
• The pressure that a gas creates inside a closed container is produced
by the gaseous particles hitting the inside walls of the container
• So when there is an increase in temperature this also causes
an increase in gas pressure
• Decreasing the temperature has the opposite effect, so the particles
slow down
 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

• All three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) expand when heated. The atoms themselves do not expand, but
the volume they take up does.

• On heating, the particles absorb thermal energy which is converted into kinetic energy (kinetic theory of matter)

• Heating a solid causes its particles to vibrate more and as the temperature increases, they vibrate so much that
the solid expands until the structure breaks and the solid melts

• On further heating, the now liquid substance expands more and some particles at the surface gain sufficient
energy to overcome the intermolecular forces and evaporate

• When the boiling point temperature is reached, all the particles gain enough energy to escape and the liquids boils
  The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid
​Explain​​ and from liquid to gas depends on the strength of the forces
between the particles of the substance.
changes​​of​​  The nature of the particles involved depends on the type of
state​​in​​terms​​ bonding and the structure of the substance.

of​​the​​kinetic​​  The stronger the forces between the particles the higher the
melting point and boiling point of the substance.
theory of  The more kinetic energy (from increased temperature) particles
matter? have, the more movement, which causes a change of state from
(s) to (l) to (g)
 Diffusion
• Diffusion is the movement of particles move
from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration due to the random motion
of their particles

• Eventually the concentration of particles

is even as they spread out to occupy all of the
available space

• Diffusion happens on its own and no energy

input is required although it occurs faster at
higher temperature
Diffusion of gases (evidence)
 Explanation
Why does the jar have this appearance at the end of
the experiment?

• Air and bromine are both made up of tiny particles

which move randomly.
• Particles of each gas diffuse into the empty spaces
making the particles of each gas evenly spread out
throughout both the glass jars.
• Homogenous mixture of air and bromine is formed.
Diffusion in
liquids
(evidence)
Diffusion (example)
THINK!
Factors affecting rate of
diffusion
• Molecular mass
• Temperature
Effect of relative
molecular mass
on rate of
diffusion
Relative molecular mass and rate of diffusion
• At the same temperature, different gases do not diffuse at
the same rate. This is due to the difference in their relative Diffusion & Molecular Mass
molecular masses.
Lighter gas particles can travel faster and hence further,
therefore the lower its relative mass the faster a gas will
diffuse.
This can be demonstrated in the reaction between
ammonia, NH3, and hydrogen chloride gas, HCl, inside a
long glass tube
Where the two gases meet a white smoke of ammonium
chloride, NH4Cl, is formed
This does not occur in the middle of the tube as you might
expect, but much closer to the end with the hydrogen NH3 molecules have less mass than the HCl molecule, so
chloride (Mr = 36.5) and the ammonia (Mr = 17) molecules diffuse faster, hence the product (a white smoke of NH4Cl)
forms closer to the end where the HCl is
are smaller and lighter
Diffusion and Molecular Mass
 Effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion

The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of diffusion.

Because the particles gain more kinetic energy, moving faster and
increasing the rate of diffusion