SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

 The fundamental difference between states of matter is the strength of the

intermolecular forces of attraction.

• The answer to this question largely relies on the balance between the kinetic
energies of the particles (kinetic energies depend on temperature and tend to
keep particles apart and moving) and interparticle energies of attraction
(interparticle attractions draw particles together).
Gases
• average kinetic energy of the molecules is larger than the average energy of
attractions between molecules
• lack of strong attractive forces allows gases to expand
Liquid
• intermolecular attractive forces are strong enough to hold particles close
together.
• Thus, liquids are much denser and far less compressible than gases.
• The attractive forces in liquids are not strong enough, however, to keep the
particles from moving past one another.
• Thus, any liquid can be poured and assumes the shape of the container it
occupies.
Solid
• intermolecular forces hold molecules together and keep them from moving
• not very compressible
• crystalline – solids with highly ordered structures
Because the particles in a solid or liquid are fairly close together compared with
those of a gas, we often refer to solids and liquids as condensed phases.
Phase Transitions
The change of a substance from one state to another is called a change of state or
phase transition.
each of the three states of a substance can change into either of the other states
by undergoing a phase transition.
Melting is the change of a solid to a liquid state (melting is also referred to as
fusion).
Freezing is the change of a liquid to a solid state. The freezing of liquid water to
ice is a common example.

Vaporization is the change of a solid or a liquid to a vapor.

• When a substance that is normally a gas changes to a liquid state, the phase
transition is often referred to as liquefaction.
• Dew is liquid water formed by condensation of water vapor from the
atmosphere.
• Frost is solid water formed by direct condensation of water vapor from the
atmosphere without first forming liquid water
Liquid Properties Affected by Intermolecular Forces
• boiling point (previously discussed) and melting point
• viscosity
• surface tension
• capillary action
Surface Tension
• Water acts as if it has a “skin”
on it due to extra inward forces on its
surface. Those forces are called
surface tension.
Cohesion and Adhesion
• Intermolecular forces that bind similar molecules to one another are called
cohesive forces.
• Intermolecular forces that bind a substance to a surface are called adhesive
forces.
• These forces are important in capillary action.

Capillary Action
• The rise of liquids up narrow tubes is called
capillary action.
• Adhesive forces attract the liquid to the wall
of the tube.
• Cohesive forces attract the liquid to itself.
• Water has stronger adhesive forces with
glass; mercury has stronger cohesive forces
with itself.

Phase Changes
• Conversion from one state of matter to another
is called a phase change.
• Energy is either added or released in a
phase change.
• Phase changes: melting/freezing, vaporizing/
condensing, subliming/depositing.
Energy Change & Change of State
• The heat of fusion is the energy
required to change a solid at its
melting point to a liquid.
• The heat of vaporization is the
energy required to change a
liquid at its boiling point to a gas.
• The heat of sublimation is the
energy required to change a solid
directly to a gas.

Heating Curves
• A plot of temperature vs. heat added is called a heating curve.
• Within a phase, heat is the product of specific heat, sample mass, and
temperature change.
• The temperature of the substance does not rise during a phase change.
• For the phase changes, the product of mass and the heat of fusion of
vaporization is heat.
Supercritical Fluids
• Gases liquefies when pressure is applied.
• The temperature beyond which a gas
cannot be compressed is called its critical
temperature. The pressure needed to
compress the liquid at critical temperature
is called critical pressure.
• The state beyond this temperature is
called a supercritical fluid.
Vapor Pressure
• At any temperature, some liquid
molecules have enough energy to
escape the surface and become a gas.
• As the temperature rises, the
fraction of molecules that have
enough energy to break free increases.

Vapor Pressure
• As more molecules escape the liquid,
the pressure they exert increases.
• The liquid and vapor reach a state of
dynamic equilibrium: liquid molecules
evaporate and vapor molecules condense
at the same rate.

• The boiling point of a liquid is the

temperature at which its vapor pressure
equals atmospheric pressure.
• The normal boiling point is the
temperature at which its vapor
pressure is 760 torr.
Phase Diagram of Water
• Note the high critical temperature and critical pressure.
– These are due to the strong van der Waals forces
between water molecules.
• Unusual feature for water:
 The slope of the solid– liquid line is negative.
 This means that as the pressure is increased,
the melting point decreases.

Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide

• Unusual features for carbon dioxide:
 cannot exist in the liquid state at pressures
below 5.11 atm (triple point)  CO2 sublimes
at normal pressures.
Liquid Crystals
• Some substances do not go directly from the
solid state to the liquid state.
• In this intermediate state, liquid crystals
have some traits of solids and some of liquids.
• Molecules in liquid crystals have some degree of
order.
• In nematic liquid crystals, molecules are
only ordered in one dimension, along the long
axis.
• In smectic liquid crystals, molecules are
ordered in two dimensions, along the long axis
and in layers.
• In cholesteryic liquid crystals,
nematic-like crystals are layered at angles to
each other.

Properties of Solutions
• Solution, in chemistry, a homogenous mixture of two or more substances in
relative amounts that can be varied continuously up to what is called the limit of
solubility.
In a solution, the terms solute and solvent refer to the components. the solute is
dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.
The liquid in a solution has customarily designated the solvent, and the substance
added is called the solute.
If both components are liquids, the one present in smaller concentration is likely
to be called the solute.
In a solution, components may be solid, liquid or gas. On this basis solutions can
be divided into following three types – Gaseous solution, Liquid solution, Solid
solution
Solubility and the Solution Process
Solution Formation
•What factors affect how fast a substance dissolves?
Granulated sugar dissolves faster than sugar cubes, and both granulated sugar
and sugar cubes dissolve faster in hot tea or when you stir the tea.

Agitation Temperature Particle size of the solute

ation
The compositions of the solvent and the solute determine whether or not a substance will
dissolve.
• Factors that affect how fast a substance dissolves include:
Agitation, Temperature, Particle size of the solute
Agitation
If the contents of the glass are stirred, the crystals dissolve more quickly.

• The dissolving process occurs at the surface of the sugar crystals.

• Stirring speeds up the process because fresh solvent (the water) is continually brought in contact with
the surface of the solute (sugar).

Agitation (stirring or shaking) affects only the rate at which a solid solute dissolves.

• It does not influence the amount of solute that will dissolve.

• An insoluble substance remains undissolved regardless of how vigorously or for how long the
solvent/solute system is agitated.

Temperature

At higher temperatures, the kinetic energy of water molecules is greater than at lower temperatures, so
the molecules move faster.

Particle size of the solute

The rate at which a solute dissolves also depends upon the size of the solute particles. The smaller
particles in granulated sugar expose a much greater surface area to the colliding water molecules.
In a saturated solution, a state of dynamic equilibrium exists between the solution and any
undissolved solute, provided that the temperature remains constant.
The solubility of a substance is the amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of a
solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution.
• Solubility is often expressed in grams of solute per 100 g of solvent (g/100 g H 2O).
• Sometimes the solubility of a gas is expressed in grams per liter of solution (g/L).
A solution with undissolved solute is saturated. The additional solute will not dissolve if added
to a saturated solution. The amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution in a given
quantity of solvent is known as the solubility of that solute.

A solution that contains less solute than a saturated solution at a given temperature and
pressure is an unsaturated solution.
• If additional solute is added to an unsaturated solution, the solute will dissolve until the
solution is saturated

If we dissolve less solute than the amount needed to form a saturated solution, the solution is
unsaturated.

Under suitable conditions, it is possible to form solutions that contain a greater amount of solute than
needed to form a saturated solution. Such solutions are supersaturated.
Some liquids—for example, water and ethanol—
are infinitely soluble in each other.
• Two liquids are miscible if they dissolve in each other
in all proportions.
If two fluids do not mix but, rather, form two layers, they
are said to be immiscible.
What factors affect the solubility of a substance?
•Temperature affects the solubility of solid, liquid, and gaseous solutes in a
solvent; both temperature and pressure affect the solubility of gaseous solutes.

Pressure
Changes in pressure have little effect on the solubility of solids and liquids, but
pressure strongly influences the solubility of gases.
• Gas solubility increases as the partial pressure of the gas above the solution
increases.
The solubility of most solid solutes in water increases as the solution temperature
increases, the solubility of gases in water decreases with increasing temperature
Carbonated beverages are a good example.
• These drinks contain large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) dissolved in water.
When the container is opened, the partial pressure of CO 2 above the liquid decreases.
Immediately, bubbles of CO2 form in the liquid and escape from the open bottle.
• The drinks are bottled under a high pressure of CO 2 gas, which forces larger amounts of the
gas into solution.
• the solubility (S) of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure (P) of the gas above
the liquid (partial pressure).

Henry’s law