Thermal Physics

Simple kinetic molecular model of matter

Gases: A state of matter in which the particles are spread apart and have
high kinetic energies. Any intermolecular forces acting between the particles
are very weak.
Liquids: A state of matter in which the particles are in contact, but can flow
over each other. Intermolecular forces act between the particles.
Solids: A state of matter in which the particles are tightly packed together
and can only vibrate about their fixed positions. Strong intermolecular
forces act between the particles.

2.1.2 Molecular Model

Brownian motion: It is the random motion of particles suspended in a medium
Gas temperature: The temperature of a gas is directly proportional to the average
kinetic energy of its molecules.
Kinetic molecular model of matter: States that matter is made up of particles
that are constantly moving.
Pressure of a gas: The perpendicular force(rate of change of momentum) per
unit area acting on the surfaces of a container as a result of the gas particles
colliding with it.
Suspension: A state in which particles are dispersed throughout a fluid.

2.1.3 Evaporation
Evaporation: It is the process of changing from a liquid or solid state into vapor
due to the escape of more-energetic molecules from the surface of a liquid. It is
influenced by temperature, surface area and draught over a surface.
Evaporative cooling: It is cooling due to evaporation due to the escape of more-energetic molecules
from the surface of a liquid. As a result, a body in
contact with an evaporating liquid also experiences a loss in temperature.

2.1.4 Pressure Changes

Molecule: It is a particle made up of two or more atoms that are chemically
bonded together.
Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a
substance. An increase in temperature will result in an increase in the particles'
kinetic energies and velocities.
Volume of a gas: It is the quantity of three-dimensional space occupied by a gas.

States of matter
● The three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases
● A substance can usually exist in all three states, dependent on temperature (and pressure)
● State changes occur at the melting point (solid to liquid, liquid to solid) and at the freezing
point (liquid to gas and gas to liquid)
● Melting and freezing occur at the melting point
● Boiling and condensing take place at the boiling point
 ● Individual atoms themselves do not share the same properties as bulk matter
● The three states of matter can be represented by a simple model
● In this model, the particles are represented by small solid spheres.

Interconversion Between the States of Matter

● The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas
depends on the strength of the forces between the particles
● The stronger the forces of attraction, the more energy that is needed to overcome them for a
state change to occur
● Therefore, the stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point and
boiling point of the substance
● When matter changes from one state to another due to changes in temperature or pressure, the
change is called an interconversion of state
● It is a physical change involving changes in the forces between the particles of the substances,
the particles themselves remain the same, as do the chemical properties of the substance
● Physical changes are relatively easy to reverse as no new substance is formed during
interconversions of state
● The interconversions have specific terms to describe them:

Melting
● Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid
● The process requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles
to move
● It occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point which is unique to each pure
solid
Boiling
● Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas
● This requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid, allowing
for liquid particles to escape from the surface and from within the liquid
● It occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point which is unique to each pure
liquid
Freezing
● Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid
● This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting, hence
the melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the same
● Water for example freezes and melts at 0 ºC
● It requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at a
specific temperature which is unique for each pure substance
Evaporation
● When a liquid changes into a gas
● Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can escape from
the liquids surface at low temperatures, below the boiling point of the liquid
● The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface, the more quickly a liquid can
evaporate
● Evaporation occurs over a range of temperatures, but heating will speed up the process as
particles need energy to escape from the surface
Condensation
● When a gas changes into a liquid, usually on cooling
 ● When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other, they lack
energy to bounce away again, instead grouping together to form a liquid
● Sublimation
● When a solid changes directly into a gas
● This happens to only a few solids, such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide
● The reverse reaction also happens and is called sublimation or deposition
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● All matter is made up ot molecules in motion.
● The higher the temperature, the faster the motion of the molecules.
● Almost always, matter expands with increases in temperature.
Solids
● Molecules are close together.
● Molecules vibrate about fixed points in a regular array or lattice.
● The rigid structure of solids results from these fixed positions.
● As temperature increases, the molecules vibrate further and faster.
● This pushes the fixed points further apart and the solid expands.
● There is only a very slight expansion of a solid with increases in temperature.
● The positions of molecules in a solid are fixed because the attractive and repulsive forces
between neighbouring molecules are balanced.
Liquids
● Molecules are slightly further apart than in solids.
● Molecules are still close enough to keep a definite volume.
● The main motion of the molecules is vibration. The molecules also move randomly in all
directions, not being fixed to each other.
● As temperature increases, the molecules move faster and further apart, so
● the liquid expands.
● The forces between molecules are too weak to keep them in a definite pattern but are
sufficient to hold them to the bulk of the liquid.
● There is a small expansion of a liquid with increases in temperature.
Gasses
● Molecules are much further apart than in solids or liquids.
● Molecules move much faster than in solids or liquids.
● There is no definite volume. Molecules move throughout the available space.
● Molecules constantly collide with each other and the container walls.
● Gases have low densities.
● The higher the temperature, the faster the speed of the molecules. In fact, temperature is a
measure of the average speed of the molecules.
● The higher the temperature, the larger the volume of a gas at constant pressure.

Evaporation
● Evaporation is a change in state of a liquid to a gas that can happen at any temperature from
the surface of a liquid.
● The molecules in a liquid have a range of different energies:
● Some have lots of energy, others have very little Evaporation occurs when more energetic
molecules near the surface of the liquid have enough energy to escape
● Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules near the surface of a liquid escape
Factors Affecting Evaporation
 ● The temperature of the liquid – At higher temperatures, more molecules have enough energy
to escape
● The surface area of the liquid – If the liquid has a greater surface area there will be more area
from which the molecules can escape
● The movement of air across the surface of the liquid – The presence of a draft can help to
remove less energetic molecules (which might not have quite enough energy to escape) from
the liquid
● The process of evaporation can be used to cool things down: If an object is in contact with an
evaporating liquid, as the liquid cools the solid will cool as well.

Thermal Properties
Application: The action of putting something into operation
Magnitude: A numerical quantity or value.
Thermal expansion: Thermal expansion is the increase, or decrease, of the size
(length, area, or volume) of a body due to a change in temperature.

Thermal Expansion
● When (most) materials are heated, they expand
● This expansion happens because the molecules start to move around (or vibrate) faster, which
causes them to knock into each other and push each other apart

Measurements of temperature