Intermolecular Forces and Phase Changes

Created By, Group 1 :

Mela Rizky (21030117190178)
Rafiq Malino Putra (21030117190179)
Dhyrana Shaliha Armani (21030117190182)
Naufal Rafif Lupiko (21030117190165)
Hastantyo Nurendra M (21030117190180)
SUMMARY OF SECTION 10.3
MOLECULAR SHAPE AND MOLECULAR POLARITY
Molecules of a subtances is a key to understrand physical and chemical behavior.
Molecular shape have the most important and far-reaching effects that can influence melting
and boiling points, solubility, chemical reactivity, and even biological function called
Molecular Polarity.

Covalent bond is polar when it joins atoms of different electronegativities because that
sharing electrons. Molecular polarity will occur to the molecules with an imbalance of charge.
When the molecules consist more than two atoms, both shape and both polarity determine
molecular polarity.

Bond Polarity, Bond Angle, and Dipole Moment

Bond polarity, cause by an electronegativity difference between the atoms in a

molecule. A bond angle is the angle formed between three atoms across at least two bonds.
Dipole Moments occur when there is a separation of charge. They can occur between two ions
in an iconic bond or between atoms in a covalent bond. The larger the difference in
electronegativity, the larger the dipole moment.

The presence of polar bonds does not always lead to a polar molecule, thus when
determining the molecular poarity we must take shape into account. Carbon dioxide, the large
electronegativity difference between C and O makes each C=O quite polar. However, CO2 is
linear.

Water also has identical atoms bonded to the central atom, but it does have a significant
dipole moment. In each O-H bond, electron density is pulled toward the more electronegative
O atom. The water molecule is V shaped. In the two previous examples, molecular shape
influences polarity. If the two different molecules have the same shape, the nature of the atoms
surrounding the central atom can have a major effect on polarity.

The Effect of Molecular Polarity on Behavior.

The polarity of a molecule determines the intermolecular force of the molecule, which
then affects the physical properties of a molecule. These physical properties include, but aren't
limited to, boiling point, freezing point, viscosity, surface tension and solubility. Polar
molecules would have stronger intermolecular forces than nonpolar molecules. As a result
these polar molecules would have higher boiling points, freezing points, surface tension.

To get a sense of the influence of molecular polarity on physical behavior, consider

what effect a molecular dipole might have when many polar molecules lie near each other, as
they do in a liquid. A molecular property affect a macroscopic property such as boiling point.
The molecular polarity also has an affect on biological behavior such as the sense of smell.

SUMMARY OF SECTION 12.1

An Overview Of Physical States and Phase Changes
Intermoleculer forces (Bonding forces) Exist within each molecule and influence the
chemical properties of the substance,but the intermolecular forces (Nonbonding forces) exist
between the molecules and influence the physical properties of the substance.There are 3
states with a view of kinetic molecular.In a gas,the energy of attraction is small relative to the
energy motion,the average the particles are fart apart,and they flow and diffuse easily through
one another.In a liquid,the attraction are stronger because the particles are in virtual
contact,and they flow and diffuse much more slowly than gasses.In a solid,the attractions
dominate the motion so much that the particles remain in position relative to one another,and
the particles are usually slightly closer together than in a liquid

Changes of Phase
There are four states of matter in the universe: plasma, gas, liquid and solid. But,
matter on Earth exists mostly in three distinct phases: gas, liquid and solid. A phase is a
distinctive form of a substance, and matter can change among the phases. It may take extreme
temperature, pressure or energy, but all matter can be changed.
There are six distinct changes of phase which happens to different substances at
different temperatures. The six changes are:
Freezing: the substance changes from a liquid to a solid.
Melting: the substance changes back from the solid to the liquid.
Condensation: the substance changes from a gas to a liquid.
Vaporization: the substance changes from a liquid to a gas.
Sublimation: the substance changes directly from a solid to a gas without going through the
liquid phase.
Deposition: the substance changes directly from a gas to a solid without going through the
liquid phase
SUMMARY OF SECTION 12.2
QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF PHASE CHANGES
In this section, we examine the heat absorbed or relased in a phase change and the
equilibrium nature of the process.
HEAT INVOLVED IN PHASE CHANGES : A KINETIC-MOLECULAR
APPROACH
We can apply the kinetic-molecular theory quantitatively to phase changes by means
of a heating-cooling curve, which shows the changes that occur when heat is added or
removed at a constant rate from a particular sample of matter. To an observer, the process is
continuous, but we can divide it into five heat-releasing (exothermic) stages that correspond
to the five portions of the curve- the gas cools, it condenses to a liquid, the liquid cools, it
freezes to a solid, and the solid cools a bit further :
Stage 1, Gaseous water cools.
Stage 2, Gaseous water condense
Stage 3, Liquid water cools
Stage 4, Liquid water freezes
Stage 5, Solid water cools
Two Key Points stand out in this or any similar process (at constant pressure), whether
exothermic and endothermic :
1. Within a phase, a change in heat is accompanied by a change in temperature, which is
associated with a change in average Ek as the most probable speed of the molecules changes.
2. During a phase change, a change in heat occurs at a constant temperature, which is
associated with a change in Ep, as the average distance between molecules changes.

THE EQUILIBRIUM NATURE OF PHASE CHANGES

In a closed container under controlled conditions, how ever, please changes of many
substances are reversible and reach equilibrium, just as chemical changes do.

Liquid-gas Equilibrium
A. In a closed flask at constant temperature with the air removed, the initial pressure is zero.
As molecules leave the surface and enter the space above the liquid, the pressure of the vapor
rises.
B. At equilibrium, the same number of molecules leave as enter the liquid within a given
time, so the pressure of the vapor reaches a constant value.
C. A plot of pressure vs, time shows that pressure of the vapor increases as long the rate of
vaporization is greater than the rate of condensation. At equilibrium, the rates are equal, so
the pressure is constant. The pressure at this point is the vapor pressure of the liquid at the
temperature.

The Effects of Temperature and Intramolecular Forces on Vapor Pressure

The vapor pressure of a substance depends on the temperature. Raising the
temperature of a liquid increases the fraction of molecules moving fast enough to escape the
liquid and decreases the fraction moving slowly enough to be recaptured. In general, the
higher the temperature is, the higger the vapor pressure.
The vapor pressure also depends on the intermolecular forces present. The average Ek
is the same for different substances at a given temperature. Therefore, molecules with weaker
intermolecular forces vaporize more easily. In general, the weaker the intermolecular forces
are, the higher the vapor pressure.

Solid-Liquid Equilibrium
Because liquids and solids is nearly incompressible, a change in pressure has little
effect on the rate of movement to or from the solid. Therefore, in contrast to the boiling point,
the melting point is affected by pressure only very slightly and plot of pressure (y axis) vs
temperature (x axis) for a solid-liquid phase change is typically a straight, nearly vertical line.

Solid-Gas Equilibrium
Solids have much lower vapor pressures than liquids. Sublimation, the process of a
solid changing directly into a gas, is much less familiar than vaporation because the necessary
conditions of pressure and temperature are uncommon for most substances.
PHASE DIAGRAM: EFFECT ON PRESUURE AND TEMPERATURE
ON PHYSICAL STATE
A phase diagram has these 4 features:
1. Regions of the diagram.
2. Lines Between regions
3. The Critical Point.
4. The Triple Point

SUMMARY OF SECTION 12.3

TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCE
There are several types of intermolecular forces, they are ion-dipole, dipole-dipole,
hydrogen bonding, dipole-induced dipole, and dispersion forces.

Ion-Dipole Forces

Involves the interaction between the full charge of an ion and the partial charge of a
polar compound. The partial charge on the polar compound is smaller than a full positive or
negative charge on ions, so the interaction will not be as strong.

Dipole-Dipole Forces

These are the interactions that exist between neutral, but polar substances. When
polar molecules lie near one another, as in liquids and solids, their partial charges act as tiny
electric fields that orient them and give rise to dipole-dipole force. They involve the attraction
of partial positive and partial negative charges present in polar compounds. In fact, for
molecular compounds of approximately the same size and molar mass, the greater the dipole
moment, the greater the dipole-dipole forces between the molecules are.

Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen Bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole force arises between molecules

that have an H atom bonded to N, O, and F. The bond are very polar, so electron density is
withdraw from H atom.
Dipole-Induced Dipole

Dipole-Induced Dipole is arise between a change and the dipole it induces in another
molecule.

Dispersion Forces

Dispersion Forces the intermolecular force primarily responsible for the condensed
states of nonpolar substance. This force are caused by momentary oscillations of electron
change in atoms and, therefore, are present between all particles. Eventhough Dispersion
Forces is only force existing between nonpolar particles, but because they exist between all
particle, dispersion forces contribute to the overall energy of attraction of all substance. The
dispersion dominate intermolecular force.

Dispersion forces are very weak for small particles, the relative strength of the
dispersion force depends on the polarizability of the particle. Polarizability depends on the
number of electrons, which correlates closely with molar mass because heavier particle are
either larger atoms or composed of more atoms.

For nonpolar substance with the same molar mass, the strength of the dispersion
forces is influenced by molecular shape. Shapes that allow more points of contact have more
area over which electron cloud can be distorted, so stronger attraction result.

SUMMARY OF SECTION 13.1

TYPES OF SOLUTION: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND
SOLUBILITY

A solution consists of a solute and a solvent. The solute is the substance that is
dissolved in the solvent. The amount of solute that can be dissolved in solvent is called its
solubility. The useful rule-of-thumb “like dissolves like” says that substances
with similar types of intermolecular forces dissolve in each other. And by knowing
the forces, we can often predict whether a solute will dissolve in a solvent.
Intermolecular Forces in Solutions

There are six types of intermolecular forces also occur in solutions. These six types
are Ion-dipole forces, Hydrogen Bonding, Dipole-dipole forces, Ion-induced dipole forces,
Dipole-induced dipole forces, and Dispersion forces. Ion-dipole interaction occurs when an
ion encounters a polar molecule. In this case, the charge of the ion determines which part of
the molecule attracts and which repels. Hydrogen Bonding is a weak type of force but forms
strong dipole-dipole attraction, occurs when there is an OH, NH or FH bond. H is very small
and O, N, and F are very electronegative. Dipole-dipole occurs whenever two polar
molecules get near each other. The positively charged portion of one molecule is attracted to
the negatively charged portion of another molecule. Ion-induced dipole forces arise when an
ion’s charge distorts the electron cloud of a nearby nonpolar molecule. Dipole-induced
dipole forces attraction is a weak attraction that results when the approach of an ion induces
a dipole in an atom or in a nonpolar molecule by disturbing the arrangement of electrons in
the nonpolar species. Dispersion forces is the weakest intermolecular force, it is a temporary
attractive force that results when the electrons in two adjacent atoms occupy positions that
make the atoms form temporary dipoles.

Liquid Solutions and The Role of Molecular Polarity

The like-dissolves-like rule says that when the forces within the solute are similar to
those within the solvent, the forces can replace each other and a solution forms. For example,
salts are soluble in water and insoluble in in hexane (C6H14) because the ion-dipole
attractions between ion-water are similar in strength to the strong attractions between the ions
and the strong H bonds between water molecules but the ion–induced dipole forces between
ion and nonpolar hexane are very weak and cannot replace the strong attractions between the
ions.

Dual Polarity and Effects on Solubility

Comparing the solubilities of a series of alcohols in water and in hexane, two solvents
with very different intermolecular forces. Solubility in water is high for smaller alcohols but
low for larger alcohols because the longer the hydrocarbon chain, a higher percentage of the
molecule becomes nonpolar and contributes to its insolubility. A substance with very weak
intermolecular attractions should have a low boiling point and, would be a gas under ordinary
conditions. Also, it would not be very soluble in water because of weak solute-solvent forces.
Thus, for nonpolar or slightly polar gases, boiling point generally correlates with solubility in
water.

Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions

A gas-gas solution is just a mixture of gases. Because the molecules of gas are so far
apart they generally only have minimal interactions with each other. This means that all gases
can be considered to be soluble in each other. Gas-solid solutions is when a gas dissolves in
a solid, it occupies the spaces between the closely packed particles. Solid-Solid Solutions
can be formed by melting the solids and then mixing them and allowing them to freeze.