SELF-CHECK 1.

1
1. The average amount of empty space between molecules gets progressively larger as a
sample of matter moves from the solid to the liquid and gas phases.

2. London dispersion forces, under the category of van der Waal forces: These are the
weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist between all types of molecules, whether
ionic or covalent—polar or nonpolar. The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger
the London dispersion forces are.

3. A. "Carbon dioxide has an extremely low boiling point.  The reason lies in that the only
intermolecular forces present in carbon dioxide are London forces.  London forces are
forces between atoms caused by electron movement that lead to instantaneous dipoles.

B. All substances including neon demonstrate dispersion forces. They are the weakest
type of intermolecular force since they are only transient, but even so their overall
effect is sufficient to form a significant attraction between particles. 

C. There will be an attraction between the charged ions and the water molecules. Water
molecules will surround the ions of Mg^2+ while Cl- bridges between water molecules and
hydrogen bonds. The chloride ions fit right into the hydrogen bond arrangement between
water molecules.

4. Stronger intermolecular forces will also result in a higher physical properties such as
higher melting or boiling points, which require breaking molecules apart.  Since a higher
vapor pressure means that it's easier to vaporize a compound, this means that lower
intermolecular forces leads to a higher vapor pressure.

5. Hydrogen bonding is the strongest intermolecular force and will act to pull water
molecules closer to each other. The result is a dense liquid that does not easily
 transition into a less dense gas. In order for water to boil these intermolecular hydrogen
bonds must be broken, which takes energy.

6. Crystalline solids have well-defined edges and faces, diffract x-rays, and tend to have
sharp melting points. In contrast, amorphous solids have irregular or curved surfaces, do
not give well-resolved x-ray diffraction patterns, and melt over a wide range of
temperatures.

7. Ionic crystals are composed of alternating positive and negative ions.

Metallic crystals consist of metal cations surrounded by a "sea" of mobile valence
electrons.
Covalent crystals are composed of atoms which are covalently bonded to one another.
Molecular crystals are held together by weak intermolecular forces.

8. Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the physical states of a substance under

different conditions of temperature and pressure. A typical phase diagram has pressure
on the y-axis and temperature on the x-axis. As we cross the lines or curves on the
phase diagram, a phase change occurs. In addition, two states of the substance coexist
in equilibrium on the lines or curves.

TEST YOURSELF
B.

1. Typical dipole-dipole forces are strong bonds between atoms, some of them usually quite
electronegative.
Hydrogen Bonding is between molecules and is a weak bond that usually requires the presence
of hydrogen.

2. If the compounds have similar shape and molar mass but different boiling points, they must
have different intermolecular forces.
Consider the compounds propane, dimethyl ether and ethanol.
Propane, CH3CH2CH3: molar mass = 44 g/mol; boiling point = -42 °C
Dimethyl ether, CH3OCH3: molar mass = 46 g/mol; boiling point = -24 °C
Ethanol, CH3CH2OH: molar mass = 46 g/mol; boiling point = 78 °C
These compounds all consist of a chain of three "heavy" atoms with hydrogen atoms attached,
and they have similar molar masses, but widely different boiling points.
Propane is a nonpolar compound. It has only weak London dispersion forces, so the molecules
can easily escape into the gas phase.
It has a low boiling point and is a gas at room temperature.
Dimethyl ether has polar C-O bonds, so its intermolecular forces are the stronger dipole-dipole
attractions.
It has a higher boiling point, but it is still a gas at room temperature.
Ethanol has strong hydrogen bonds. The intermolecular forces are so strong that ethanol is a
liquid at room temperature.

3. The kinetic molecular theory states that the particles present in molecules are constantly
moving. Due to which the particles in gases are far apart and have less intermolecular forces of
attraction.
During the process of evaporation the liquid changes to water vapour when we increase the
temperature.

4. Particles behave differently in each state because the amount of energy a substance gains
changes the rate of movement of the particles. The pace of movement and the space needed
for the particles increases as it changes between solid, liquid and gas.

5. Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction or repulsion which act between neighboring
particles (atoms, molecules, or ions ). These forces are weak compared to the intramolecular
forces, such as the covalent or ionic bonds between atoms in a molecule.

6. Intermolecular forces greatly influence the properties of liquids . As we know that there are
some liquids which are volatile and some are non volatile. this volatile and nonvolatile
characteristics of liquids is mainly determined by intermolecular forces. There are basically five
kinds of intermolecular forces these forces include vanderwall forces London dispersion forces
and highly strong force that is hydrogen bonding . Water is one that has highly strong
intermolecular force that is is what hydrogen bonding due to hydrogen bonding its boiling point
it s melting point increases with respect to other liquids some other liquids which do not
contain hydrogen bonding have relativesly less boiling points as well as melting points this is
what I want to say a that it is the strength of intermolecular force influences the many
characteristics to be increased such a s melting point boiling point and heat of vaporization

7. Solid is one of the three main states of matter, along with liquid and gas. Matter is the "stuff"
of the universe, the atoms, molecules and ions that make up all physical substances. In a solid,
these particles are packed closely together and are not free to move about within the
substance.
8. The point at which the lines intersect represents the triple point. At the pressure and
temperature of the triple point, all three phases (solid, liquid and gas) exist in equilibrium.

SELF-CHECK 1.2

1. supersaturated solution, unsaturated solution, saturated solution, aqueous solution, Non-

aqueous solution, dilute solution, concentrated solution.

2. Energy is required for a solute to break its bonds.

When you are forming a solution you need to break down the solute into its particles. The
solute is the solid substance that you are dissolving.
Bond breaking requires energy as the solute is relatively stable in its solid form.

3. Given the density of the solution = 1.1 gram/ ml

So the mass of 150 ml of aqua solution = 150 x density of the solution
 = 150 ml X 1.1 gram /ml
=165 grams
According to the given data,
Magnesium chloride present in the solution = 20% by mass of the solution
 =( Mass of solution×20)/100 gram
= 166×20/100 gram
 =33.2 grams

hence, mass of the magnesium chloride needed to prepare a solution of 20% of magnesium
chloride by mass = 33.2 grams of magnesium chloride

4. mol ethanol( C₂H₅OH), MW=46,07 g/mol :

= mass : MW

= 65 g : 46.07 g/mol

= 1.41

mol water (H₂O), MW=18 g/mol :

= 350 g : 18 g/mol

= 19.44

mol total :

= 1.41 + 19.44

= 20.85
mol fraction of ethanol :

= 1.41 : 20.85

= 0.068

mol fraction of water :

= 19.44 : 20.85

= 0.932

5. n=m/Mr.
Molality= n/m
n= 10.8/62 = 0,174193548 moles.
Molality = 0,174193548/0.36 = 0,483870967 molality.

6. moles of NaCl = 2.40/58.45 = 0.041 moles

Molarity = moles of solute / volume of solution
Volume = 40ml = 0.040L
M = 0.041/0.040 = 1.025M

7. NaOH + HNO₃ → NaNO₃ + H₂O

Mole ratio  NaOH : HNO₃ = 1 : 1

Millimoles of NaOH reacted = (3.50 \tfrac{mmol}{ml}mlmmol) × (24.2 mlml ) = 84.7 mmolmmol

Millimoles of HNO₃ required = 84.7 mmolmmol

Volume of HNO₃ required = \dfrac{84.7mmol}{2.25 \tfrac{mmol}{ml} }2.25mlmmol84.7mmol =

37.6 mlml

8. At a given temperature the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the

pressure of the gas above the liquid. As the pressure of the gas above the liquid increases, the
solubility of the gas increases.

9. Colligative properties are the physical changes that result from adding solute to a solvent.
Colligative Properties depend on how many solute particles are present as well as the solvent
amount, but they do NOT depend on the type of solute particles, although do depend on the
type of solvent.

 Hypotonic – which has a lower concentration of fluid, sugars and salt than blood
 Isotonic – which has a similar concentration of fluid, sugars and salt to blood
 Hypertonic – which has a higher concentration of fluid, sugars and salt than blood

TEST YOURSELF

B.

1. The empirical formula for PABA= C_7H_2NO_2=C7H2NO2 , with a molar mass

of 137.14g/mol137.14g/mol
ChloroformCHCl_3CHCl3 has a molar mass of 119.38g/mol119.38g/mol
\therefore∴ W_{C_7H_{2}NO_2}WC7H2NO2 =8.2g=8.2g

W_{CHCl_3}=150gWCHCl3=150g

\Delta _{{T}_{b}}ΔTb =61.15°C=61.15°C
m=m= W_{C_7H_2NO_2}\over mC_7H_2NO_2mC7H2NO2WC7H2NO2 \times× 1000\over
ww1000
m=m= 8.2\over 137.14137.148.2 \times× 1000\over 100010001000 =0.0598=0.0598
0.62\over 3.63\times 0.05983.63×0.05980.62 \times× 10001000 =134.60=134.60
Molecular mass of PABA=134.60g/mol=134.60g/mol

2. In a mountain lake it will be 85,  in a lake near sea level it will be 110. The reason of this
differences is defferent pressure in different heights.

3. Diet coke

Diet soda uses artificial sweetener instead of sugar. Artificial sweeteners are more potent than
sugar, meaning less sweetener is found in diet soda than sugar in an equivalently sweet regular
soda.

When solute is dissolved in solution, the solution undergoes freezing point depression: its
freezing point drops. The magnitude of this effect is proportional to the amount of solute in
solution. Because there is more sugar in the regular soda than sweetener in the diet soda, the
regular soda's freezing point is depressed more than the diet's, so the diet soda will freeze at a
higher temperature than the regular soda.

Note: in your question you asked why diet soda freezes more quickly than regular soda, which
is not necessarily true; from your explanation its evident that you meant why diet soda freezes
at a higher temperature.

C.
4. pancake syrup - The syrup that you like to eat on pancakes or waffles is a solution of sugar in
water along with flavoring agents.
sports drinks - Sports drinks like Gatorade and Powerade are solutions of salt, sugar and other
ingredients dissolved in water.
sweetened tea or coffee - When sugar is dissolved into brewed tea or coffee, the beverage
becomes a solution.
salt water - If you’ve ever had to gargle with warm salt water to help with a sore throat, you
have created a solution by dissolving salt (sodium chloride) in water.

5. Solutions can be solid, liquid, or gas (liquid solutions are most interesting to chemists).
In the liquid phase, the molecules are close enough that intermolecular forces become
important. Hence, a liquid solution will form. The two liquids are said to be
completely miscible in each other.

6.  The concentration of a solute is very important in studying chemical reactions because it

determines how often molecules collide in solution and thus indirectly determines the rates of
reactions and the conditions at equilibrium (see chemical equilibrium).

7. Stoichiometry is important because it shows the relative amount of each reactant needed
for a reaction to proceed, and helps determine the expected amount of
products. Stoichiometry is important in analytical chemistry, analysis methods, and
understanding chemical reactions. 

8. If you are trying to dissolve a substance, you have three primary avenues to increase the
dissolution rate: decreasing the particle size of the solid, increasing the temperature and/or
increasing the mixing or stirring rate.

9. •Express concentrations of solution components using mole fraction and molality

•Describe the effect of solute concentration on various solution properties (vapor pressure,
boiling point, freezing point, and osmotic pressure)

•Perform calculations using the mathematical equations that describe these various colligative
effects

•Describe the process of distillation and its practical applications

Explain the process of osmosis and describe how it is applied industrially and in nature

SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. (A) In an endothermic reaction, heat flows from the surroundings into the system, decreasing
the temperature of the surroundings. (B) In an exothermic reaction, heat flows from the system
into the surroundings, increasing the temperature of the surroundings.
2. Burning coal is strictly exothermic as it releases heat energy.
Neutralization between an acid and base is exothermic since heat energy is given out.
Combustion reactions, such as that of gasoline, are exothermic as they emit heat.
Lead Chloride is poorly soluble in cold water. Since it dissolves in hot water, the process is
endothermic because it requires heat energy.
Decomposition reactions, like that of decomposing NaHCO3 , are endothermic as they require
heating.

3.

A. According to first law of thermodynamics

du = dq + dw ; where du = change in internal energy, dq = heat change ( +ve when system gain
heat and -ve when system loose heat) , dw = work done by the system(-ve) or work done on the
system (+ve)
Here dq = 47 J
du = 12 J
dw = du - dq = 12 - 47 = -35 J
So work done by the system as the sign appear is -ve, so system will work 35 J.

B.\Delta U = \Delta Q - \Delta WΔU=ΔQ−ΔW

where \Delta UΔU is a change in internal energy of a system, \Delta QΔQ is a heat put into the
system and \Delta WΔW is a work done by or on the system on its surroundings.
To find the amount of heat released by the system the equation have to be re-written in a
following form:
\Delta Q = \Delta U + \Delta WΔQ=ΔU+ΔW
Since the work was done by the system, the \Delta WΔW has a negative sign and equals to -45J.

The heat released then equals to:

\Delta Q = 23J - 45J = -22JΔQ=23J−45J=−22J

TEST YOURSELF
B.

1. An air conditioner with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid is used to keep a room
at 26∘C26∘C by rejecting the waste heat to the outside air at 34∘C34∘C. The room is gaining
heat through the walls and the windows at a rate of 250kJ/min250kJ/min while the heat
generated by the computer, TV, and lights amounts to 900W900W. An unknown amount of
heat is also generated by the people in the room. The condenser and evaporator pressures are
1200 and 500kPa500kPa, respectively. The refrigerant is saturated liquid at the condenser exit
and saturated vapor at the compressor inlet. If the refrigerant enters the compressor at a rate
of 100L/min100L/min and the isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 75 percent, determine
(a) the temperature of the refrigerant at the compressor exit, (b) the rate of heat generation by
the people in the room, (c) the COP of the air conditioner, and (d) the minimum volume flow
rate of the refrigerant at the compressor inlet for the same compressor inlet and exit
conditions.

2. Water is a much better conductor of heat, very high heat capacity, so if you put your hand in
even something at 28 degrees centigrade, the surface skin is going to very rapidly get almost to
exactly the same temperature as the water, so that will feel colder even though the water is
warmer than the air was.
3. Volatile liquids evaporate quickly, so they remove heat from surfaces much more quickly
than more stable liquids. That's why a small pool of alcohol or acetone on your skin will have a
greater cooling effect than an equal-mass pool of water.
4. The six processes discussed in this lab are combustion, slow pyrolysis, torrefaction, fast
pyrolysis, flash pyrolysis, and gasification. These represent the processes receiving the most
attention across the thermochemical platform for producing heat, power, fuels, biochars, and
chemicals.
5. Heat and Work is important in the field of thermodynamics. Heat is the transfer of thermal
energy between systems, while work is the transfer of mechanical energy between two
systems.
6. The difference in the temperature between the systems leads to the transfer of heat from
the hotter system to the cooler system. Hence, heat is dependent on the change in
temperature. Heat contributes to the increase in thermal energy, and temperature increases
the kinetic energy.
7. Measuring the change in enthalpy allows us to determine whether a reaction was
endothermic (absorbed heat, positive change in enthalpy) or exothermic (released heat, a
negative change in enthalpy.) It is used to calculate the heat of reaction of a chemical process.

SELF-CHECK 1.4
1. aA + bB => cC + dD

Rate is defined as change in concentration of a reactant or product with respect to time. For the
reaction written above, there are four equivalent ways to express the rate of the reaction.
The negative sign is used in the expressions for the reactants because the concentration of
reactants decreases, so delta concentration will be negative.

Rate = -1/a • delta [conc A]/delta t or

Rate = -1/b • delta [conc B]/delta t or
Rate = 1/c • delta [conc C]/delta t or
Rate = 1/d • delta [conc D]/delta t

The purpose of dividing by a, b, c or d is to account for the stoichiometry of the reaction. The
reactants and products are consumed/produced at different rates, otherwise.

2. A zero-order reaction proceeds at a constant rate. A first-order reaction rate depends on the
concentration of one of the reactants. A second-order reaction rate is proportional to the
square of the concentration of a reactant or the product of the concentration of two reactants.

3. The molecularity of the elementary step, and the reactants involved, will determine what the
rate law will be for that particular step in the mechanism. Molecularity of elementary steps and
corresponding rate laws: The molecularity of an elementary step in a reaction mechanism
determines the form of its rate law.
4. Reactant concentration. Increasing the concentration of one or more reactants will often
increase the rate of reaction. This occurs because a higher concentration of a reactant will lead
to more collisions of that reactant in a specific time period.

Physical state of the reactants and surface area. If reactant molecules exist in different phases,
as in a heterogeneous mixture, the rate of reaction will be limited by the surface area of the
phases that are in contact. For example, if a solid metal reactant and gas reactant are mixed,
only the molecules present on the surface of the metal are able to collide with the gas
molecules. Therefore, increasing the surface area of the metal by pounding it flat or cutting it
into many pieces will increase its reaction rate.

Temperature. An increase in temperature typically increases the rate of reaction. An increase in

temperature will raise the average kinetic energy of the reactant molecules. Therefore, a
greater proportion of molecules will have the minimum energy necessary for an effective
collision (Figure. 17.5 “Temperature and Reaction Rate”).

Presence of a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that accelerates a reaction by participating in it

without being consumed. Catalysts provide an alternate reaction pathway to obtain products.
They are critical to many biochemical reactions. They will be examined further in the section
“Catalysis.”

5. A catalyst is a substance that initiates or accelerates the rate of a particular chemical reaction
without itself being chemically affected. A catalyst can be added to a reaction and then be
recovered and reused after the reaction occurs. The process or action by which a catalyst
increases the reaction rate is called catalysis. Catalysis, the modification of the rate of a
chemical reaction, usually an acceleration, by addition of a substance not consumed during the
reaction.
6. Heterogeneous Catalyzed Reaction is when the catalyst and the reactant exist in two
different phases, such as a solid catalyst with a reactant in solution.

Homogeneous Catalyzed Reaction is when the catalyst and the reactant are in the same phase,
such as when the catalyst and the reactants are dissolved in the same solution.  

TEST YOURSELF

B.

1. Prevent photocatalysis? Put everything in a dark container or a brown glas bottle, which
adsorbs the respective wavelengths of the light, starting the reaction.
2. In short: no. While cold environments help maintain battery life, refrigerators and freezers are not
safe to put batteries in. The moist environment will cause condensation on the batteries. This in turn
will lead to rust or other damage.
3. There are no corresponding enzymes.

C.

4. Firstly it’s important to understand what a rate of reaction is. Since reactions require the
molecules to overcome a particular energy barrier to collide successfully, the rate of reaction
often indicates whether the conditions are adequate for this to happen.

5. The speed of a chemical reaction may be defined as the change in concentration of a

substance divided by the time interval during which this change is observed:

rate=ΔconcentrationΔtime(2.5.4)(2.5.4)rate=ΔconcentrationΔtime

For a reaction of the form A+B→CA+B→C, the rate can be expressed in terms of the change in
concentration of any of its components.
6. The initial concentration [Ao], The length of time the reaction ran, t, The order of the
reaction or enough information to determine it. The rate constant, k, for the reaction or enough
information to determine it.

7. The molecularity of the elementary step, and the reactants involved, will determine what the
rate law will be for that particular step in the mechanism. Molecularity of elementary steps
and corresponding rate laws: The molecularity of an elementary step in a reaction mechanism
determines the form of its rate law.

8. Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken. The
substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants, and the substances
produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products.