SCHEME OF WORKS FOR THIRD TERM

WK TOPIC
1 KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
2-3 GAS LAWS AND CALCULATIONS INVOLVING
GAS LAWS
4 WATER
5 ACIDS
6 BASES
7 SALTS
8 CARBON
9 COMPOUNDS OF CARBON
10 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBONS AND
PETROLEUM
11 APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Page 1
 WEEK 1: THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
The kinetic theory of matter postulates that matter is composed of a large number of
small particles (atoms, molecules and ions) that are continually moving and so
possess kinetic energy. The average kinetic energy increases with increase in
temperature. The theory deals with how the arrangement of particles of a substance
determines the properties the substance will possess and the state it is likely to be
under a set of conditions.

States of Matter
Matter exists in three physical states, the solid, liquid and gaseous states. The
difference between the states is in the arrangement of the particles and the attractive
force between the particles. Matter can move from one state to another.

The Solid State

In the solid state, the particles are closely packed together and are held together by
strong forces of cohesion. These forces could be electrovalent, covalent or metallic.
The type of bond binding its structure together determines the strength of the solid.
The particles of a solid can only vibrate and rotate about a fixed position but cannot
translate, thus solids have definite shapes and volume. They are also difficult to
compress.

The Liquid State

Particles in the liquid state possess more kinetic energy and are no longer held in
fixed positions. They are not as closely packed as the particles in the solid state. They
can therefore vibrate, rotate and translate. However, because they are still under the
influence of cohesive forces, their movements are restricted. They possess a fixed
volume but not a definite shape; rather, they take the shape of the container in which
they are placed. They are also difficult to compress.

Gaseous State
Particles of a gas have much more kinetic energy than those in the other states. The
cohesive forces are also negligible thus the particles move freely (translate, rotate and
vibrate) in all directions, being restricted only by the containers in which they are
placed. They are compressible and have no definite shape or volume.

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In summary,
Solids
1. Have definite shape and
volume
2. Very dense
3. Incompressible
4. Particles vibrate and
rotate about a fixed
portion
5. Particles possess little
low kinetic energy
6. Particles are held
together by strong
cohesive force
Liquids Gases
Have no definite shape but Have no definite shape
definite volume and volume
Less dense Least dense
Incompressible Compressible
Particles vibrate and move Particles move about
about within a restricted constantly at great speed
space and at random
Particles possess high Particles possess highest
kinetic energy kinetic energy
Particles are held together Particles are held together
by weak cohesive force by negligible cohesive
force

The fundamental difference between the states of matter is the degree of movement
of their particles. The types of motion of particles in the three states are:

ROTATIONAL VIBRATIONAL TRANSLATIONAL

SOLID Low Low Zero
LIQUID High High Low
GAS Highest Highest Highest

Change of State
Matter can change from one state to another. Changes in temperature bring about
changes in state. An increase in temperature (heating) increases the kinetic energy
while a decrease in temperature (cooling) reduces the kinetic energy.
Melting
Increase in temperature, due to heating, increases the kinetic energy of solid particles,
resulting in the ability of the particles to vibrate more violently. At a stage, the
vibrating forces become higher than the cohesive forces and the solid structure breaks
down. The particles are then able to move about freely. The temperature at which this
occurs is called the melting point of the solid, and the solid is said to have liquefied
or melted.
Evaporation
Evaporation in a liquid occurs at all temperatures, however, the rate increases with
increase in temperature. Evaporation occurs when energetic particles are able to

Page 3
break away from the surface of the liquid thus escaping to the space above. The
strength of the cohesive force in the liquid also affects the rate of evaporation. Other
factors, such as surface area of the liquid exposed and humidity also affect rate of
evaporation.

Boiling
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the saturated vapour pressure
equals the prevailing atmospheric pressure in which bubbles of vapour form in the
liquid and then rises to the surface is called the boiling point of the liquid. At this
point, the liquid changes to the gaseous state.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

S/ BOILING EVAPORATION
N
1 Boiling takes place at a specific Evaporation takes place at all temperatures
temperature
2 Boiling takes place throughout Evaporation takes place only at the surface
the liquid of the liquid
3 Liquid changes to vapour when Liquid can change to vapour even at
the boiling point is reached temperatures below the boiling point.

Freezing and Condensation

These two happen when cooling occurs in a substance. As the vapour/liquid cools
(loses kinetic energy), it changes to the liquid/solid state respectively. The
temperature at which the liquid changes to the solid state is called the freezing point.

SOLIDS

Melting
Freezing sublimation

condensation

LIQUIDS vapourization GASES

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 WEEK 2 - 3: GAS LAWS

ASSUMPTIONS OF THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

The kinetic theory as used in explaining the physical behavior of an ideal or perfect
gas states that:
1. Gas molecules are constantly moving, they move randomly and in straight
lines, colliding with the walls of the container and with each other. The
pressure exerted by the gas is a function of the collisions of the particles with
the walls of the container. The speed at which they move is also affected by the
collisions, thus the speed is constantly changing.
2. Collisions of gaseous molecules are elastic, that is, when the molecules collide,
they rebound without any energy loss. Their individual kinetic energy may
change, but the total kinetic energy remains the same.
3. The actual volume of the gas molecules is negligible relative to the volume of
the container. The gas molecules are also small relative to the distance between
the gas molecules.
4. The force of cohesion between the gases is small.
5. The average kinetic energy of the gas is a function of the temperature.

GAS LAWS
1. BOYLE’S LAW
This law states that at constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas
is inversely proportional to the pressure. This law is not affected by the nature
of the gas.
That is, V ά 1/P
V = k/P
K = VP where k = a mathematical constant
P = pressure
V = volume
From the above, as the volume of the gas increases, the pressure decreases by
the same proportion. The product of the volume and the pressure remains
constant at every point.

Thus P1V1 = P2V2 where P1 is the pressure at volume V1

And P2 is the pressure at volume V2

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 Graphical Representation of Boyle’s Law
V P V

1/P 1/V P

Using Kinetic theory to explain Boyle’s Law

Considering a given mass of gas enclosed in container, an increase in the volume
occupied by the gas will reduce the number of collisions the gas molecules have with
the walls of the container thereby reducing the pressure, provided the temperature
remains unchanged.

Decreasing the volume will also increase the collisions of the gas molecules with the
walls of the container, thus increasing pressure at constant temperature.

Calculations involving Boyle’s law

1. 375cm3 of a gas has a pressure of 770mmHg. Find the volume if the pressure is
reduced to 750mmHg at constant temperature.
Solution
According to Boyle’s law: P1V1 = P2V2
P1 = initial pressure
V1 = initial volume
P2 = final pressure
V2 = final volume
Please note that pressure can be measured in atmospheres (atm), in mmHg or
in pascals (Nm-2).
1 atm = 760mmHg = 101325Nm-2

V2 = P1V1 = 770 x 375 cm3 = 385cm3

P2 750
2. The ratio of the initial to the final pressure of a given mass of gas is 1:1.5.
Calculate the final volume of the gas if the initial volume was 300cm 3 at the
same temperature.
Solution

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 Boyle’s law: P1V1 = P2V2
P1 = 1P final pressure, P2 = 1.5P
3
V1 = 300cm

V2 = P1V1 = 1P x 300 = 300 x 1 = 200cm3

P2 1.5P 1.5

2. CHARLES’ LAW
This law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to the
temperature in Kelvin provided the pressure remains constant. Please note that 0 0C =
273K.

This law simply means that the volume of a given mass of gas increases as
temperature increases and decreases as temperature decreases as long as the pressure
remains constant.

That is, V άT

V = kT where V = volume

K= V T = temperature
T k = mathematical constant

Therefore, V1 = V2
T1 T2

Graphical Representation of Charles’ Law

V V

-273 0 T(0C ) T(K)

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Explaining Charles’ Law using Kinetic Theory

Considering a given mass of gas in a closed container with a movable piston; an

increase in temperature (due to heat) will increase the kinetic energy of the gas
molecules, this in turn increases their collisions on the walls of the container. In order
to maintain a constant pressure, the volume is increased in the same proportion as the
temperature.

Calculations involving Charles’ Law

1. At 170C, a sample of hydrogen gas occupies 125cm 3. What will be the volume
at 1000C if the pressure remains constant?

Solution

According to Charles’ law, V1 = V2

T1 T2

V1 = initial volume = 125cm3

T1 = initial temperature = 17 + 273 K = 290K

T2 = final temperature = 100 + 273K = 373K

V2= V1T2 = 125 x 373 = 161cm3

T1 290

2.

3. GENERAL GAS EQUATION

From the Boyle’s and Charles’ laws, the relationship between the volume,
temperature and pressure can be summed up as:
V ά 1/p x T
That is k = VP
T
The above equation is known as the General gas equation.
For a given mass of gas, the value of K remains constant under any set of conditions,
therefore:
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 P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
Standard temperature and pressure (stp) at which the volumes of gases are given have
been adopted for uniformity. The standard temperature is 0 0C or 273K while the
standard pressure is 760mmHg or 1.01 x 105Nm-2 or 1 atm.
Example
1. A given mass of gas occupies 500cm3at 30oC and 6.5 x 104Nm-2. Calculate the
volume of the gas at stp. (standard pressure = 1.01 x 105 Nm-2).
Solution
P1V1 = P2V2 V1 = initial volume = 500cm3
T1 T2 T1=initial temperature = 30 + 273K
V2 = P1V1T2 P1=initial pressure = 6.5 x104Nm-2
T1P2 T2= final temperature = 273K
= 6.5 x 104 x 500 x 273 P2 = final pressure = 1.01x105Nm-2
303 x 1.01.x 105
= 289.9cm3 = 290cm3

2.

4. DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that if there is a mixture of gases which
do not react chemically together, then the total pressure exerted by the mixture
is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases that make up the
mixture.
That is, Ptotal = PA + PB + PC ……….
If the gas is collected over water, then Ptotal = Pgas + Pwater vapour
Example
1. If 200cm3 of carbon (iv) oxide were collected over water at 18 0C and
700mmHg. Determine the volume of the dry gas at stp. (standard vapour
pressure of water at 180C = 15mmHg)
Solution
P1 = 700 – 15 = 685mmHg P2= 760mmHg
T1 = 18 + 273 = 291K T2 = 273K
3
V1 = 200cm

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 V2 = P1V1T2 = 685 x 200 x 273 = 169.1 cm3
P2T1 760 x 291
2.
5. AVOGADRO’S LAW
This states that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain the same number of molecules.
Example
9.60g of a gas X occupies the same volume as 0.30g of hydrogen under the
same conditions. Calculate the molar mass of X. [H =1]

Solution
2g of Hydrogen contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules
0.3g of H2 contains 6.02 x 1023 x 0.3
2
22
= 9.03 x 10 molecules

Since equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules

Gas X contains 9.03 x 1022 molecules = 9.60g
23
Thus 6.02 x 10 molecules of X = 9.6 x 6.02 x 1023
9.03 x 1022
= 6.4 x 101g = 64g.
Therefore, the molar mass of X = 64g/mol

6. IDEAL GAS EQUATION

Experimental works shows that one mole of any gas at standard temperature
and pressure occupies a volume of 22.4dm 3. From this, Avogadro’s, Charles’
and Boyle’s laws is derived the ideal gas equation which hold true for all
gases.
PV = nRT
Where R = the molar gas constant

Therefore, for n moles of gases, PV = nRT

Where P = pressure in atm,
V = volume in dm3
T = temperature in K

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 Therefore for 1 mole of gas,
R = PV = (1 atm) (22.4dm3) = 0.082atmdm3mol-1K-1
nT (1 mol) (273K)
Example
1. A certain amount of gas occupies 5.0dm 3at 2 atm and 100C. Calculate the
number of moles present.
(R = 0.082atmdm-3K-1mol-1)
Solution
T = 100C = 10 + 273K = 283K
n = PV
RT
= 2x5 = 0.431 moles
0.082 x 283

2. 2 moles of an ideal gas is at a temperature of -13 0C and a pressure of 2atm.

What volume in dm3 will the gas occupy at that temperature? (R = 0.082
atmdm3K-1mol-1).
Solution
PV = nRT T = -13 + 273 = 260K
V = nRT= 2 x 0.082 x 260 = 21.32dm3
P 2
3.
7. DEVIATION FROM THE GAS LAWS
In real situations, ideal gases do not exist. Molecules of real gases do not only
occupy space but also have forces of attraction between them. In conditions of
reduced temperature and increased pressure, the molecules are closer together
and the volume is no longer negligible. This results in stronger intermolecular
forces contrary to Kinetic theory.

Real gas also liquefies at low temperatures contrary to gas laws. This however,
does not make the gas laws irrelevant; they are still relevant at low pressure
and high temperature.

8. GAY LUSSAC’S LAW OF COMBINING VOLUMES

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 Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes states that when gases react, they do
so in volumes which are in a simple ratio to one another and to the volume of
the product if gaseous, provided the temperature and pressure remains
constant.
For example:
Hydrogen + Oxygen = steam
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
2 vol 1vol 2 vol
Ratio 2 : 1 : 2
Example
1. What is the volume of oxygen required to burn completely 45cm 3 of
methane (CH4)?
Solution
Equation of reaction:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
According to Gay Lussac’s law,
1 volume of CH4 requires 2 volumes of O2
Thus 45cm3 of CH4 requires 2 x 45cm3 of O2 = 90cm3 of oxygen

2. 20cm3 of carbon (ii) oxide is sparked with 20cm 3 of oxygen. If all the
volumes of gases are measured at standard temperature and pressure,
calculate the volume of the residual gases after sparking.
Solution
Equation of reaction: 2CO + O2 2CO2
From equation: 20cm of CO reacts with 10cm3 of oxygen to produce
3

20cm3 of carbon (iv) oxide.

Volume of residual gases = 20 -10 cm3 = 10cm3 of oxygen
+ 20cm3 of CO2
Total = 30 cm3
3. Wr

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The gas law which describes the relationship between volume and temperature
________________
2. Which of the following leads to decrease in volume of a liquid in an open
container?
Page 12
 (a) Brownian motion (b) diffusion (c) evaporation (d) sublimation
3. The pressure exerted by a gas is a function of the _____ _____ (a) the total
volume of the gas (b) speed of the gaseous molecules (c) mass of each
gaseous molecule (d) frequency of collision between gaseous molecules.
4. Which of the following variables is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
the molecules of a gas? (a) density (b) pressure (c) temperature (d) volume
5. The equation P = k/V illustrates ______ (a) Boyle’s law (b) Charles’ law
(c) Dalton’s law (d) Gay Lussac’s law
6. State Charles’ law
7. Sketch a diagram to illustrate Charle’s law
8. A given mass of gas occupies 150cm 3 at 270C and a pressure of 1.013 x
105Nm-2. Calculate the temperature at which the volume will be doubled at the
same pressure.
9. What do you understand by the term: standard temperature and pressure?
10.Calculate the volume of hydrogen produced at stp when 25g of zinc is added to
excess dilute hydrochloric acid at 31 0C and 778mmHg pressure. ( H = 1, Zn =
65, Cl = 35.5, molar volume of gas at stp = 22.4dm3)

9. GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION

To be able to fully work with Graham’s law, we need to know the relationship
between vapour density and relative molecular mass.
Relationship between vapour density and the Relative Molecular mass
The vapour density of a gas (or vapour) is the number of times a given volume
of the gas is heavier than an equal volume of hydrogen at a particular
temperature and pressure.

That is Vapour density = mass of a given volume of gas (vapour)

Mass of equal volume of hydrogen
VD = mass of x volumes of gas
Mass of x volumes of hydrogen
Applying Avogadro’s law

VD = mass of x molecules of gas

Mass of x molecules of hydrogen

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 Since hydrogen is diatomic

VD = mass of x molecules of gas

Mass of 2 atoms of hydrogen

= mass of x molecules of gas

2 x mass of 1 atom of hydrogen

2 x VD =mass of x molecules of gas

Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen
= relative molecular mass of gas
That is 2 x VD = rmm of gas (vapour)
Or Rmm = 2 x VD
Or VD = ½ rmm of gas (vapour)

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Determine the vapour densities of the following gases from the given data:
(a) sulphur (iv) oxide (b) 560cm 3 of oxygen weighing 0.8g at stp. { S
= 32, O = 16}
Solution
(a) Sulphur (iv) oxide SO2
VD = ½ rmm
Rmm of SO2 = 32 + 2(16) = 32 + 32 = 64
VD = ½ x 64 = 32
(b) If 560cm3 of Oxygen = 0.8g
Then 22400cm3 of oxygen = 0.8 x 22400 g
560
= 32g
That is the rmm of oxygen gas = 32
Therefore, the VD = ½ x 32 = 16
(c)
2.

Graham’s law of diffusion states that at constant temperature and pressure,

the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
density.

Page 14
 1 volume
That is, R ∝ where R = rate of diffusion = time
√ρ
ρ (rho) = density of the gas
k
R√ρ = k or R =
√ρ
Comparing two gases
R1√ ρ 1 = R2√ ρ 2
that is R1 = √ ρ2
R2 √ ρ1
Where R1 = rate of diffusion of gas with density ρ 1
R2 = rate of diffusion of gas with density ρ 2
Since the vapour density of a gas is directly proportional to the relative
molecular mass

1
Thus R ∝ where M = the molecular mass of the gas.
√M
Thus R1 = √ M 2
R2 √ M1
R1 is the rate of diffusion of gas with relative molecular mass M1
R2 is the rate of diffusion of gas with relative molecular mass M2

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. 400cm3 of a gas X diffused through a porous pot in 2 minutes. Calculate the
rate at which X diffuses.
Solution
Time = 2mins = 2 x 60s = 120s

volume 400
Rx = time
= 120
= 3.33cm3/s

2. If 280cm3 of hydrogen diffuses in 40s, how long will take for 490cm 3 of a
gas X, whose vapour density is 25 to diffuse under the same conditions?
(relative molecular mass of H2 = 2)

Solution
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 Method 1
Rx = √ ρ H
RH √ ρx
Where Rx = rate of diffusion of gas X
RH = rate of diffusion of hydrogen
2
ρ H = vapour density of hydrogen = =1
2
ρ x = vapour density of gas X = 25
volume 280 cm
RH = time = 40 s 7cm3/s

7
R x = R H√ ρ H = 7 x √ 1 = 7 x 1 = 5 cm3/s
√ ρx √ 25 5
Rx = Vx
tx

tx = Vx = 490 = 490 x 5 = 70 x 5 = 350s

7
Rx 5
7
Method 2
Since R1 = √ ρ 2
R2 √ ρ1
That is V1 ÷ V2 = √ ρ2
t1 t2 √ ρ1

V1 x t2 = √ ρ2
t1 V2 √ ρ1
At equal volumes, that is V1 = V2, then

V1 x t2 = √ ρ2
t1 V2 √ ρ1

t2 = √ ρ2
t1 √ ρ1

Page 16
 Before we can use the above equation, we must equate the volumes of hydrogen
and gas X. therefore,

If 280cm3 of hydrogen diffuses in 40s

490cm3 of hydrogen will diffuse in 40 x 490 s = 70s
280
Thus tx = √ ρx
tH √ ρH

tx = t H x √ ρ x = 70 x √ 25 = 70 x 5 = 350s
√ ρH √1 1

3. Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, hydrogen diffuses 8

times as fast as a gas Y. Calculate the relative molecular mass of gas Y.
(rmm of H2 = 2).
Solution
RY = √ MH
RH √ MY

1 = √2
8 √ MY
12 = 2
82 MY

MY = 2 x 64 = 128.
1

4.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A given volume of oxygen diffused through a porous partition in 8s. How
long will it take the same volume of carbon (iv) oxide to diffuse under the
same conditions? (C = 12, O = 16).
2. 60cm3 of hydrogen diffused through a porous membrane in 10mins. The
same volume of gas G diffused through the same membrane in 37.4mins.
Determine the relative molecular mass of gas G. (H = 1).
Page 17
 3. If 1dm3 of gas X diffuses through a porous plug in 60s while the same
volume of hydrogen diffuses in 15s under the same condition, calculate the
relative molecular mass of X. (H = 1).
4. Write an expression to show the mathematical relationship between the rate
of diffusion of a gas and its vapour density.
5. (a) State Graham’s law of diffusion.
(b) If 100cm3of oxygen diffused in 4s and 50cm3of gas Y diffused in 3s.
Calculate the relative molecular mass of gas Y. (O = 16)
6. If 465cm3of sulphur (iv) oxide can diffuse through a porous partition in 30s,
how long will
(a) an equal volume of hydrogen sulphide
(b) 620cm3 of hydrogen sulphide
take to diffuse through the same partition? (H = 1, S = 32, O = 16).

7. If 100cm3 of hydrogen diffused through a porous pot in 1.0 second, how

long will it take the same volume of oxygen to diffuse through the same pot
under the same condition? [H =1; O =16]
8. Which of the following gases will have the highest rate of diffusion under
the same conditions? (H =1, C =12, O =16, S =32, Cl=35.5) (a) O2 (b) Cl2
(c) HCl (d) H2O (e) CO2

9. A given volume of methane diffuses in 20 seconds. How long will it take

the same volume of surphur (IV) oxide to diffuse under the same
conditions? [CH4 = 16; SO2 =64] A. 5 seconds B. 20 seconds C.40 seconds
D. 60 seconds E. 80 seconds
10.

WEEK 4: WATER

Page 18
Water in its pure form is a clear (transparent), tasteless and odourless liquid. Water
can occur in three states, solid (as ice), liquid (as water) and gas (as steam or water
vapour). Water dissolves many substances, thus it is known as a universal solvent.
Sources of water
This includes rain, spring, well, river, lake, sea, stream, ocean.

Uses of water
1. Water is vital for the survival of all living organisms.
2. Domestically, it is used for drinking, laundry, cooking, bathing and cleaning.
3. Industrially, it is in almost all manufacturing processes eg production of drugs,
dyes, cooling cleaning etc.

Properties of water
Physical Properties
1. It has a boiling point of 100oC and a melting point of 0oC.
2. It is neutral to litmus.
3. Its density is 1g/cm3 at 4oC.

Chemical Properties
1. Water reacts with metals, the degree of reactivity is a function of the position
of the metal in the electrochemical series eg
2Na + 2H2Ocold water 2NaOH + H2 (same for K, Ca)
Mg + H2Osteam MgO + H2 (same for Zn)
Cu, Ag, Au and Hg do not react with water in any form.

2. Water reacts with non-metals

Water reacts with some non-metals like Chlorine, oxygen and silicon.
H2O + Cl2 HCl + HOCloxochlorate (i) acid
3. Reaction with oxides of metals
Oxides of alkaline metals react with water to form strong alkalis or hydroxides
eg
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
4. Reaction with oxides of non-metals
Some oxides of non-metals react with water to form acids. Such oxides are
referred to as acid anhydrides eg CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Types of water
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There are two types of water:
1. Hard water
2. Soft water

Hard Water
Hard water is water that does not form lather readily with soap due to some dissolved
salt that it contains eg: Calcium teteraoxosulphate (vi) CaSO 4, Magnesium
tetraoxosulphate (vi) MgSO4, Calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) Ca(HCO3)2.
These salts get into the water from the soil over which it flows. Hard water can be
temporary or permanent.

Temporary Hardness
This hardness is caused by the presence of calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) or
Magnesium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) which can easily be removed by boiling.
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
or by the addition of slaked lime Ca(OH)2
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 2CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
soluble soluble insoluble

Permanent Hardness
This hardness is caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium tetraoxosulphate
(vi) and chlorides. Permanent hardness can be removed by
a) chemicals, eg
Na2CO3(aq) + CaSO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CaCO3(s)
insoluble

Na2CO3(aq) + MgSO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + MgCO3(s)

insoluble

b) Using Ion Exchange Resin: the hard water is allowed to pass through a
chamber containing ionized Na+ compounds where the Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the
hard water are replaced by Na+ until all are exhausted.
Ca2+ + Na Ca + Na+
form of ion exchange resin form of ion exchange resin

Advantages of Hard Water

1. It tastes better because of the dissolved salt.
2. It can be supplied through lead pipes
3. It is a good source of calcium for animals.

Disadvantages of Hard Water

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 1. It wastes soap
2. It causes deposit of trioxocarbonate (iv) to develop in boilers and kettles
(furring).
3. It cannot be used for dyeing and tanning.

Soft Water
This contains very low concentrations of magnesium and calcium ions. It is found
naturally where rainfall and the drainage-basin of rivers are formed of hard,
impervious and calcium poor rocks. It forms lather easily with soap, with little or no
scum.

Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies. This occurs when pollutants are
directly or indirectly introduced into water bodies. Water pollution affects not just the
plants and organisms living in the water but the entire community. Water pollution is
a major cause of diseases and deaths.

Pollutants
Water pollutants can be grouped into
1. Refuse and sewage
These come mainly from domestic sources. Usually human wastes and other
domestic wastes are emptied directly into water bodies causing increase in
bacteria population and death of aquatic organisms.
2. Industrial and Agricultural Wastes
These include detergents, insecticides, herbicides, acids, organic solvents,
mercury compounds, fertilizers etc. These are washed into the water bodies by
rains or introduced directly from industries
3. Crude oil spills
These are introduced into the water bodies as a result of accidents during
production and importation of crude oils and petrochemicals.

Test for Water

The presence of water (pure form or aqueous solution) can be detected by adding a
few drops of the liquid to:
a. to white anhydrous copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi), which turns blue
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) CuSO4.5H2O(s)
Page 21
 white anhydrous salt blue hydrated salt

b. blue cobalt (ii) chloride, which turns pink

CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) CoCl .6H O(s)
2 2
blue anhydrous salt pink hydrated salt

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
CLASSWORK

1. Which of the following can be used to test for the presence of water in the
laboratory? I. Anhydrous magnesium chloride II. Anhydrous calcium chloride III.
Anhydrous cobalt (ii) chloride IV. Anhydrous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI).
2. Causes of hardness of water include the presence of I. Calcium tetraoxosulphate
(VI) II. Magnesium tetraoxosulphate(VI) III. Calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate
(IV). IV magnesium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV)
3. Which of the following is/are water pollutants? I. Fertilizer II. Human wastes III.
Industrial waste IV Pesticides

4. Which of the following processes is/are suitable for investigating whether or not a
liquid is pure water? I. Testing it with anhydrous copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (iv)
II. Testing it with cobalt (ii) chloride paper III. Testing with litmus IV. Determine
its boiling point.

5. Which of the following will not affect the degree of hardness in a sample of
temporarily hard water? (a) addition of washing soda (b) addition of soap (c)
treatment with cation exchange resin (d) Filtration (e) Distillation

6. Which of the following is likely to have the highest degree of hardness? A.

Carbonated water. B. Distilled water. C. Acidified water D. Rain water E. Lime
water

7. Which of the following is used as water softener? A. Na 2CO3 .10H2OB. CuSO4,

5H2O C. MgSO4, 7H2 O D. CaCI2 .2H2O E. Na2 SO4.10H2O
Page 22
8. Which of the following constitutes an advantage in the use of hard water? A.
Formation of Scum with soap B. Furring of Kettles C. Blockage of water pipes D.
Formation of strong bones
9. When a sample of water was boiled, it lathered more rapidly with soap. It can be
concluded that the sample most likely contained (a) Magnesium tetraoxosulphate
(vi) (b) Suspended solids (c) organic impurities (d) calcium
hydrogentrioxocarbonate(iv)
10.Two metallic ions commonly present in hard water are A. Ca 2+ and Zn2+B.
Cu2+and Na+ C. Mg2+ and Ca2+ D. Fe2+ and Na+ E. Zn2+ and Cu2+

ASSIGNMENT

11.State two methods that can be used to remove hardness in a sample of water that
contains calcium hydrogentrioxocarbon ate (iv)
12. (a) When is a sample of water said to be hard?
(b) State one difference between temporary and permanent hardness of water.
(c) Give one method of removing hardness completely from water.
13. (a) Give one disadvantage of: (i) hard water (ii) soft water.
(b) Explain why the degree of hardness in a sample of clear lime water is
higher than in another sample that has been turned milky by carbon(iv)oxide.
14. (a) List two salts which cause hardness of water.
(b) Explain why temporary hardness of water results in the furring of kettles.
15.

Page 23
 WEEK 5: ACIDS
Acids can be defined as substances which when dissolved in water produces
hydrogen ion as the only positive ion (Arrhenius). Bronsted-Lowry defined an acid
as a substance that donates or loses hydrogen ion while Lewis defined an acid as a
substance that accepts electron pair.

In solution, acid dissociate into ions, producing both positive and the corresponding
negative ions (known as ionization). Eg:
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-
HCl H+ + Cl-
H3PO4 3H+ + PO43-
CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO-

CLASSES OF ACIDS
1. Organic Acids
These are naturally occurring acids, found in plants and animal materials.
Examples include ethanoic acid (vinegar), Lactic acid (milk), citric acid (lime
and lemon), amino acids (proteins), ascorbic acid (oranges).
2. Inorganic Acids (mineral acids)
Inorganic acids are synthesized directly from their mineral elements or
produced artificially in the laboratory. Examples include hydrochloric acid
(HCl), tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid (H2SO4).

TYPES OF ACIDS
Acids can be grouped in terms of strength and concentration.
A. Strength of acids
1. Weak Acids
Weak acids are acids that do not ionize completely in water. That is,
they ionize partially or slightly in water. This results in low
concentration of hydrogen ions. Examples include most organic acids,
trioxocarbonate(iv) acid and tetraoxophosphate (v) acid. Ethanoic acid
for example has only 0.4% ionization in water. That is for every
1000molecules of the acid, only 4 ionize in water.

Page 24
 2. Strong Acids
These are acids which ionize completely in watthus the concentration of
hydrogen ion is very high. Examples include HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3.

B. Concentration of Acids
1. Dilute Acids
This results from having a low concentration of the acid in water.
2. Concentrated Acid
This is as a result of having a large amount (high concentration) of the
acid in water.

BASICITY OF AN ACID
The basicity of an acid referred to the number of replaceable H + ions present in a
molecule of an acid eg

Basicity of some common acids:-

Acids ions produced Basicity

HCl H+ ,Cl- 1 or monobasic
H2SO4 2H+, SO42- 2 or dibasic
H3PO4 3H+, PO43- 3 or tribasic
Not all the hydrogen atoms in a molecule of a weak acid are replaceable by a metal.
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, for instance, has four hydrogen atoms per molecules of
acids, but only one of these is replaceable by a metal, ethanoic acid is, therefore,
monobasic.

CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

ethanoic acid ethanoic ion hydrogen ion

CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

ethanoic acid sodium hydroxide sodium ethanoate water

Physical Properties of Acids:

1. Dilute acids have a sour taste. The sour taste of unripe fruit, vinegar and rancid
milk is due to the presence of acids in them.

Page 25
 2. Acids turn blue litmus red.
3. The concentrated forms of strong acids like hydrochloric acids, trioxonitrate(v)
acids and tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid are corrosive

Chemical Properties of Acids

The main characteristics chemical properties of acids are:

1. Reaction with metals: Acids react with some metals like zinc, iron, and
magnesium to liberate hydrogen gas. Such reactions are due to the
displacement of the hydrogen ions from the acids by the metals. Dilute
trioxonitrate (v) acid, however, is an exception to this rule.

Acid + metal salt + hydrogen.

2HCl (aq) + Zn(s) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
H2SO4(aq) + Mg(s) MgSO4(aq) + H2 (g)

2. Reaction with bases: Acids react with bases to form salts and water as the only
products. Such a reaction is known as neutralization reaction.

Acid + base salt + water.

H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2HCl (aq) + CaO(s) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

3. Reaction with trioxocarbonate (iv): Acids react with trioxo carbonate (iv) salts to
liberate carbon (iv) oxide.
Acid + trioxocarbonate(iv) salt Salt + water + carbon (iv) oxide.

H2SO4(aq) + K2CO3 (aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (aq)

PREPARATION OF ACID:

1. Dissolving the corresponding acid anhydride in water:

CO2(g) + H2O(1) H2CO3(aq)
weak acid

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq).

Page 26
 2. Combination of constituent elements:

1. Burning hydrogen in chlorine, in the presence of activated charcoal as the

catalyst, yields hydrogen chloride gas which dissolves readily in water to give
hydrochloric acid.
activated charcoal
H2 (g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

2. Heating hydrogen gas and bromine vapour, in the presence of platinum as the
catalyst, produces hydrogen bromide gas, which dissolves readily in water to
form hydrobromic acid.
platinum
H2(g) + Br2(g) HBr2(g)

3. Using a strong acid to displace a weak acid or a volatile acid from its salt:

1. Concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid displaces the more volatile

trioxonitrate(v) acid from a trioxonitrate (v) salt. The salt e.g sodium
trioxonitrate(v) must be in excess.

2NaNO3(s) + H2SO4 Na2SO4(aq)+ 2HNO3(g)

2. A chloride yields the volatile hydrogen chloride gas when heated with
concentrated tetraoxosulphate(vi)acid. The volatile hydrogen chloride
dissolves readily in water to give hydrochloric acid

2KCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq)+ 2HCl(g)

3. Dilute hydrochloric acid which is a strong acid displaces the weak

trioxocarbonate (iv)acid from trioxocabornate(iv). The trioxocabornate(iv)
breaks down to evolve or give out carbon(iv) oxide, the acid anhydride .The
weak acid is reformed by dissolving the carbon (iv) oxide in water.
2HCl(aq)+ CaCO3(s) CaCl2(aq)+ H2CO3 (aq) CaCl2(a) + H2O(l)+ CO2(g)

USES OF ACIDS

1. Acids are extremely useful chemicals which are used in many industries to
make other consumer chemicals such as fertilizers, detergents, and drugs.

Page 27
 2. They are used in industrial processes as drying agents, oxidizing agents and
catalyst.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Write ten acid and their uses.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following is/are characteristic properties of acids? They I. form

oxonium ions in water II liberated carbon (IV) oxide from trioxocarbonate (IV)
salts. III. Turn blue litmus paper red. IV. Have a soapy feel

2. Trioxosulphate(iv) acid is not stored for a long period because it (a) is a weak
dibasic acid (b) has bleaching properties. (c) is unstable and easily decomposed
(d) smell strongly of sulphur(iv)oxide (e) can act as a germicide.
3. An acid present in proteins is (a) Lactic Acid (b) Amino acid (c) Propanoic
acid (d) Palmitic acid (e) stearic acid
4. Ethanedioc acid undergoes the following reaction:
COOH COONa
+ 2NaOH + 2H2O
COOH COONa
The basicity of the acid is therefore: A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5
5. Which of the following statements explains why tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid is
regarded as a strong acid? (a) Tetraoxosulphate(vi) is a dibasic (b) The acid is
concentrated (c) The acid is completely ionized in an aqueous solution (d)
tetraoxosulphate(vi) ions are very reactive. (e) The acid is highly corrosive.

6. A compound which liberates carbon (IV) oxide from a

hydrogentrioxocarbonate (IV)could have the molecular formula A. C2H5OH. B.
C3H4C. HCOOH. D. H2O2. E. C6H6

Page 28
 7. The following acids are monobasic except (a) Methanoic acid (b)
dioxonitrate(iii)acid (c) ethanedioic acid (d) oxochlorate(i)acid (e)
hydrobromic acid.

8. The number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in one molecule of an acid

indicates its A. basicity. B. acidity. C. alkalinity. D. reactivity E. pH value.

9. Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid is described as a strong acid because it is highly A.

corrosive B. concentrated C. reactive. D. soluble in water. E. ionized in water.

10.A weak acid is one which (a) is not corrosive (b) is slightly ionized in water.
(c) does not produce salts with alkalis (d) does not conduct electric current in
an aqueous solution (e) forms acid salts with bases.
11.Which of the following species is always presents in acidified water? (a)
NH+4(b) O2-(c) HCl (d) H3O+ (e) HNO3.
12.The following acids are monobasic except A. trioxonitrate (V) acid B.
hydrochloric acid C. ethanoic acid D. tetraoxophosphate (v) acid E.
dioxonitrate (III) acid.

13.An acid is a substance which in the presence of water produces A. salts. B.

oxygen C. effervescene. D. oxonium ions. E. hydrogen gas

14.Which of the following is a general method of preparing acids? A. Direct

combination of constituent element. B. Double decomposition involving a salt
solution C. Reaction between an anhydride and water D. Reaction between a
base and an amphoteric oxide E. Dissolution of hydroxides followed by
neutralization

15.What is the basicity of the acid in the following reaction?

Na2CO3 + 2CH3COOH 2CH3COONa + H2O+ CO2
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 8
Page 29
 16.An aqueous solution is acidic if A. its pH value is high. B. it is corrosive C. it
change the colour of litmus. D. it has a bitter taste E. it contain more H 3O+ than
OH
17.In which of the following reactions represented by the following equations is
HNO3 behaving as a typical acid? A. CaO + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O B.
Cu+4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2 C. S + 6HNO3 H2SO4+ 6NO2+
2H2O D. P + 5HNO3 H3PO4 + 5NO2 + H2O

Use the following information to answer question 18 and 19

A gas was evolved when a sample of gastric juice reacted with sodium
trioxocarbonate (IV).

18.The gas evolved was A. NH3 B. SO2 C. HCl D. CO2

19.It can be concluded that the gastric juice A. contain enzymes B. is acidic C. is a
mixture D. has pH value of 7
20.Which of the following acids is dibasic? (a) Hydrochloric
21.Bees inject an acidic substance when they sting. Which of the following would
be used to treat bee stings? (a) CH3COOH (b) NaHCO3(c) C2H5OH (d) H2O2.
22.Which of the following equations represent a neutralization reaction? A.
CaOCl2 +2HCl Cl2 + CaCl2 + H2O B. Na2O2 +H2SO4 Na2SO4+H2O2
C. H2SO4+ KOH KHSO4 + H2O D. 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H 2 E.
CuSO4+ 2NaOH Cu(OH)2+ NaSO4
ASSIGNMENT

1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid with
marble.
2. Give one example of naturally –occurring acids.
3. Distinguish between a strong acid and a concentrated acid. (iii)
4. What is the anhydride of each of the following acids? (i) H2SO4 (ii) HNO3
Page 30
 5. (i) What is an acid? (ii) List three chemical properties of tetraoxosulphate (VI)
acid. (iii) Give two uses of tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.
6. (i) Explain what is meant by acid anhydride and give one example. (ii) State
three chemical properties of hydrochloric acid. (iii) Give the formula of the
acid anhydride of each of the following I. H2CO3 II. H2SO4
7. (i) List three chemical properties of acids. (ii) Give two large scale uses of
HNO3
8. List two industrial uses of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.

Page 31
 WEEK 6: BASES
A base is a substance which neutralizes an acid to produce salt and water only. A
base can also be described as a proton acceptor. Most oxides and hydroxides of
metals are bases eg Na2O, K2O, MgO, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2 etc.

Most oxides and hydroxides of metals are insoluble in water. A basic hydroxide
which is soluble in water is referred to as an alkali eg the hydroxides of Na, K and
Ca.

STRENGTH OF ALKALI
(a) Strong alkalis are alkalis that ionize completely in aqueous solution to
produce the hydroxide ions (OH-) and the corresponding metallic ions eg.
NaOH, KOH
NaOH Na+ + OH-
(b) Weak alkalis ionize only slightly in water egCa(OH)2, aqueous ammonia
Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq)
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH3.H2O NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Physical Properties of Bases (alkalis)

1. Alkalis are soapy to touch.
2. They turn red litmus paper blue
3. They have a bitter taste
4. Concentrated forms of the strong alkalis (sodium and potassium) are corrosive

Chemical Properties of Bases

1. Neutralization Reaction
Neutralization is a process in which an acid reacts completely with an
appropriate amount of alkali (or any other base) to produce a salt and water
only. All bases react with acids to produce salt and water only eg
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

2. Reaction with ammonium salts

Alkalis react with ammonium salts in the presence of heat to produce ammonia
gas eg
Page 32
 NaOH(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)+ 2NH3(g)

USES OF ALKALIS
1. Alkalis are important chemicals in the manufacturing of soap, glass, paper and
rayon.
2. They are used in softening hard water eg Ca(OH)2

CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS

Whenever an acid donates a proton, the acid changes into a base, and whenever a
base accepts a proton, an acid is formed. An acid and a base which differ only by the
presence or absence of a proton are called a conjugate acid-base pair. Thus NH3 is
called the conjugate base of NH4+, and NH4+ is the conjugate acid of NH3. Similarly,
HF is the conjugate acid of F–, and F– the conjugate base of HF.

NH4+ NH3 + H+

F- + H+ HF

And here's another way to look at it.

A conjugate acid contains one more H atom and one more + charge than the base
that formed it.
A conjugate base contains one less H atom and one more - charge than the acid that
formed it.
Let us take the example of bicarbonate ions reacting with water to create carbonic
acid and hydronium ions.
HCO₃⁻ + H₂O → H₂CO₃ + OH⁻
base + acid → Conj A + Conj B

What is the conjugate acid or the conjugate base of (a) HCl; (b) CH 3NH2; (c) OH–; (d)
HCO3–.

Solution:

a. HCl is a strong acid. When it donates a proton, a Cl– ion is produced, and so
Cl– is the conjugate base.
b. CH3NH2 is an amine and therefore a weak base. Adding a proton gives
CH3NH3+, its conjugate acid.
c. Adding a proton to the strong base OH– gives H2O its conjugate acid.

Page 33
 d. Hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3–, is derived from a diprotic acid and is
amphiprotic. Its conjugate acid is H2CO3, and its conjugate base is CO32–.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
CLASSWORK
ASSIGNMENT
1. Write ten bases and their uses.

RELATIVE ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

The relative acidity and alkalinity of substances is measured using a pH scale. The
scale is measured from 0-14. A neutral solution (that is neither acidic nor basic) has a
pH of 7. Solutions with pH values less than 7 are acidic while values above 7 indicate
alkalinity. The degree of acidity increases with decrease in pH values (from 7 to 0)
while the degree of alkalinity increases with increase in pH values (from 7 to 14).
0 more acidic 7 more alkaline 14

very acidic very alkaline

pH can also be described as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
[H+] to base 10. That is, it is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in a
solution.
Mathematically,
pH = -log [H+]

Page 34
Since the concentration of the hydrogen ion is always inversely proportional to the
concentration of the hydroxide ion, then
[H+] [OH-] = 10-14
pH + pOH = 14
The product of the concentration of the hydrogen ion [H +] and the concentration of
the hydroxide ion [OH-] is called the ionic product of water.
The ionic product of water, Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 10-14mol2dm-6
At neutrality, [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7
That is pH = pOH

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A solution has a hydrogen ion concentration of 10 -3M. What is the pH of the
solution?
Solution
[H+] = 10-3
pH = - log [H+]
= - log 10-3
= - (-3) log1010
= +3
2. The concentration of H2SO4 is 0.002moldm-3. Determine the pH of H2SO4
Solution
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-
1 mole of H2SO4 yields 2 moles of H+
therefore 0.002 moles of H2SO4 yields 2 (0.002) moles of H+
Thus [H+] = 0.004 moles/dm3
pH = - log 4 x 10-3
= - (log 4 + log 10-3)
= - log 4 - log 10-3
= -log 4 – (-3) log 10
= -log 4 + 3 log 10
= -0.602 + 3
= 2.398.
3. A glass cup of orange juice is found to have a pOH of 11.40. Calculate the
concentration of the hydrogen ions in the juice.
Solution
pH + pOH = 14
Page 35
 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 11.4 = 2.60
Thus, using pH = - log [H+]
2.60 = - log [H+ ]
-2.60 = log [H+]
[H+] = antilog of -2.60
= 2.51 x 10-3moldm-3
CLASSWORK
1. Calculate the pH of a solution in which the hydrogen ion concentration is (a)
6.38 x 10-6mol/dm3 (b)1 x 10-5mol/dm3
2. What is the concentration of H+ in a solution with a pH of 5.

ASSIGNMENT
Write a short note on the importance of pH.

INDICATORS
Indicators are weak organic acids and bases. This means they do not ionize
completely in solution thus the concentration of hydrogen ion [H +] varies in that
solution. Indicators change colours in solution according to the concentration of the
hydrogen ion [H+] in that solution. This colour change is dependent on the relative
proportions of the ions and the molecules of the indicator which in turn is dependent
on the hydrogen ion concentration in solution. Indicators are used to identify a
chemical compound as an acid or a base.
Hln H+ + ln-
Acid-Base Indicators are weak organic acid and bases/dyes that change colour
according to the pH of the medium/the hydrogen ion concentration. Each indicator
changes colour over a specific pH range. The pH of a solution may be measured
using:
(a) A universal indicator. A universal indicator is a mixture of indicators which
operates within different pH ranges
(b) pH meter. The pH meter gives most accurate readings.
Examples of acid-base indicators:
1. methyl orange
2. Phenophthalein
3. Litmus paper
4. Bromothymol blue
5. Universal indicator
Page 36
 6. Methyl red
7. Thymol blue
During titrations, changes in pH occur as the acid is added to the alkali. Changes in
pH during the course of titration depend on the strength of the acid and alkali used.
Thus the strength of acids and bases determine the indicator used.
ACID-BASE INDICATORS
S/ Titration Example pH range Indicator
N
1 Strong Acid HCl 3.5 – 9.5 Any indicator
Strong Base NaOH
2 Weak Acid Ethanoic acid 7.0 – 9.5 Phenophthalein
Strong Base NaOH
3 Strong Acid HCl 3.5 – 7.0 Methyl orange
Weak Base Aqueous ammonia
4 Weak Acid Ethanoic acid No sharp No suitable
Weak Base Aqueous ammonia change indicator

Colour changes of Indicators

S/ Methyl Orange Phenophthalei Litmus
N n
1 Acidic medium Red colourless Red
2 Alkaline meduim Yellow Pink Blue

Page 37
 WEEK 7: SALTS
Salts are compounds formed when all or part of the ionizable hydrogen of an acid are
replaced by metallic or ammonium ions. Besides water, it is the only product of a
neutralization reaction. Examples include:
a. Sodium Chloride, NaCl
b. Lead (ii) trioxonitrate (v), Pb(NO3)2
c. Ammonium Chloride, NH4Cl
d. Sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv), NaHCO3

Soluble and Insoluble salts

Soluble salts are salts which dissolve in water while insoluble salts do not dissolve in
water.
Examples of soluble salts are:
1. Sodium, potassium and ammonium salts
2. All trioxonitrate (v) salts
3. All Chloride salts except those of lead and silver (PbCl2/AgCl)
4. All tetraoxosulphate (vi) salts except those of lead and barium

Examples of insoluble salts are

1. All trioxocarbonate (iv) salts except those of Na, K and ammonium
2. The insoluble salts indicated above

Colours of salts
Salts exist in many different colours which arise either from the anions or the cations.
Examples include:
a. Sodium Chromate, Na2CrO4 is yellow due to the chromate ion
b. Potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7 is orange due to the anion
c. Cobalt trioxonitrate (v) , Co(NO3)2 is red due to the cation
d. Copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) heptahydrate, CuSO 4.5H2O is blue due to the
cation
e. Potassium tetraoxomanganate (vii), KMnO4 is purple due to the anion
The colour of each salt is due to the electronic structure in the d-orbitals of transition
elements or in the conjugated organic dye framework.

Page 38
TYPES OF SALT
1. Normal Salts
Normal salts are formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions in an acid are
replaced by metallic or ammonium ions eg NaCl
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Other examples include K2SO4, (NH4)2SO4, FeCO3, ZnS. Normal salts are
neither acidic nor basic, that is. They are neutral to litmus, however, some of
them hydrolyse in water to give an acidic or alkaline solutions eg Na 2CO3,
AlCl3.

2. Acidic Salts
Acidic salts are formed when only some of the replaceable hydrogen ions in an
acid are replaced by metallic or ammonium ions. This happens when the acid
contains two or more replaceable hydrogen ions. Dibasic acids can form only
one acidic salt while tribasic salts can for two acidic salts eg
H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) KHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
H3PO4(aq) + KOH(aq) KH2PO4(aq) + H2O(l)
H3PO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2HPO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Acidic salts have acidic properties since they still contain hydrogen ions. They
therefore, will turn blue litmus paper red and react with excess metallic ions to
produce a normal salt eg
KHSO4(aq) + KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

3. Basic Salts
These type of salts are formed when there is insufficient supply of acids to
neutralize the base completely, thus the salt still contains hydroxide ion eg
Zinc Chloride hydroxide - Zn(OH)Cl, Magnesium hydroxide trioxonitrate (v) –
Mg(OH)NO3. Basic salts have properties of bases, that is, turn red litmus paper
blue and react with acids to form normal salts and water eg:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) Ca(OH)Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)Cl(aq) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

4. Double Salts
These are salts which contain three different ions in which two are usually
cations while the third is an anion. Double salts are usually formed as a result
of two simple salts crystallizing together from a solution to form a compound
Page 39
 of two salts [M+M3+(SO4)2.12H2O]. M+ may be Na+, K+ or NH4eg K+Al3+(SO4)2.
12H2O- Aluminium Potassium tetraoxosulphate (vi) duodecahydrate.

5. Complex salts
Complex salts are formed from a mixture of two simple salts in which a new
ion called a complex ion is formed. Eg
Tetraammine Copper (ii) ion – Cu(NH3)42+, hexacyanoferrate (ii) ion-
[Fe(CN)6]4-.

PREPARATION OF SALTS
Salts can be prepared through various methods. The method used depends on the
solubility of the salt and its stability when heated.
1. Preparation of soluble salts
a. Reaction of acid with metals
Usually, a metal that is more reactive than hydrogen would displace
hydrogen from an acid to form a salt eg
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
b. Reaction of acids and alkali eg
Acids react with alkali to form salt and water.
KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) HNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
c. Reaction of dilute acids with an insoluble base.
An insoluble base can react with a dilute acid to produce a soluble salt. Eg
H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
d. Reaction of a dilute acid with a trioxocarbonate (iv) salt
Acids reacts with trioxocarbonate (iv) salt to produce salt, water and carbon
(iv) oxide, eg
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
However, this method cannot be used if both the salt produced and the
trioxocarbonate (iv) salt are insoluble in water.

Recovering soluble salts from solution

Soluble salts can be recovered from solution after preparation through:
a) Evaporation (heating to dryness)
b) Crystallization

2. Preparation of insoluble salts

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 a. Through double decomposition
From two soluble compounds, each containing of the radicals (ions) required
for the insoluble salt. Eg
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl2(s) + NaNO3(aq)
insoluble salt

The insoluble salt can be recovered through filtration.

b. Through combination of constituent elements

Some chlorides and sulphides of some metallic salts can be prepared this
way.eg
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(s) 2FeCl3(s)

Hydrolysis of salt
It is expected that a normal salt, being neutral, would dissolve in water to produce a
neutral solution. However, some salts dissolve (hydrolyse) in water to produce either
an acidic or a basic solution eg
a) Salts formed from strong acids and strong bases remain neutral in solution eg
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
b) Salts formed strong acids and weak bases hydrolyse in water to produce acidic
solutions, that is, turn blue litmus paper red eg
2AlCl3(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2Al(OH)3(aq) + 6HCl(aq)
NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l) NH4OH + HCl(aq)
c) Salts formed from weak acids and strong bases hydrolyse in water to form
alkaline solutions. That is turn red litmus paper blue eg
Na2CO3(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

Reactions of substances on exposure to air

Some substances on exposure to air either absorb moisture or lose their water of
crystallization.
1. Efflorescence
This is a phenomenon in which substances loose part or all of their water of
crystallization when exposed to air, thus forming a lower dehydrate or the
anhydrous salt. Salts that behave this way are said to be efflorescent eg

Na2CO3.10H2O Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O(l)

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 sodium trioxocarbonate (iv) sodium trioxocarbonate (iv)

decahydrate monohydrate

2. Deliquescence
This is a phenomenon in which a substance tends to absorb a lot of water when
exposed to the air, thereby becoming a solution. Substances that behave this
way are said to be deliquescent. Eg. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Iron (iii)
Chloride (FeCl3), Potassium hydroxide (KOH), Calcium Chloride (CaCl 2),
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2), Phosphorus (iii) oxide (P2O3), silica gel (SiO2).
3. Hygroscopy
This is a phenomenon in which substances on exposure to air absorb moisture
but not enough to become a solution, instead, they become moist or sticky if
they are solids or become diluted if they are liquids eg. Sodium trioxonitrate
(v) (NaNO3), copper (ii) oxide, quicklime (CaO).

Drying Agents or Dessicants

Drying agents are hygroscopic or deliquescent substances that induce or sustain a
state of dryness in its vicinity due to its strong affinity for moisture or water. They are
usually used in the food, pharmaceutical, packaging and electronics industries. They
are also used in the laboratories to dry gases. The reactivity of a drying agent with the
substance to be dried is considered before choosing it as a drying agent. A drying
agent is considered unsuitable if it reacts with the substance to be dried. Examples of
drying agents are H2SO4, anhydrous forms of CaCl2, Na2SO4, CaSO4 and MgSO4. The
drying agents absorb moisture/water to form hydrated salts.

WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION

These are water molecules forming an essential part of the crystal structure of some
compounds. It is defined as water that is stoichiometrically bound into a crystal.
Crystal salts containing water of crystallization are called hydrates. Water of
crystallization is also known as water of hydration or crystallization water.

How Water of Crystallization Forms

Many compounds are purified by crystallization from an aqueous solution. The

crystal excludes many contaminants, however, water can fit within the crystalline
lattice without being chemically bonded to the cation of the compound. Applying

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heat can drive off this water, but the process typically damages the crystalline
structure.

Water of Crystallization Examples

 Copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) pentahydrate (CuSO4·5H2O) cyrstals. The five

water molecules are called water of crystallization. The anhydrous salt of this
compound is white while the hydrated salt is blue.
 Calcium Chloride dihydrate CaCl2·2H2O
 Iron (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) heptahydrate FeSO4.7H2O
 Sodium trioxocarbonate (iv) decahydrate Na2CO3. 10H2O

ASSIGNMENT
List ten salts and their uses

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 WEEK 8: CARBON
Carbon is a non-metal which belongs to group (iv) on the periodic table. It occurs
naturally as diamond and graphite. It occurs in impure forms as coal and in the
combined state as hydrocarbons (eg petroleum), wood, natural gases and
trioxocarbonate (iv).

Structure and Allotropes of Carbon

Carbon occurs in various forms in the same physical state. This phenomenon in
which an element occurs in different forms in the same physical state is called
allotropy and the different forms are called allotropes. The allotropes of carbon are
diamond and graphite. There are other forms of carbon which are non-crystalline,
called false allotropes or amorphous carbon eg coal, charcoal, coke, lampblack, sugar
charcoal and animal charcoal.
Carbon

Crystalline Amorphous

Diamond Graphite Coal Charcoal lampblack

Coke Gas Carbon

Plant charcoal Animal Charcoal

Wood charcoal Sugar charcoal bone charcoal blood charcoal

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Graphite

Properties
1. It is an opaque, soft, black crystalline solid.
2. It flakes easily because of its layered structure.
3. It contains mobile electrons in its crystal lattice, thus it is a good conductor of
electricity.
4. It has a high melting point but lesser than that of diamond.
5. It is less dense than diamond.

Uses
1. It is used as a dry lubricant because of its layered structure.
2. It is used as electrodes due to its high conductivity.
3. It is used as a black pigment in paints.
4. It is used as a neutron moderator in atomic piles (used in slowing down
neutrons in nuclear reactors) because it is thermally stable (ability to withstand
extremely high temperature) and conducts heat well. It is also used due to its
purity.
5. It is mixed with clays to produce pencils.

Diamond
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Properties
1. It is a colorless crystalline solid
2. It is the hardest substance known
3. It has a high refractive index
4. It has a high density
5. It has great resistance to high temperature and chemical attack.
6. It is a non-conductor of electricity.

Uses
1. It is used in making jewelries
2. It is used for drilling rocks and metals
3. It is used as abrasives for sharpening blunt edges.

Amorphous Carbon
Amorphous forms of carbon are not considered as true forms of carbon as they
contain impurities. Examples include:
a) Coal: This is mined from natural deposits. It is formed from incomplete decay
of vegetable materials which decomposed gradually under pressure in the
absence of air. Coal is mainly used as fuel to power engines. There are
different types of coal, namely;
i. Peat
ii. Lignite (brown) coal
iii. Bituminous (soft) coal

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 iv. Anthracite (hard) coal
Coal consists of a variety of compounds. At a very high temperature (about
1300oC) and in the absence of air, coal can be heated to release a variety of
substances. This process is known as the destructive distillation of coal.

Coal coke + ammoniacal liquor + coal tar + coal gas

COKE, a product of the destructive distillation of coal, is used mainly as fuel

and as an industrial reducing agent in the extraction of metals. It burns with no
smoke and leaves no residue.
Coal tar, which forms from the condensation of some of the distilled products,
consists of many substances such as benzene, toluene, phenol, naphthalene etc.
These products are used in the production of dyes, paints insecticides etc.
Ammoniacal liquor, which is a solution of ammonia in water, is used in the
production of fertilizer.
Coal gas is used mainly as fuels.

b) CHARCOAL
This is obtained when wood, nut shell, animal bones or sugar is heated in a limited
supply of air. They can be grouped into plant and animal charcoal. Plant charcoals
include wood and sugar charcoal while animal charcoal include bone and blood
charcoal.

Charcoals are generally used as domestic fuels for cooking. They are also good
adsorbents (especially for dyes and gases), they are used in removing the brown
colouring from crude sugar and in decolourizing petroleum jelly.

c) CARBON BLACK
This is obtained by burning carbonaceous materials in a limited supply of air. It is
used in making shoe polishes, pigment in paints, pencils, carbon paper, typewriter’s
ribbon and printer’s ink.

General Properties of Carbon

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Physical Properties
1. All forms of carbon, except for diamond are black or grayish black solids.
2. They have very high melting points.
3. They are odourless and tasteless.
4. They are insoluble in common solvents like water, alkalis and acids.

Chemical Properties
All forms of carbon have similar chemical properties. They are not very reactive. The
amorphous forms are however more reactive than crystalline forms of carbon.
1. Carbon forms strong carbon-carbon bonds and can form long carbon chains
(catenation).
2. Combustion
All forms of carbon burn in excess oxygen to produce carbon (iv) oxide.
C(s) + O(g) CO2(g)
However, in limited air, Carbon (ii) oxide, CO is produced.
2C(s) + O(g) 2CO(s)
3. Combination reactions
Carbon combines with certain elements at high temperatures eg:
C(s) + 2S(s) CS2
carbon (iv) sulphide

C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)

3C(s) + 4Al(s) Al C4 3
aluminium carbide

4. As a strong reducing agent.

It reduces the oxides of the less reactive metals to their corresponding metals
eg
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
2CuO(s) + C(s) 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
It also reduces steam at a very high temperature
H2O(g) + C(s) H2(g) + CO(g)

5. Reaction with strong oxidizing agent

When heated with strong oxidizing agent, carbon is oxidized to carbon (iv)
oxide
C(s) + 4HNO3(aq) 2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) + CO2(g)
WEEK 9: COMPOUNDS OF CARBON
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OXIDES OF CARBON
The two important oxides of carbon are
(i) Carbon (iv) oxide, CO2
(ii) Carbon (ii) oxide, CO

Carbon (iv) oxide

Carbon (iv) oxide is a compound of carbon and oxygen. It is an acidic oxide because
it turns damp blue litmus paper red. Carbon (iv)
oxide is about 0.03% by volume of air (that is, it can be found naturally in air) and
also exists in dissolved forms in water. It can be found in the combined forms as
metallic trioxocarbonate (iv) and hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) in the earth’s crust.

Laboratory preparation of carbon (iv) oxide

a) It can be prepared in the laboratory by the action of dilute acid on a
trioxocarbonate (iv) or hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) salt, eg
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
H2SO4(aq) + CaCO3(s) CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
HNO3(aq) + NaHCO3(aq NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

fused CaCl2 can be used to dry the gas produced

b) By heating trioxocarbonate (iv) of metals other than those of the alkali metals
eg:
MgCO3(s) MgO(s) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)
Or by heating the hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) of the alkali metals, eg
2KHCO3(aq) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
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Industrial Preparation of Carbon (iv) oxide
Industrially carbon (iv) oxide is obtained from fermentation process and the heating
of limestone.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Physical Properties of CO2

1. It is a colourless and odourless gas with a sharp refreshing taste.
2. It is soluble in water, ethanol and acetone.
3. It changes damp blue litmus paper pink because of the formation of H2CO3.
4. It is denser than air, has a density of 1.977
5. It has a melting point of -78.50C and boils at -55.60C.

Chemical properties of CO2

1. It reacts with red hot carbon to produce CO.
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g) a reversible reaction
2. It reacts with alkali to produce trioxocarbonate (iv)
CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
In the presence of excess CO2, the trioxocarbonate (iv) reacts to produce
hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv)
Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2NaHCO3(aq)
Alkalis are often used to absorb CO3 from its mixture with other gases.

3. It dissolves in water to produce H2CO3(aq)

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

4. It reacts with burning magnesium to deposit carbon.

CO2(g) + 2Mg(s) 2MgO(s) + C(s)

Test for Carbon (iv) oxide

Carbon (iv) oxide turns lime water {calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH) 2} milky:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
The insoluble CaCO3 precipitate is responsible for the milky nature of the solution.
The solution becomes clear as more CO2 is added (excess) as a result of the formation
of Ca(HCO3)2
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
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When heated, the Ca(HCO3)2 decomposes to give insoluble CaCO3
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
heat

Uses of CO2
1. It is used as fire extinguisher because it does not support combustion and it is
denser than air.
2. It is used as a coolant (dry ice) in refrigerators.
3. It is used in the production of carbonated drinks
4. It is a constituent of medical gases as it promotes exhalation eg a mixture of
NaHCO3 and citric or tartaric acid.
5. Formed by the action of yeast and baking powder, it causes the rising of bread
dough (thus making it soft).
6. It is used as a pressurizing medium and propellant eg in aerosol cans of food,
fire extinguishers, target pistols and inflating life rafts.
7. It is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors

Carbon (ii) oxide

It is released into the atmosphere through various means eg:
a) Incomplete combustion of carbon compounds eg
2C8H18(l) + 17O2(g) 16CO(g) + 18H2O(l)
b) From exhaust fumes of motor cars and industries.
c) Photochemical reactions in the troposphere
d) From volcanoes and forest fires.
e) From cooking stoves and engines.

Preparation
Carbon (ii) oxide can be prepared in the through
1. Reaction of carbon (iv) oxide with red hot carbon
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO2(g)
2. Dehydration of methanoic or ethanedioic acid using H2SO4
HCOOH conc H2SO4 CO(g)
-H2O
COOH conc H2SO4 CO2(g) + CO(g)
COOH - H2O
The carbon (iv) oxide can be removed using NaOH. Please note that CO being
a poisonous gas must be prepared in a fume cupboard.
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Physical Properties of CO
1. It is neutral to litmus.
2. It is insoluble in water but soluble in ammoniacal copper (i) chloride.
3. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless. These properties make it difficult to
detect the presence of CO, thus great caution must be taken to ensure that
engines, cooking stoves or generators are not enclosed in the same room with
human beings. As little as 0.5% of it in the air can cause death.
4. It is slightly less dense than air.
5. It has a boiling point of 82K (-1910C) and a melting point of 68K (-2050C).

Chemical Properties
1. (a) It undergoes combination reaction. It burns in oxygen with a blue flame to
produce CO2 2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)
(b)It combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells
CO(g) + Hb COHb
The compound formed, carboxyhaemoglobin prevents the circulation of
oxygen round the body, thus causing death.

2. It acts as a reducing agent, it reduces metallic oxide to their metals eg:

PbO(s) + CO(g) Pb(s) + CO2(g)

Uses of CO
1. Being a major constituent of fuel gases (producer gas and water gas), it is
used mainly as an industrial fuel.
2. It is also used in extracting metals from their ores.

ASSIGNMENT
Write the differences between carbon (iv) oxide and carbon (ii) oxide

s/n Carbon (iv) oxide, CO2 Carbon (ii) oxide, CO

Page 52
 1 Soluble in water Insoluble in water
2 Turns damp litmus paper pink Neutral to litmus
3 Does not support combustion Burns with a blue flame
4 Turns lime water milky Does not turn lime water milky

Fuel Gases
A fuel is a substance that burns in air or oxygen to release heat or light. Examples
include producer gas, water gas and synthetic gas.

Producer gas
This is a mixture of carbon (ii) oxide and nitrogen. It is produced in a furnace by
passing atmospheric air through red hot coke at about 1000oC.
2C(s) + O2(g) + N2(g) 2CO(g)+ N2(g)
from air 30% 70%

Though a lot of heat is generated through this process, its heating value is low
because of the incombustible nitrogen. Producer gas is widely used as an industrial
fuel in the production of coal gas, steel and glass. It is also used in heating furnaces
and a good source of nitrogen for the production of ammonia.

Water Gas
This is a mixture of carbon (ii) oxide and hydrogen. It is obtained when steam is
passed over red hot coke at 1000oC. This process produces equal volumes of CO and
H2. Water gas is usually produced along with producer gas as the heat generated by
producer gas aids the production of water gas which is an endothermic reaction (ie
heat is absorbed)
C(s) + H2O(g) CO(g) + H2(g)
50% 50%

Water gas is a more useful and more efficient fuel/industrial gas than producer gas as
the two products are combustible. It is also a good source of hydrogen.

Synthetic Gas
This is obtained by passing natural gas (methane) over steam or air in the presence of
Nickel as catalyst. The products obtained are the same as the water gas.
CH4(g) + H2(g) nickel CO(g) + 3H2(g)

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 2CH4(g) + O2(g) nickel 2CO(g)+ 4H2(g)

COMPOUNDS OF CARBON (2)

TRIOXOCARBONATE (IV)
Trioxocarbonate (iv) acid
The trioxocarbonate (iv) acid H2CO3 is a weak, unstable acid which cannot be
isolated. It is produced by dissolving CO2 in water.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + CO3(aq)

Trioxocarbonate (iv) compounds

These are compounds which contain trioxocarbonate (iv) ion (CO 32-). They are salts
of the trioxocarbonate (iv) acid. Trioxocarbonate (iv) acid forms two series of salts:
i. The normal salts, trioxocarbonate (iv) salt - CO32-
ii. The acidic salts, hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) salt –HCO3-

Examples of CO32- and HCO3- salts

s/n Group Salt Example
1 Grp 1 Trioxocarbonate (iv) Li2CO3,Na2CO3, K2CO3
elements
(alkali metals) Hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) LiHCO3,NaHCO3, KHCO3
2 Grp 2 Trioxocarbonate (iv) MgCO3, CaCO3, BaCO3
elements
(alkali earth Hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) Mg(HCO3)2, Ca(HCO3)2
metals)
3 p block Trioxocarbonate (iv) PbCO3
elements
4 Transition Trioxocarbonate (iv) ZnCO3, CuCO3, Ag2CO3, FeCO3
elements

Preparation of Trioxocarbonate (iv) salts

a) By bubbling CO2 into a solution of the corresponding alkali. The soluble CO 32-
salts (ie Na, K and NH4+) are produced this way.

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 2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
-
In excess CO2, the HCO3 is produced, which on heating produces the
corresponding soluble CO32-

NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) NaHCO3(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

b) Heating the hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) salts of Na and K

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

c) The insoluble trioxocarbonate (iv) salts are produced from the reaction
between Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 and a corresponding metal salt (double
decomposition).
CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
insoluble

CaCl2(aq) + 2NaHCO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Test for Trioxocarbonate (iv) salts

1. All trioxocarbonate (iv) salts react with dilute acid to liberate CO 2 eg

2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

2. Trioxocarbonate (iv) salts form white precipitate with barium chloride

solution.
CO32- + BaCl2(aq) BaCO3(s) + 2Cl-(aq)
The white precipitate dissolves in dilute HCl to give a colourless solution.
BaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) BaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Properties of Trioxocarbonate (iv) salts

Physical Properties

Page 55
 1. Trioxocarbonate (iv) salts are insoluble in water except for those of the
ammonium ion and alkali metals (except for Li 2CO3) with solubility increasing
down the group. The CO32- of group 2 elements are soluble in CO 2 because of
the formation of HCO3-. The soluble CO32- hydrolyses in water to produce an
alkaline solution: K2CO3(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
2. The trioxocarbonate (iv) salts of group 1 and 2 elements are colourless but
those of the transition elements may be coloured.

Chemical Properties

1. Thermal Stability: Except for those of Na, K and Ba, CO 32- salts decompose on
heating to liberate CO2. The HCO3- decompose to give the CO32-, H2O and CO2
eg
(NH4)2CO3(s) 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2Ag2CO3(s) 4Ag(s) + 2CO2(g) + O2(g)
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

2. All trioxocarbonate (iv) salts react with dilute acid to produce CO 2, water and a
salt eg
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(s) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

The solvay process

The solvay process is a continuous process of using limestone (CaCO 3) to produce

CO2 which is then reacted with ammonia (NH 3) dissolved in brine (concentrated
NaCl(aq)) to produce Na2CO3.

The steps involved include:

a) Brine purification
b) Sodium hydroxide carbonate formation
c) Sodium trioxocarbonate (iv) formation
d) Ammonia recovery

ASSIGNMENT

Write ten trioxocarbonate (iv) salts and their uses.

Page 56
Page 57
 WEEK 10: INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON
Introduction
Hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. The major source of
hydrocarbon is crude oil, but they also occur in natural gas and coal.

Classification of hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons can be classified into two main groups: aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons. Aliphatic hydrocarbons can have a straight or branched carbon chains
to form (acyclic) or join together to form rings cyclic).

Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic Aromatic
eg benzene

Acyclic cyclic

cycloakanes cycloakene cycloalkynes

eg cyclopropane
Alkanes alkenes alkynes
eg methane eg ethene eg ethyne

Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes are members of the aliphatic hydrocarbons. Alkanes
have single bonds thus are saturated while alkenes and alkynes have double and triple
bonds respectively thus are referred to as being unsaturated.
Aromatic hydrocarbons are cyclic and highly unsaturated eg benzene and
naphthalene.

CRUDE OIL AND NATURAL GAS

Crude oil or petroleum is a dark, brown, sticky and viscous liquid with unpleasant
odour. It is a major source of hydrocarbons. It is formed from the remains of plants
and animals which have been subjected to high temperature and pressure in the
absence of air for many years.

The major deposits of the world’s crude oil are located in the Middle East. Nigeria is
also one of the world’s producers of crude oil/petroleum. Nigeria’s crude oil is in
high demand because it is sulphur free. It is a major foreign exchange earner for
Nigeria.
Page 58
After locating possible oil bearing rocks, crude oil is extracted by drilling deep holes
into the ground. The crude oil and the natural gas which usually occur together are
then pumped out and stored for onward transportation to refineries.

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL

At the refinery, crude oil is separated into its various fractions using a fractionating
column/tower through the physical process called fractional distillation. The crude oil
is heated to about 600oC. As the vapour condenses back to liquid, the column sorts
the different fraction from each other and removes them through the side of the
column. The larger hydrocarbons with the high boiling points condense first and are
collected at the base of the column while the low boiling fractions and gases are
collected at the top. After this rough refinement, individual fuels may undergo more
refinement to remove any contaminants or undesirable substances, or to improve the
quality of the fuel through cracking.

Page 59
S/ Fraction No of B.pt Uses
Page 60
N carbon
atoms
1 Refinery C1-C4 <40oC This is a mixture of methane, ethane,
gas/petroleum propane, butane and ethene; They are
gas mainly used as fuel (both domestic and
industrial). They are useful sources of
heat and raw materials for the production
of hydrogen and petrochemicals.
2 Gasoline C5-C10 40o- Used as fuel for vehicles and electric
(Petrol and 180oC generators. They are also used as
naphtha) solvents for paints and grease
3 Paraffin oil C11-C18 180o- It is a fairly volatile liquid but much safer
(kerosene) 250oC than petrol. It is used as fuel for lighting,
heating and as aviation fuel for aircrafts.
4 Light gas oil C16-C25 250o- Mainly used as fuels in engines of buses,
(diesel) 350oC trains, tractors, ships etc and as a raw
material for the cracking process.
5 Heavy gas oil C20-C30 350o- They are used for lubricating moving
(lubricating oil) 500oC parts of engines. When re-distilled, they
produce petroleum jelly, engine oil,
liquid paraffin and paraffin wax.
6 Asphalt >C30 >500oC They are black stick solids. They are
(bitumen) used for surfacing roads (mixed with
crushed rocks), as fuels and in water
proofing roofs.

Cracking of petroleum products

Cracking is the process whereby large molecules of heavy oils are broken into
smaller molecules (light oils) at high temperature, high pressure and in the presence
of catalysts. This is done to obtain more of the light oils (especially petrol) which are
in higher demands. Usually petroleum fractions with more than eleven carbon atoms
can be cracked. Ethene (C2H4), which is also a product of cracking is a major raw
material in the petrochemical industry.

Cracking Techniques
1. Thermal Cracking
This involves heating heavy oils like lubricating oils, diesel and kerosene to
about 600oC under pressure. The heavy oils decompose forming a mixture of
light, more volatile hydrocarbons. The product obtained is a function of
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 starting materials and reacting conditions like temperature, pressure and nature
of catalyst.
C11H24 C8H18 + C3H6
kerosene petrol propene (alkene)

2. Catalytic Cracking
This is heating of heavy oils to about 500 oC in the presence of natural clay as
catalyst under reduced pressure. The alkanes and alkenes obtained can be
separated through fractional distillation
C18H38 C6H14 + C8H16 + 2C2H4

Reforming Techniques
In reforming, straight chained alkanes are catalytically converted into
branched-chain isomers, cycloakanes and benzene. This process converts low
grade petrol into higher grade, thereby improving the quality of the petrol.
Reforming techniques include isomerization, cyclization and aromatization.

Differences between Cracking and reforming

S/ Cracking Reforming
N
1 It involves breaking large It involves arrangement of atoms in the
molecules of petroleum molecules of petroleum fractions to
fractions into smaller obtain branched and cyclic
molecules hydrocarbons.
2 It can be achieved thermally It can be achieved only in the presence
or catalytically of catalyst
3 It occurs at a high temperature It occurs at a lower temperature
4 It improves the quantity of It improves the quality of petrol
petrol

Octane number or rating

This is the rating of petrol (gasoline) according to quality (energy value). They are
rated in octane numbers, which is an indication of the ratio of the straight-chained
hydrocarbons (heptanes-C7H16) to the branched-chained hydrocarbons (2,2,4-
trimethylpentane C8H18).

The octane number of heptanes (the lower grade petrol) is set at zero while the octane
number of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (an isomer of octane, called iso-octane) is set at

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100. The percentage of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane in the petrol mixture determines the
octane number of petrol. For example, a 50:50 mixture of the two gives an octane
number of 50.

The combustion of low grade petrol in an engine is not smooth and can knock the
engine. The quality of low grade petrol can be improved by adding calculated
amounts of cycloalkanes, benzene and anti-knock additive (tetraethyl lead iv –
Pb(C2H5)4 ). However, this anti-knock additive is a source of lead poisoning,
generated from the exhaust fumes of vehicles.

Petrochemicals
Petrochemicals are obtained from the by-products of petroleum. For example, ethanol
is produced from the catalytic hydration of ethene. Other examples include propane
1,2,3 –triol, benzene and toluene. Petrochemicals are used in producing other
substances like plastics, synthetic rubber, detergents and synthetic fibre like nylon
and Dacron.

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 WEEK 11: APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Applied chemistry is the application of the principles and theories of chemistry to
answer a specific question or solve a real-world problem, as opposed to
pure chemistry, which is aimed at enhancing knowledge within the field. For
example, if you wish to produce a drug that would prevent cancer cells from growing,
then you would work hard in the laboratory creating and testing the reaction of cancer
cells to various drugs. This of course implies that you have a good knowledge of the
mechanism or working of those drugs/chemicals. This would be an example of
applied chemistry, since you are using chemistry to solve a specific, real-world
problem.

Searches for improvements like this have led to further developments in the field of
chemistry. As the society became complex and the needs of man increased, it became
even more important to develop and produce many chemicals.

RAW MATERIALS
These are the inputs or feed-stocks that a company uses to manufacture its finished
products. The chemical industry thrives on raw materials. They are the prime factors
to convert the raw materials into desired products that we use in our day-to-day life.
The food Industry thrives for this reason, that the preservatives not only help them to
maintain the quality of the food, but also helps them to export food to different parts
of the world.
Examples
S/ RAW MATERIALS PRODUCTS PRODUCT END USERS
N
1 Coal Fuel gas, ammonia, Energy for powering
benzene, toluene, phenol, engines, fertilizers, paints
naphthalene etc
2 Petroleum/Natural gas Petrol, diesel, phenol, Fertilizers, detergents,
and their derivatives ethene, ethyne, kerosene plastics, paints,
etc pharmaceuticals etc
3 Air Oxygen, nitrogen Ammonia, trioxonitrate
(v) acid, fertilizers
4 Minerals (ores) Iron, aluminium, copper Construction, machines,
vehicles, ships, aircrafts
5 Sulphur Tetraoxosulphate (vi) Fertilizers, paints,
acid, explosives, dyes,

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 synthetic fibres etc
6 Sea water Sodium Chloride Chlorine, sodium
hydroxide, paint
removers, refrigerants etc

TYPES OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

Chemical industries can be grouped into
1. Consumer chemicals industries
These include materials used in our everyday lives like soaps, body creams,
edible oils, shampoos, liquid soaps, toilet cleaners etc
2. Specialty chemicals industries
These include colorants, inks, paints and crop protection chemicals. Some
special chemicals are produced in small quantities, but they have very high
value.
3. Basic chemicals industries
The basic chemicals are produced in the large quantities, like millions of
tonnes. Some of these chemicals can be derived from oil, and they are also
known as petrochemicals. Polymers are also part of the basic chemicals
produced in Nigeria. It also includes the production of trioxonitrate v) acids,
tetraoxosulphate vi) acid, sodium hydroxide and chlorine.

In terms of quantities produced, chemicals can be grouped into

1. Heavy chemicals
2. Fine chemicals

OTHERS

 Petrochemicals
 Merits and demerits of Chemical Industries
 Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable wastes
 Industrial/ environmental pollutants
 Roles of citizens in environmental preservation and prevention of pollution

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