UNIT 2

Thermal Physics
States of Matter

Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases:

Solids

 Have a fixed shape and fixed volume.

 Particles are tightly packed together in a regular structure.
 Particles vibrate in position due to strong forces of attraction
between them.

Liquids

 Have no fixed shape but a fixed a volume.

 Molecules are slightly further apart in an irregular structure.
 Molecules can vibrate and can change positions due to weaker
forces of attraction between them.

Gases

 Have no fixed shape and no fixed volume.

 Molecules are spaced out with very weak forces of attraction.
 Molecules move freely at high speeds.

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
The Molecular Model

The Kinetic Theory

Particles (molecules) are in continuous motion and the higher the

temperature the faster they move.

Evidence of Moving Particles

1) Diffusion in Liquids and Gases :

When bromine vapor diffuses and fills a test tube it shows an
evidence of moving particles.

2) Brownian Motion
This is the random zig-zag motion of large slow moving particles
when they are being bombarded by lighter fast moving air
molecules.

The Smoke-Cell Experiment

This show smoke particles moving in random

zig-zag paths when seen under a light
microscope

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
Evaporation

This is the escape of the most energetic molecules from the surface of
the liquid.

Factors Affecting the Rate Of Evaporation

1) Temperature: The higher the temperature, the greater the kinetic

energy of the molecules. The molecules overcome their attraction
forces and escape into the gaseous state.

2) Surface Area: As evaporation takes place at the surface of the liquid,

the greater the surface area, the higher the rate of evaporation.

3) Blowing Wind: Wind cross the surface increases the rate of

evaporation. The moving air carries the escaping water molecules
away before they can return back into the liquid.

4) Humidity: This is the amount of water vapor in the air. The higher
the humidity the slower the rate of evaporation. As some molecules
from the vapor return to the liquid.
(Low concentration gradient between the liquid and the atmosphere
resulting in slow diffusion of the water molecules from the liquid into
the atmosphere)

The Cooling effect of evaporation

During evaporation the most energetic molecules escape leaving the
less energetic molecules behind. This decreases the average kinetic
energy of the liquid and hence reducing its temperature.
Cooling Of A Body In Contact With An Evaporating Liquid
When water evaporates from the cloth, it cools it down. Now the
cloth is than the object A, soothe heat flows from object A to the
cloth and this leads to more evaporation, resulting in object A cooling
down.

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
The Difference between Evaporation And Boiling

1) Evaporating happens at the surface of the liquid, while boiling

takes place throughout the liquid.
2) Evaporation takes place at any temperature, while boiling takes
place at a fixed temperature (Boiling point).

Pressure of A Gas

How does a gas exert pressure in a closed container?

Answer:

When the molecules collide with the walls of the container they exert a
force. The pressure exerted is due to sum of all these collision forces.

Explain pressure in terms of change of momentum of particles?

Answer:

As molecules collide with the container walls there is a change in their

momentum due to the change in direction. This change in momentum
creates a force on the walls and hence exerting pressure.

The Gas Laws

Boyle's Law

Pressure is inversely proportional to volume at

a constant temperature
1
P∝
V

K
P=
V

PV =K

P1V1 = P2 V2
Explaining
Boyle's Law

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
For a fixed mass of gas in a closed container, the smaller the volume
means the molecules collide with the walls more frequently causing a
greater pressure.

Charles's Law

Volume is directly proportional to temperature at a

constant pressure

V ∝T

Explaining Charles’s Law

As the air is heated the particles become more kinetic (move faster) and
collide with the walls and the piston with a greater force moving the
piston upwards, increasing the volume.

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
Pressure Law

Pressure is directly proportional to

temperature at a constant volume

P ∝T

Explaining Pressure Law

As the temperature increases the

molecules become more kinetic and collide
with walls more frequently increasing the
pressure.

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
Thermal Expansion
The kinetic theory explains thermal expansion as follows:

When an object is heated, its particles vibrate more vigorously and

take up more space and the object expands.

Comparing Expansion in Solids, Liquids and Gases

Solids expand the least when heated, when compared to liquids and
gases and this is due to the strong forces of attraction holding the
particles together.

Liquids expand more than solids and gases expand the most due the
weak forces of attraction holding the particles together.

Example: In railways and bridges spaces are left between the metal bars
to allow for expansion

Steel Gap

(In hot weather the two steel bars expand and close the gap)

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
Application of Thermal Expansion

1) Thermometers: In a liquid-in-glass thermometer, the liquid (mercury)

in the capillary expands when heated.
2) Thermostats: They use a bimetal strip. These are two metals joined
together, one with a low expansivity (invar). When the bimetal strip is
heated, the brass expands more than the invar causing the strip to
bend, breaking the circuit and the lamp turns off.
3) Fitting of Parts: To fit the washer into the shaft, the washer is
heated, then it expands until it can fit over the shaft and when its
cooled down it makes a tight fit.
4) Reinforcing Concrete: The steel used to reinforce concrete must
have the same expansion as that of concrete. Difference in expansion
can cause the concrete to crack.

Measurement of Temperature

Any physical property that varies with temperature may be used to

measure temperature. The device used to measure temperature is
called a thermometer.

Thermometric Property Thermometer

Volume expansion of a gas Gas thermometer

Volume expansion of a liquid Clinical thermometer

Volume expansion of a solid Bi-Metallic strip thermometer

Change in EMF. Thermocouple

Change in electrical resistance Thermistor (Resistance Thermometer)

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
The Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer

This thermometer uses the property of expansion of a liquid with change

in temperature. The liquid used is either mercury or alcohol

Calibration Of A Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer

To calibrate a thermometer is to mark a thermometer so that you can

use it to measure temperature.

Identifying Fixed Points

A fixed point is a standard degree of hotness or coldness such as melting

point of ice and boiling point of water.

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
The two fixed points used in calibrating a liquid in glass thermometer
are:

1) Steam Point (Upper Fixed Point): The temperature at which pure

water boils, which is 100° C.
2) Ice Point (Lower Fixed Point): The temperature at which pure ice
melts, which is 0° C.

The upper fixed point is determined by placing the thermometer in pure

boiling water until the liquid shows a steady reading; then a mark is
made on that point.

The lower fixed point is determined by placing the thermometer in pure

melting ice until the liquid shows a steady reading; then a mark is made
on that point.

upper

lower

Then the distance (D) between the fixed points is divided equally.

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
Properties Of a Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer

A) Sensitivity: This is the ability of the thermometer to detect the

slightest changes in temperature.

Factors Affecting Sensitivity

1) Diameter Of Capillary: The smaller the diameter (thinner

capillary) the more sensitive the thermometer. This is because in a
thinner capillary the change in the length of the mercury thread is
more significant than a wider capillary.
2) Size Of Bulb: A bigger bulb means a greater sensitivity. This is
because a bigger bulb contains more volume of the liquid which
will result in a more over all expansion for a given increase in
temperature.

B) Range: This is the difference between the highest temperature and

the lowest temperature a thermometer can measure.

Factors Affecting Range

1) Diameter Of Capillary: A wide capillary gives a greater range than

a thin capillary for the same length of stem.
2) Size Of Bulb: A smaller bulb give a greater range than a bigger
bulb for the same length of stem.
3) Length Of Stem: The longer the stem the greater the range.

C) Responsiveness: This is how fast a thermometer reacts to

temperature changes.

Factors Affecting Responsiveness

1) Size Of Bulb: A thermometer with a large bulb has a low

responsiveness. This is because a big bulb has greater volume of
the liquid and this means more time needed for the heat to be
conducted throughout the liquid.

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
2) Thickness Of Glass Bulb: The thicker the glass of the bulb, the
less responsive the thermometer and this is because it takes more
time for the heat to be transferred through a thicker glass than a
thinner one.

D) Linearity (uniformity): This means that the liquid should have the
same expansion for all temperatures measured.
Some liquids expand linearly over a good range of temperature
(e.g mercury).

Change made Change in Change in Change in

to Thermometer Range Sensitivity Responsiveness

Increase size of bulb Shorter range More sensitive Less responsive

Increase diameter of Longer range Less sensitive No change

capillary

Increase length of stem Longer range No change No change

Use thicker glass for bulb No change No change Less responsive

Advantages Of Mercury as a Thermometric Substance:

 It is a good conductor of heat

 Doesn’t wet the tube
 High boiling point (357° C)
 Uniform ( linear) expansion
 Responds quickly to temperature changes

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
Disadvantages Of Using Mercury as a Thermometric Substance:

 Poisonous
 Small thermal expansion
 Expensive
 High freezing point (-39° C)

Advantages Of Using Alcohol as a Thermometric Substance

 Safe liquid
 Low freezing point (-115° C)
 Large expansivity
 Cheap

Disadvantages Of Using Alcohol as a Thermometric Substance

 Wets the tube

 Low boiling point (78° C)
 Doesn’t react quickly to temperature changes
 Needs to be dyed since it’s colourless
 Non-uniform expansion

THE THERMOCOUPLE

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
The cold junction is placed in pure melting ice and the hot junction is
placed in the object to be measured. The difference in temperatures
between the hot and cold junctions creates an EMF and current flows in
the circuit which is detected by the galvanometer. The galvanometer is
calibrated to show temperature reading.

Advantages Of Using Thermocouples

 High responsiveness
 Wide temperature range (-200 °C to 2000 °C)

Thermal Capacity (Heat Capacity)

Internal Energy:

On a microscopic level the atoms (molecules) have kinetic energy

because they are in continuous motion. They also have potential energy
because their motion opposes the bonds trying to keep them together.
The total kinetic and potential energies of all the atoms (molecules) in a
material is called its Internal Energy. When an object is heated its atoms
(molecules) vibrate and move faster increasing it internal energy.

Heat Energy:

This is the energy required to raise the temperature of a body by a

given amount. Heat increases the Kinetic energy of the particles
(molecules) and this causes the increase in temperature. The average
kinetic energy of the particles (molecules) is proportional to the
temperature of the substance.

Specific Heat Capacity (C)

This is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1Kg of a

substance by 1°C.

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
The energy transferred to an object is given by:

Energy = Mass × Specific Heat Capacity × Temperature change

E = m C∆T

heater
1) Measuring the Specific Heat Capacity of Water
Procedure:
 The immersion heater with a given power (P) is
switched on together with a stopwatch which gives
the time taken (t)
 The mass of the water is measured by using a
water
balance.
 The temperature change (∆T) is given by recording
the initial temperature (T2). [∆T = T2  T1]

The specific heat capacity is given by the equation :

E = m C∆T but E = P × t

P×t
C=
m ∆T

Precaution: The heat lost to the surroundings causes the value of ∆T to

decrease leading to a higher value of C. Avoid this by adding more
insulation (lagging).

Thermal Capacity

This is the energy needed to change the temperature of a body by 1°C.

The greater the mass of the body, the higher its thermal capacity.

Thermal capacity = mass × Specific heat capacity

Thermal capacity = m × C
E E
= m× m∆ T = ∆ T

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
1
Thermal capacity ∝ ∆ T (constant energy (E) )

The greater the thermal capacity of a body the smaller its temperature
change.

Thermal capacity ∝ E (constant ∆ T ). For the same temperature change

the body with the highest energy input has the greatest thermal
capacity.

eg: (A) ∆ T =5 ℃ (B) ∆ T =5 ℃

1000J 100J

(A) Has a greater thermal capacity than (B)

Latent Heat (Hidden Heat)

This is the heat energy required to change the phase of an object,

either from solid to liquid (latent heat of fusion) or from liquid to gas
(latent heat of vaporization).

This phase change takes place without any change in temperature.

During melting latent heat of fusion increases the potential energy of the
molecules breaking the bonds holding them together and escaping into
the liquid state.

Note that during phase change there is no change in temperature,

meaning that there is no change in the average kinetic energy of the
molecules.

The energy transferred to an object of mass (m) is given by:

Energy = mass × Specific latent heat

E = mL

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
1) Measuring The Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice [Lf]

The formula used is:

E = m Lf

Where E = P × t

‫ ؞‬P × t = m Lf
P×t
‫ ؞‬Lf = m

beater

melted water

Procedure:

 Use a heater of a given power (P) to melt the crushed ice.

 Start the stopwatch when the ice starts to melt and the water
starts dripping. This ensures that the ice now is at 0°C.
 Measure the mass of the beaker (mb).
 Measure the mass of the beaker and the water (mT).
 To find the mass of the water (mw).

Precautions: Mw = mT - mb

 Use insulations to avoid heat gained from the surroundings. This

might cause the ice to melt in less time giving a lower value of Lf.
 Use finely crushed ice (more surface area). Ensures that heat from
the heater reaches all parts of the ice.

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
2) Measuring the Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice:

Procedure:

 Put a known mass of water in an insulating cup.

 Record the initial temperature of the water ( T1 ).
 Add a known mass of ice to the water
 Stir the water until all the ice melts.
 Record the final temperature of the water ( T2 ).

Assume that all the energy lost by the water is gained by the ice

Elost = Egained
Energy lost by water is given by:
Elost = mw C∆T mw = mass of water
∆T = T1 – T2
C = Specific heat capacity of water
Energy gained by ice:

Egained = mi Lf mi = mass of ice

There fore

mi Lf = mw C∆T
L mwC ∆T
f=
mi

Precaution: The value of Lf is approximate as some heat is gained from

the surroundings to melt the ice.

Measuring the Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization ( Lv )

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
P×t
Lv = m

Procedure:

 The heater is switched ON.

 When the water starts to boil
start the stopwatch, and also boiling
take the reading of the initial
mass (m1)
 After (t) seconds turn off the
heater and take the final reading
of the mass (m2)
 The mass of the water that
turned into vapor is given by

m = m 1 – m2

 Finally, with the power of the

heater given and the time taken
by the stopwatch and the mass we can calculate the value of the
latent heat of vaporization of water.

P×t
Lv = m

Precaution: Add insulation to avoid heat loss to the surroundings. If heat

is lost to the surroundings, this will cause the water to boil in more time,
giving a higher value of Lv.

Methods of Heat Transfer

Conduction

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
Heat is transferred as the atoms vibrate more and pass the energy to the
neighboring atoms (lattice vibration). In metals free moving electrons
contribute in the process of conduction.

Heat is
A B transferred
from A to B
by
Heat source
conduction

To increase the Rate of Conduction:

 Increase the temperature difference between the ends of the bar.

 Increase the cross-section area of the bar.
 Reduce the length of the bar.

Experiment:
Aim: Compare the thermal conductivity of different metals

Steel Copper

Candle metal spheres attached

using wax

Procedure:

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
 Observe the apparatus every minute.
 After a while the wax starts to melt as heat is transferred through the
rods, and the metal spheres start to fall.

Steel Copper

The result above shows that copper is a better thermal

conductor.

Precautions: For a fair comparison

 Use same length of rods.

 Use rods with the same cross-section area.

Convection

This method of heat transfer only takes place in fluids (liquids and
gases) as the molecules are free to move.

When the molecules are heated they expand

and become less dense and rise upwards, this
is then replaced by cooler more dense
molecules. Eventually as this process
continues it creates a convection current that
heats up the whole liquid.

Mine Ventilation Method

cold air hot air

Thermal Radiation

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
This is the transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves called
infrared. Radiation doesn’t need a medium to transfer thermal energy.

Absorbers and Emitters of Infrared Radiation

Factors affecting the rate of absorption and emission of thermal
radiation:

1) Colour: Black colour is the best absorber and emitter of thermal

radiation, while white colour on the other hand is the worst
absorber and emitter.
2) Texture: Matt (dull) surfaces are better absorbers and emitters
than shiny surfaces.
3) Temperature: Hotter objects emit more infrared radiation than
colder objects.
4) Surface Area: The greater the surface area, the more the
absorption and emission of infrared radiation.

Experiment:

Comparing Colours in Absorption of Infrared Radiation

Procedure

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UNIT 2
Thermal Physics
 Record the readings in the thermometer every two minutes.

Observation
 The thermometer behind the matt black surface shows a higher
reading.

Conclusion
 Matt black is a better absorber.

Precaution: To ensure a fair comparison

 The surface areas of the plates must be the same
 The radiant heater must be equidistant from both plates.

Experiment

Comparing Colours in Emission of Infrared Radiation

Place the thermopile in front of each surface and record the reading. The
matt black surface will record a higher reading than the white surface.

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