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Project 2061 began its work in 1985—the year Halley’s Comet The American Association for the Advancement of Science
was last visible from Earth. Children starting school then and (AAAS) is the world’s largest general scientific society,
now will see the return of the Comet in 2061—a reminder and publisher of the journal, Science (www.sciencemag.
that today’s education will shape the quality of their lives as org) as well as Science Translational Medicine (www.
they come of age in the 21st century amid profound scientific sciencetranslationalmedicine.org) and Science Signaling
and technological change. (www.sciencesignaling.org). AAAS was founded in 1848,
and includes some 262 affiliated societies and
A long-term initiative of the American Association for the
academies of science, serving 10 million individuals.
Advancement of Science (AAAS), Project 2061’s mission is to
Science has the
help all Americans become literate in science, mathematics,
largest paid circulation of any peer-reviewed general science
and technology. To that end, Project 2061 conducts research
journal in the world, with an estimated total readership of
and develops tools and services that educators,
1 million. The non-profit AAAS (www.aaas.org) is open to
researchers, and policymakers can use to make critical and
all and fulfills its mission to “advance science and serve
lasting improvements in the nation’s education system.
society” through initiatives in science policy; international
Contacts: programs; science education; and more. For the latest
research news, log onto EurekAlert!, www.eurekalert.org, the
premier science-news Web site, a service of AAAS.
• Dr. Jo Ellen Roseman
Director, Project 2061
202 326 6752 For more information, visit our Web site:
jroseman@aaas.org www.aaas.org
Cover: © ScienceCartoonPlus.com
We gratefully acknowledge the William T. Golden Endowment Fund for Program Innovation for
supporting the development of this booklet. We also thank the Carnegie Corporation of New York
and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation for their support of Science for All Americans and the
National Science Foundation (ESI-0103678) for its support of Atlas of Science Literacy.
Each conceptual strand map in Atlas displays the benchmarks—from primary school to high
school—that are most relevant to understanding a particular topic along with earlier
benchmarks they build on and later benchmarks they support. The ideas and skills presented in
the maps
are specific goals for student learning and are derived from both Science for All Americans and
its companion volume Benchmarks for Science Literacy (also available from Oxford University Press
at 1-800-451-7556 or online at http://www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/bolintro.htm).
Each map is accompanied by commentary on the topic, on features of the map itself, and on any topic-
specific research on student learning.
Connections
Grade Ranges
Connections between benchmarks are based on the logic of
Grade ranges are delineated by horizontal gray lines.
the subject matter and, insofar as possible, on the published
Benchmarks may be achieved in higher or lower grades
research into how students learn—both in general and
depending on students’ interests, abilities, and experience.
with regard to specific concepts. A connection between two
benchmarks, represented in the maps by an arrow, means Connections to Other Maps
that one “contributes to achieving” the other. The occasional Connections to other maps are identified to help the reader
double-headed arrow implies mutual support. keep in mind the notion of a larger set of ideas from which a
Strands subset of ideas has been teased out for each topic.
Strands are pointed out at the bottom of each map to help the
See p. 31 for information on ordering both Atlas 1 and Atlas 2.
reader find things in the map and get a sense of its content.
Where possible, relevant benchmarks are positioned in a
column above each label.
can be understood through careful, system- occur mainly in facts and mostly through the
premises. One is that by careful systematic
atic study; scientific knowledge produced study, people can figure out how the world invention of improved technology for observation
through such a process is both durable works. The other is that the universe is a and measurement. They do not recognize that
unified system and knowledge gained from changed theories sometimes suggest new
and subject to change; the scientific
studying one part of it can be applied to observations or reinterpretation of previous
process cannot answer some questions,
other parts. observations (Aikenhead, 1987; Lederman & O’Malley,
such as those about values and beliefs.
1990; Waterman, 1983). Some research indicates that
In order to follow the science story as The left-hand side of the strand includes ideas it is difficult for middle-school students to
it unfolds, students need to understand about the unity of nature. Nearly all of these understand the development of scientific knowledge
these shared assumptions. benchmarks also appear in the SCIENTIFIC through the interaction of theory and observation
The map is organized around three INVESTIGATIONS map in Atlas 1 where they (Carey et al., 1989), but the lack of long-term
strands—limits of science, investigating are part of a sequence of ideas about the
teaching interventions to investigate this issue makes
importance of reliability in investigations.
a knowable world, and continuity and it difficult to conclude that students can or cannot
The right-hand side of the strand unpacks
change. In the elementary grades, the what is meant by careful systematic study
focus is on what can be learned from of the world. In the grades 3-5 range, a new
observation and experimentation. In benchmark (1A/E2) describes what science
middle school, ideas are introduced is and its purpose at a level of complexity
about the modifiability of science that that most early elementary students can
understand.
results from new discoveries and about
what cannot be studied in a scientific Benchmarks in the continuity and change
way. In high school, various historical strand also play a role in the theory modifi-
episodes serve as examples of generaliza- cation strand in the SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
tions about continuity and change in map in Atlas 1.
science and the assumptions underlying
a scientific world view.
Several historical episodes mapped in
Chapter 10: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
illustrate how scientific knowledge is
judged, modified, and replaced and exem-
plify major shifts in the scientific view
of how the world works. The CLASSICAL
MECHANICS map illustrates scientists’
assumptions about the unity and under-
standability of the natural world.
The
Scientific
Enterprise
Science as an enterprise has
individual, social, and institutional
dimensions. Scientific activity is one of the main features of
the contemporary world and, perhaps more than any other,
distinguishes our times from earlier centuries.
making; new ideas in science challenge scientists are members of society and science
our views of the world, and new applica- than exploring and understanding the world. Some
and bring their own cultural backgrounds
tions extend our abilities to shape it. At high- school students believe that moral values and
and views to both realms.The benchmarks
have been added to clarify further the social personal motives do not influence a scientist’s
the same time, social and economic forces
nature of science (“Scientists’ nationality, sex, contributions to the public debate about science
influence what research will be undertak-
ethnic origin…” and “Because science is a and technology and think that scientists are more
en, paid attention to, and applied. Ethical
human activity…”) and the limits of scientific capable than others to decide those issues
principles inform the conduct of science
expertise in resolving public issues (“Scientists (Aikenhead, 1987; Fleming 1986a, 1986b, 1987).
and serve to keep the vast majority of often cannot bring definitive answers…”).
scientists well within the bounds of ethi- Connections between benchmarks in the
cal professional behavior. science affects society strand and the ethics
The map is organized around three in research strand center on the need for sci-
strands—ethics in research, society affects entists to maintain credibility within society.
science, and science affects society. There
are only a few benchmarks before the 6-8
grade range, in part because students need
a clear idea of what science is as an intel-
lectual endeavor before they can begin
exploring how it affects and is affected
by society.
Related maps on EVIDENCE AND
REASONING IN INQUIRY in AtLas 1 and
DETECTING FLAWS IN ARGUMENTS
describe the principles of scientific
inquiry and reasoning that can help stu-
dents understand the role that scientists
play in public affairs. Real-world exam-
ples of how science and society interact
are presented in many of the Chapter 10
maps, which outline important episodes in
the history of science, such as SPLITTING
THE ATOM, DISCOVERING GERMS, and
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. Examples
that involve technology are explored in
the TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE map in
this volume and the INTERACTION OF
TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY map in
AtLas 1.
SFAA link: 1B well as our views of the world. This is an excellent work! I look
The Discoveries: forward to other volumes that take its approach.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Milestones of Science 1700s, The Age of reason • 1800s Part One: The Physical
sciences • 1800s Part Two: The Life sciences • 1900s Part One:
by Curt Suplee The Physical sciences • 1900s Part Two: The Life sciences
(Illus.), National Geographic Society 2000, 288pp., $35.00,
0792279069, Index
Mathematical Models
The basic idea of mathematical modeling is to find a
mathematical relationship that behaves in the same way the
system of interest does. (The system in this case can be
other abstractions, as well as physical or biological
phenomena.) For example, the increasing speed of a falling
rock can be represented by the symbolic relation v = gt,
where g has
a fixed value. The model implies that the speed of fall (v)
increases in proportion to the time of fall (t). A mathematical
model makes it possible to predict what phenomena may
be like in situations outside of those in which they have
already been observed—but only what they may be like.
Often, it is fairly easy to find a mathematical model that
fits a phenomenon over a small range of conditions (such
as temperature or time), but it may not fit well over a
wider
Exploring the Nature of Science
COMMON THEMES
MODELS (11B)
understand it better. Scientists spend a understanding of models as three-dimensional something works, but they believe that perceptual similarity
good deal of time building, testing, com- miniatures of objects but notes similarities between the model and what it is used to represent is
paring and revising models—whether between toys and the real things in terms of very important when developing or evaluating models
(Penner, Giles, Lehrer, & Schauble, 1997). With repeated
mathematical, physical, or conceptual— what they do in addition to what they look
cycles of modeling and reflection, lower elementary students
and using them to communicate and get like. New benchmarks at the grades 3-5 and can focus more on similarities in function and less on
ideas about how the real world works. 6-8 levels point out ways in which models perceptual similarities, and upper elementary students
may differ from what they represent and the can understand the need for symbolic conventions (rather
Tables used in determining insurance
need to consider whether a model’s behavior than only physical resemblance) when developing maps,
payments, projections about endangered diagrams, and other related display notations (Lehrer &
matches key aspects of what is being modeled.
species, non-destructive testing of Schauble, 2000).
bridges, and weather forecasting are all The high-school benchmark 11B/H3 includes Prior to instruction, or after traditional instruction, many
based on models. When a model does not two fairly sophisticated ideas: (a) a model middle- and high-school students continue to focus on
can be tested by comparing its predictions to perceptual rather than functional similarities between
mimic a phenomenon well, the nature
models and their referents, and think of models
of the discrepancy is a clue to how the observations, and (b) a close match between
predominantly as small copies of real objects (Grosslight,
model can be improved. Models may also predictions based on the model and observa- Unger, Jay, & Smith, 1991; Treagust, Chittleborough, &
tions does not mean that another model Mamiala, 2002; Schwartz & White, 2005). Consequently,
mislead, suggesting characteristics that
might not work equally well or better. students often interpret models they encounter in school
are not really shared with what is being science too literally and unshared attributes between
modeled. Numerous off-map connections highlight the models and their referents are
The map is organized around two a cause of misunderstanding (Coll, France, & Taylor, 2005;
importance of models to various aspects of
Harrison & Treagust, 1996). Some middle- and high-school
strands—uses of models and limitations science and engineering. students view visual representations such as maps or
of models. In the elementary grades, the diagrams as models, but only a few students view
focus is on uses of a variety of models as representations of ideas or abstract entities as models
(Grosslight et al., 1991).
communication devices and, when the
things being modeled are readily observ- Many middle- and high-school students think that
models are useful for visualizing ideas and for
able, on how the models are like and communication purposes (Schwarz & White, 2005;
unlike those things. In middle school, the Grosslight et al., 1991). Only a few students think that
focus is on models of phenomena not models are useful in developing and testing ideas and that
the usefulness of a model can be tested by comparing its
accessible through direct observation implications to actual observations (Grosslight et al.,
and on the role of various models, includ- 1991).
ing simulations, in helping us think about Middle-school and high-school students accept the idea
phenomena. In high school, the focus is that scientists can have more than one model for the
on what can and cannot be learned from same thing (Grosslight et al., 1991). However, having
multiple models may mean for them that one could have
models, including computer-based models. literally a different view of the same entity, or that one
Maps in Chapter 2: THE NATURE OF could emphasize different aspects of the entity—omitting
MATHEMATICS are closely related to the or highlighting certain things to provide greater clarity.
Students are rarely aware that there could be different
ideas on this map. In particular, the
models to explain something or to evaluate alternative
MATHEMATICAL MODELS map in Atlas 1 hypotheses. They find multiple model use in school
addresses more extensively the processes science confusing and rarely use multiple models to think
about phenomena; even if they do, the idea that one model
of mathematical modeling that are touched
is “right” and “real” persists (Harrison & Treagust, 1996,
on here. 2000). Students may know that models can be changed,
but changing a model for them means (typical of high-
school students) adding new information or (typical of
middle-school students) replacing a part that was made
wrong (Grosslight et al., 1991).
9
COMMON THEMES
MODELS
11
An engineer wants to know whether a new type of airplane will fly when it is raining. She makes a model of the airplane
and finds out that the model is able to fly in the rain. What conclusions can she draw?
A. She can be absolutely certain that the real airplane will fly well in the rain because the model flew well when it was
raining.
B. She can be absolutely certain that the real airplane will fly well in the rain, but only if her model includes all of the
things she thinks might affect how the real airplane flies in the rain.
C. She cannot be absolutely certain that the real airplane will fly well in the rain unless she actually flies the real
airplane in the rain.
D. She cannot be absolutely certain that the real airplane will fly well in the rain because predictions made using
models are never accurate.
essential to be aware of the values that level that have been developed using ideas
underlie them and that are shared by the found in Science for All Americans. Together,
people who work in them: the importance they describe the importance of hypotheses,
of verifiable data, testable hypotheses, evidence, and theories to the scientific
and predictability in science; of rigorous endeavor. In grades 3-5, the new benchmark
proof and elegance in mathematics; and “Science is a process…” provides young stu-
dents with an age-appropriate way to
of optimum design in technology.
understand what science is.
Science is also based on everyday values
even as it questions our understanding of In the common values as applied in science
the world and ourselves. In many respects, strand, two new benchmarks have been
science is the systematic application of developed for the map. Benchmark 12A/E3
some highly regarded and widely held provides a reason for students to keep clear
human values—integrity, diligence, fair- and accurate records as is called for in
ness, curiosity, openness to new ideas, benchmark 12A/E1. At the high-school level,
benchmark 12A/H5 provides a justification
skepticism, and imagination.
for students to acquire the traits of curiosity,
The map is organized around two openness, and skepticism as described in
strands—values particular to science benchmark 12A/H1. Honesty is also called for
and common values as applied in sci- in benchmark 12A/H1, and the justification
ence. In the elementary grades, the focus for it is already captured in benchmark 1C/H7.
is on the importance of observations in
making sense of phenomena. In middle Several benchmarks on the map have been
edited to improve their clarity and to better
school, the focus is on the importance of
align the expectations on this map with the
reproducible evidence and logical reason-
descriptions of goals in Science for All
ing in drawing conclusions from data. In Americans.
high school, the focus is on understand-
ing why curiosity, honesty, openness, and
skepticism are so highly regarded in sci-
ence and how they are incorporated into
the way science is carried out.
The map draws on and contributes to
ideas on maps in Chapter 1: THE NATURE
OF SCIENCE and to the DETECTING FLAWS
IN ARGUMENTS map.
VALUES IN SC IE NCE
12
dence to pay attention to and what to Most of the benchmarks in grades K-8 con- (Wollman, 1977a, 1977b; Wollman & Lawson, 1977;
Zimmerman, 2005). Although young children have a sense of
tribute to the benchmark “Notice and criticize
dismiss, and distinguishing careful argu- what it means to run a fair test, they frequently cannot
the reasoning in arguments in which the identify all the important variables, and they are more likely
ments from shoddy ones. Furthermore, claims are not consistent with the evidence to control those variables that they believe will affect the
people should be able to apply those given.”At the high-school level, benchmark result. In evaluating what can be learned from a certain
same critical skills to their own observa- 12E/H4 expects students to analyze their experiment, students may be less likely to detect a problem
in controlling variables when the outcome is expected than
tions, arguments, and conclusions, own and other people’s arguments for faulty
when the outcome is not expected (Wollman, 1977b). Student
thereby becoming less bound by their evidence and reasoning. familiarity with the topic of the given experiment influences
the likelihood that they will control variables (Linn & Swiney,
own prejudices and rationalizations.
1981; Linn et al., 1983).
The map is organized around seven
Students of all ages as well as adults may change variables
strands that reflect the ability to detect one at a time to test a claim whose outcome may be
various sources of flawed arguments— construed as negative (e.g., honey makes a cake taste bad).
But when the outcome is construed as positive (e.g., honey
detecting bias, detecting misuse of
makes a cake taste good), they may hold constant what they
numbers, detecting overgeneralization, believe is contributing to the positive outcome (Zimmerman,
detecting unfair comparisons, detecting 2000, 2005).
flawed reasoning, detecting alternative After specially designed instruction, students in 8th grade are
explanations, and detecting unsupported able to call attention to inadequate data resulting from lack
of controls (see for example Rowell & Dawson, 1984; Ross,
claims.The development of critical 1988). Explicit instruction that includes positive and negative
response skills starts with the inclination examples of control-of-variables designs and justification for
why the strategy works, combined with hands-on
to seek evidence for claims and to ques- experimentation, can help upper elementary-school students
tion claims that are not based on fair make progress toward designing unconfounded experiments
comparisons. In middle school, the and evaluating experiments designed by others (Klahr, Chen,
& Toth, 2001).
emphasis is on questioning claims and
Lower elementary-school students can select conclusive (over
reasoning based on insufficient or flawed
inconclusive) tests for specific simple hypotheses (Sodian,
data. In high school, the emphasis is on Zaitchik, & Carey, 1991), and most 6th-graders can judge
detecting flaws in arguments based on whether evidence is related to a theory, although they do not
always evaluate this evidence correctly (Kuhn et al., 1988).
faulty use of numbers and on omitting When asked to use evidence to judge a theory, however,
data, key assumptions, or alternative students of all ages may make only theory-based responses
with no reference made to the presented evidence.
explanations from arguments. Sometimes this appears to be because the available evidence
The map draws on ideas about the conflicts with the students’ beliefs (Kuhn et al., 1988). High-
importance of evidence and adequate school students are more capable of evaluating theories in
terms of their consistency with evidence, regardless of
controls on the EVIDENCE AND REASON- whether or not they believe the theory (Driver et al., 1996).
ING IN INQUIRY map in Atlas 1 and on This does not necessarily indicate that students appreciate the
centrality of this kind of reasoning in science or that they will
mathematical ideas on the REASONING be inclined to evaluate claims in terms of consistency with
map in this volume. evidence if they are not explicitly prompted (Driver et al.,
1996).
Students may cite data in their arguments, but they may fail
to cite sufficient evidence for claims. In addition, references to
data in students’ arguments often fail to articulate how
specific data relate to specific claims (Sandoval & Millwood,
2005). Students may believe that data literally speak for
themselves—that they are self-evident—rather than providing
raw material for supporting or judging a claim (Driver et al.,
1996; Sandoval & Millwood, 2005).
DE TEC TINGCOM
FLAWS IN ARG
H A B I T S OF M I N D
UMSKILLS
E NTS
12
MUNICA TION
The Project 2061 home page features quick links Benchmarks Online presents the latest updates
to online tools and information on all aspects of on Project 2061’s recommended learning goals
our work. http://www.Project2061.org for students in grades K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12.
http://
www.Project2061.org/publications/bsl/online
How to order:
By Web: Go to http://www.project2061.org/publications/order.htm#AAAS to download order forms
and get the most up-to-date information on pricing and shipping.
By phone: Call 1-888-737-2061 (8:30 a.m. – 5 p.m. EST)
Notes