Chapter 1

Heat

Heat:
Heat is a form of energy which flows / transferred from hot body to cold body.
Heat is a characteristic of macroscopic process and is described by
thermodynamics.
Or
Heat is an energy transferred by thermal interactions. Heat flows spontaneously
from systems of higher temperature to systems of lower temperature. When
two systems comes into contact (Thermal Contact), they exchange energy
through the microscopic interactions of their particles. When heat energy
transferred to a body, its internal energy increased.
The S.I unit of Heat is Joule.

Mechanism / modes of heat transfer:

There are three fundamental mechanisms / modes of heat transfer. They are:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation.

1. conduction:
the transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact. Conduction
is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid
objects in thermal contact.
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot rapidly moving or
vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules
transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring particles.
In conduction heat transfers by molecular vibrations and collisions but the
average positions of the molecules remains unchanged.

2. convection:
convection is that process in which the heat transfers from one place to another
place by the actual movement of fluids. Or
a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer. Convection
takes place by bulk transport and the mixing of macroscopic parts of hot and
cold elements of a fluid. This also includes the transfer of heat between a solid
surface and a fluid.
In convection the transfer of heat takes place from the actual movement of the
molecules.
Example of convection are microwave ovens, melting of ice etc.

3. radiation:
radiation is the transfer of heat energy from one place to another directly
without heating the medium in between the places.
Radiation is a process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travels
through vacuum or through matter containing media that are not required for
their propagation. The sun light comes from sun towards earth is in the form of
Electromagnetic Radiation. Thus we can say that any method in which we can
transfer heat from one place to another place without heating of medium is
known as Radiation.

Temperature:
Temperature is the degree of hotness or the quantitative determination of the
degree of hotness may be termed as temperature. Temperature is a thermal
condition, which determines the direction of flow of heat from one body to
another body when they are placed in thermal contact.
Scales of Temperature:
There are three main scales to measure temperature.
Centigrade / Celsius Scale.
Fahrenheit Scale.
Kelvin Scale.

1. Centigrade / Celsius Scale:

On this scale, the lower fixed point is marked zero, while the upper fixed point
is marked 100. Thus interval between two fixed point is marked / divided into
100 equal parts. So each part is called 1C (One degree Centigrade). Water boils
at 100C while water freezes at 0C. Means at 0C it is converted into ice (Solid)
and at 100C it is converted into steam/ vapor (Gas).

2. Fahrenheit scale:
On this scale, the lower fixed point is marked 32 and upper fixed point is
marked 212. thus interval between two fixed points is marked / divided into
180 equal parts. So each part is called 1F (One degree Fahrenheit). Water boils
at 212 F while water freezes at 32F. Means at 32F it is converted into ice
(Solid) and at 212F it is converted into steam/ vapor (Gas).

3. Kelvin Scale:
On this scale the lower fixed point is marked as 273K and the upper fixed point
is marked 373K. Thus interval between two fixed point is divided into 100
equal parts, so each part is called 1K (One degree Kelvin). Water boils at 373K
while water freezes at 273K. means at 273K it is converted into ice (Solid) and
at 373K it is converted into steam / vapor (Gas).

Thermometric properties:
That property of matter which changes uniformly with the change of
temperature is known as “Thermometric Properties”. For example: Mercury in
Thermometer, Electrical Resistance of a metal, and Volume of a gas kept at
constant pressure, Pressure of a gas kept at constant Volume. These all
properties vary with the change in temperature.
Thermal expansion:
Nearly all substances (Solid, Liquid, Gases) expand on heating. When a solid is
heated, its molecules will vibrate with greater amplitude due to which the
average distance between the molecules increases and the solid also increases
in size. When solids are heated, they show increase in length, area or volume.
Where as liquids and gases expand in volume. This property of expansion
varies from substance to substance.

Types of Thermal expansion:

There are two types of thermal expansion. They are:
Linear Expansion.
Volume Expansion.
1. Linear Expansion:
When solids are heated, their length increases and termed as Linear Expansion.
Linear Expansion or Expansion in length is directly proportional to the Original
Length and the change in temperature.
Consider a metal rod having length L at some initial temperature, when the
temperature is raised by ∆T, let the Increase in length be ∆L. it is found that:
∆L  L and ∆L  ∆T (Combining them)
∆L  L∆T
Now ∆L = L’ – L
L’ is new Length
L’ –L =  L∆T
L’ = L +  L∆T
L’ = L (1 +  ∆T)
This is the equation to find out the Linear Expansion.

Co-efficient of Linear Expansion:

The constant “ “ is called “Co-efficient of Linear Expansion” and is defined
as:
“The increase in unit length per degree rise in temperature is called Co-efficient
of Linear Expansion”.

2. Volume Expansion:
Volume Expansion is also known as Cubical Expansion. It is a fact that solids
expands on heating in all the three dimensions. i.e length, breadth and
thickness.
Consider a metallic body of volume V at some initial temperature. Its volume
changes by ∆V when temperature changes by ∆T. it is found that:
∆V  V and ∆V  ∆T (Combining them)
∆V  V∆T
∆V = V∆T
Where  is a constant of proportionality.
Now ∆V = V’ – V
V’ is new Length
V’ – V =  V∆T
V’ = V + V∆T
V’ = V (1 +  ∆T)

Co-efficient of Volume expansion:

The constant  is called Co-efficient of Volume Expansion. And is defined as:
“The increase in unit volume per degree rise in temperature”.

Bimetallic Thermostat:
Thermal Expansion is put to many practical uses such as Bimetallic
Thermostat, Bimetallic Thermometer.
Two dissimilar metal strips whose co-efficient of linear expansion are different
because one is made up of Brass and other is made up of steel are welded
together, when such a strip is heated, the different amount of expansion of two
metals causes such a strip to bend when original temperature achieved it again
becomes straight. This Bimetallic strip is used in such electrical devices where
we wants to break the circuit when temperature exceeds from a certain limit.

Bimetallic thermometer:
In bimetallic thermometer, the Bimetallic strip is used in the form of a coil, one
end of the coil is fixed and the other end is attached to a pointer (needle). Due
to increase and decrease in temperature thermal expansion occurs in bimetallic
strip and it bends and we can easily measure the readings of temperature
manually. It is ordinary used thermometer and is used in air thermometer.

Gas laws:
The state of Gas is determined by its four variable quantities. i.e: the Mass (M),
Pressure (P), Volume (V) and the Temperature (T).
The relationship between them is called Gas Laws.
The relation between any two variables is found experimentally while keeping
the other constant, because gases have no fixed volume or shape.
There are three Gas Laws. They are:
Boyle’s Law.
Charle’s Law
General Gas Law.

1. Boyle’s Law:
For the given mass of a gas, the volume is inversely proportional to the
pressure, provided the temperature is kept constant. It was found
experimentally by Robert Boyle in 1660, that for a fixed mass of a gas at
constant temperature, the product of pressure (P) and volume (V) is constant.
This is known as Boyle’s Law.
Mathematically:
V  1/P
Or
PV = Constant.
2. Charle’s Law:
For the given mass of a gas, the volume is directly proportional to the Absolute
temperature, provided pressure is kept constant. When a given mass of a gas is
heated at constant pressure, experiments shows that the Volume (V) is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature (T).
Mathematically:
VT
Or
V/T = Constant.

3. General Gas law:

in order to derive General Gas Law, we have to combine both the Boyle’s Law
and Charle’s Law.
PV = Constant
V/T = Constant
PV/T = Constant
This is the relation between three variables P, V and T. the mass of the gas is
still constant. We can say that:
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
Where P1, V1, T1 and P2, V2, T2 are initial and final Pressure, Volume and
Temperature respectively. To introduce the mass we can say:
There is a property in all the gases. For example if we tae different gases and
keep their P, V and T same, then their mass is also found to be same. We take
this mass in moles and is defined as:
“The molecular mass expressed in grams is called Mole”.
Now our equation becomes:
PV/nT = Constant
PV/nt = R
Where R is called Universal Gas Constant or Molar Gas Constant. Its value is
R = 8.313 J/mol K
PV = nRT.
This is called General Gas Law.

Properties of gases (Kinetic Interpretation)

 A gas consists of molecules. Each molecule consists on atom or group
of atom. All the molecules are identical.
 A given mass of the gas contains very large number of molecules.
 The distance between any two molecule is greater that the size of
molecule.
 The molecules in a container move in all directions with various speeds
making Elastic Collision with each other and with the walls of the
container.
 The molecules exert force upon each other only when they collide.
 The laws of mechanics are applicable to the motion of molecules.
Specific heat capacity.
Heat required to raise the temperature of 1Kg of a substance of 1C or 1K is
called specific heat. It is description of such phenomena that 1Kg of different
substances required different amount of heat to raise their temperature by 1C or
1K.
It is denoted by “C” and its unit is J/Kg C or J/Kg K.
Heat required to raise the temperature of 1Kg by 1C = C
Heat required to raise the temperature of m by 1C = mC
Heat required to raise the temperature of m by ∆TC = mc∆T
Thus:
∆Q = mc∆T or C = ∆Q / ∆T
Or C = ∆Q / m∆T
Heat gained = mass x specific heat x rise in temperature.
Heat lost = mass x specific heat x fall in temperature.

Molar specific heat capacity:

One mole of different substances require same quantity of heat to raise their
temperature by 1C or 1K.
It is denoted by c and its unit is J/mol K
Mathematically ∆Q = nc∆T

Thermodynamics:
The word “Thermodynamics” is a combination of two terms:
Thermo = Heat and Dynamics = Motion. So in this branch of Physics, we
simply study about the motion or flow of heat.
We can simple say that Thermodynamics is the study of relationship between
heat energy and other forms of energy.

Laws of thermodynamics:
There are mainly three laws of Thermodynamics. They are:
Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
First law of thermodynamics.
Second law of thermodynamics.

1. Zeroth law of thermodynamics:

If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with the third system, they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other. This is called Zeroth law of
Thermodynamics.

2. first law of thermodynamics:

The heat energy ∆Q supplied to a system is equal to the increase in internal
energy ∆U of the system plus ht work done ∆W by the system in its
surrounding.
Consider a system consisting of a gas enclosed in a cylinder having heat
insulating walls but heat conducting base. The gas is enclosed in the cylinder
by means of heat insulating moveable piston. When heat ∆Q is given to the
system, its internal energy increases by an amount ∆U and the work done in
moving the piston is ∆W. it is called mathematical formulation of “First Law of
Thermodynamics”.
We can say that:
∆Q is positive if heat is added to the system.
∆Q is negative if heat is removed from the system.
∆W is positive if work is done by the system.
∆W is negative if work is done upon the system.

Second law of thermodynamics:

This law states that: “It is impossible to cause heat to flow from a cold body to
a hot body without the expenditure of energy”
OR
It is impossible to derive a continuous supply of work by cooling a body to a
temperature lower than that of the coldest of its surroundings.
It is impossible to derive a machine that would have an efficiency of 100%.

Terms related with thermodynamics:

These are some terms related with Thermodynamics:
 System:

Collection of matter (Generally a gas) having fixed boundary is called a

System.
Closed system:
The type of system for which there is no transfer of mass across the boundary
is called closed system.

Isolated system:
The type of system for which there is neither transfer of mass nor the transfer
of energy across the boundary is called isolated system.

Thermo dynamical state:

When a gas contained in a cylinder reaches to thermal equilibrium, it has
definite values for P, V, T and the General Gas Law equation PV = nRT is
applicable. Then this state is called Thermo dynamical State.
P, V, T and Internal energy U are called Thermo dynamical variables.

Open System:
It is the System in which transformation of both matter and energy can take
place from the system to the surroundings.

Heat reservoir:
It is the body of very large heat capacity that can absorb or reject heat without
suffering any appreciable change in its temperature.
Applications of first law of thermodynamics:
These are cases / states for applying First Law of Thermodynamics. These are:
Isobaric Process.
Isochoric Process.
Isothermal Process.
Adiabatic Process.

1. Isobaric Process:
In this process, pressure remains same/ constant.
Consider a system consisting of a gas enclosed in a cylinder having heat
insulating walls but heat conducting base. A moveable piston is placed inside
the cylinder . due to moveable piston, pressure of gas will always remains
constant and it will always be equal to the outside atmospheric pressure P.
When heat ∆Q is given to the system, let the increase in internal energy be ∆U
and the work done in moving the piston is ∆W.
∆W = P(V2 – V1) so our equation becomes:
∆Q = ∆U + P (V2 – V1).
∆W shows that pressure remains constant, while the volume will be changed
from initial volume V1 to Final Volume V2.

2. Isochoric Process:
In this process Volume remains constant.
Consider a system consisting of a gas enclosed in a cylinder having heat
insulating walls but heat conducting base. The gas is enclosed in the cylinder
by means of heat insulating fixed piston. Since the piston is fixed therefore the
volume remains constant.
When heat ∆Q is given to the system, the internal energy increases by an
amount ∆U but since the piston is fixed therefore the work done in moving the
piston is zero.
∆W = 0
So
∆Q = ∆U + 0
So
∆Q = ∆U

3. isothermal process:
in this process temperature remains constant.
Consider a system consisting of a gas enclosed in a cylinder having heat
insulating walls but heat conducting base. The gas is enclosed in the cylinder
by means of heat insulating moveable piston. Let the temperature of system be
T. the system is placed on a heat reservoir at temperature T, by decreasing load
from the piston the gas is allowed to expand slowly. The work ∆W is done by
the system in moving the system’s piston at the expense of its own internal
energy due to which its temperature falls. As soon as temperature falls heat ∆Q
enters from reservoir into the system and the temperature again becomes T,
since the temperature of the system remains constant, therefore there is no
increase or decrease in its internal energy.
∆U = 0
So
∆Q = 0 + ∆W
So
∆Q = ∆W

4. adiabatic process:
in this process neither heat is allowed to enter nor it is allowed to leave the
system.
Consider a system consisting of a gas enclosed in a cylinder having heat
insulating walls but heat conducting base. The gas is enclosed in the cylinder
by means of heat insulating moveable piston. The system is placed on a heat
insulating block. By decreasing load from the piston, the gas is allowed to
expand quickly. The work ∆W is done by the gas in moving piston. Therefore
its internal energy decreases by an amount ∆U due to which its temperature
falls. As no heat enters into the system, therefore:
∆Q = 0 so ∆W = - ∆U

Heat engine:
Heat Engine converts heat energy into mechanical work. Every heat engine
takes heat from high temperature reservoir (Hot body) called source, converts
part of heat into work and rejects the remaining heat into two temperature
reservoir (Cold body) called the sink. Every heat engine operates in a cycle. By
cycle we means that the working substance returns to its initial state each time
when the cycle is completed. In each cycle since the working substance returns
to its initial state therefore:
∆U = 0
Thus the net heat Q entering into the working substance is equal to the work
done W.
Q=W

Efficiency of heat engine:

During each cycle of an engine, the heat absorbed from the source is called
input and the work done by the engine is called output. “The radio of output to
the input is called the efficiency of the engine”.
Efficiency = Output / Input.

Carnot engine:
The practical engines which we use in our daily life have various defects
therefore their efficiency is very low.
Sadi Carnot in 1824, proposed an ideal engine (defects free engine), which has
maximum possible efficiency. Even this engine can not have 100% efficiency
because then the 2nd law will be violated.
Carnot engine consists of a cylinder having perfectly insulating walls and
perfectly conducting base, an ideal gas is enclosed in the cylinder by means of
frictionless and perfectly insulating moveable piston. Let the initial volume V1
and temperature T1. one complete cycle of Carnot Engine consists of four steps
out of which two are Isothermal and two are Adiabatic.

Carnot engine operational cycles:

Carnot Engine consists on four cycles which are as explained below:
Step-1:
The engine at temperature T1 is placed on the source at temperature T1. by
decreasing load from the piston the gas is allowed to expand isothermally. Let
the heat Q1 enters into the system.
Step-2:
Now the engine is now placed on a n heat insulating block, by decreasing load
from the piston the gas is allowed to expand adiabatically, till the temperature
falls to T2, which is also the temperature of the sink.
Step -3:
The engine is now placed on the sink, by increasing load on the piston, the gas
in compressed isothermally. Let the heat rejected be Q2.
Step -4:
Now the engine is placed on an insulating block, by increasing load, the gas
compressed adiabatically till the temperature rises to T1, and the volume
reduced to V1, which is the same as the initial volume of the gas.
During this cycle:
heat absorbed = Q1 = Input.
Heat rejected = Q2
Work done = (Q1- Q2) = Output.

Efficiency of Carnot engine:

Efficiency of Carnot Engine can be find out by the following formula:
Efficiency = (1-T2/T1) x 100
This formula can be derived by:
Eff = Output/ Input x 100
Eff = Q1 – Q2/Q1 x 100
Eff = (Q1/Q1 = Q2 /Q1) x 100
Eff = (1 – Q2 / Q1) x 100
Here Q2 shows the T2 and Q1 shows the T1 so our equation becomes:
Eff = (1 – T2/T1) x 100

Entropy:
The unavailability of energy is called “Entropy”.
Entropy is that thermal property of a system which remains constant during an
adiabatic process (when no heat is added to or remove from the system), so
Entropy will be zero. Entropy is a quantitative measure of the disorder. When
all the systems taking part in a process are included, then the Entropy either
remains constant or increases.
Examples:
If we have two water tanks. One tank containing 500 Kg of water at 90C and
other containing 500Kg of water at 10C, using hot water tank as source and
cold water tan as sink, an engine can be operated and so work can be extracted
from the system. However if the water in both tanks is mixed then we shall
have 1000Kg of water at an average temperature of 50C, now the engine can
not be operated and the work can not be done / extracted.

Difference between heat and temperature:

Heat
 heat is the sensation of hotness
of a body.
 Heat is not a property of the
system.
 Heat is the form of energy
transferred from a hot body to a
cooler one due the their
temperature difference when
the are in thermal contact.
 Heat is measured by using a
Calorimeter by using the
Principle:
Heat lost = Heat gained.
 The unit of heat is Joule, BTU
(British Thermal Unit) or
Calorie.
Temperature
 Temperature is the degree of
hotness or coldness.
 Temperature is a property of
the system.
 Temperature is a thermal
condition which determines the
direction of flow of heat from
one body to another body when
they are in thermal contact.
 Temperature is measured by
using a thermometer using the
thermal expansion of
substances.
 The scales of temperature are
Celsius (Centigrade),
Fahrenheit or Kelvin Scale.

Methods for production of heat:

Heat can be obtained by:
Mechanical Work.
Friction.
Nuclear Reaction.
Transforming Electrical Heat.
Chemical Reaction.

Effects of Heat on a body:

When a body is heated, the following effects are observed:
 the body becomes hotter means temperature rises.
 The size of body increases means thermal expansion.
 Change of state means solid changes into liquid or liquid changes into
vapor (gas).
 Change in physical property means certain change in color, hardness,
resistance, elasticity, surface tension, viscosity.
Difference between an Ideal Gas and Real Gas.
Ideal gas
 Ideal gas obeys the gas laws at
all temperature & pressure.
 Particles of Ideal gases have
negligible volume or they are
point masses.
 The particles of an Ideal gas do
not attract each other.
 The particles of an ideal gas
possess no potential energy.
Real gas
 Real gas obeys the gas laws
only at high temperature and
low pressure.
 Molecules of Real gases are of
definite sizes.
 The molecules of Real gases
possess attractive forces.
 The molecules of Real gases
possess Potential energy.

Main postulates of the kinetic theory of gases:

The assumptions of kinetic molecular theory of gases are as under:
 A gas consists of very large number of molecules which are point
masses.
 The gas molecules moves in straight line continuously in a random
manner.
 The gas molecules make elastic collisions with one another and also
with the walls of the container.
 Laws of Mechanics are applicable to the motion of molecules.