CONCEPT OF TEMPERATURE

A measure of the average kinetic energy of the

particles in an object, which is a type of energy
associated with motion. 
All matter is made of particles - atoms or molecules
– that are in constant motion. Because the particles
are in motion, they have kinetic energy.
The faster the particles are moving, the more
kinetic energy they have.
Temperature is an average measure.
When we compare any element say bromine in
it’s three physical states that is solid, liquid and
gas the energy content and hence the kinetic
energy associated with bromine gas will be
higher than bromine liquid followed by bromine solid this is due the fact that the entropy of
these three states decreases from gas to solid
Gas >liquid>Solid – Kinetic energy per molecule
Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat flows across temperature
differences. There are three modes of
heat transfer: conduction, radiation, and
convection. Conduction and radiation
are fundamental physical mechanisms,
while convection is really conduction as
affected by fluid flow.
When there are objects which are at
different temperatures or there is an
object at a different temperature from
the surroundings, then the transfer of
heat takes place so that the object and
the surrounding, both reach an
equilibrium temperature.
Conduction- 
 Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid
(gas or liquid) due to the random motion of
its constituent atoms, molecules and /or
electrons.
 Conduction transfers energy from hot to cold
regions of a substance by molecular
interaction.
 In fluids, the exchange of energy is primarily by direct impact. 
 In solids, the primary mechanism is relative lattice vibrations, enhanced in the case of
metals by drift of free electrons through the lattice.
 Thus, good electrical conductors are also good heat conductors. Both the molecular
and the free-electron interactions are responsible for conduction in liquids and solids
respectively.
It has been experimentally observed that the rate of heat conduction through a layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but it
is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.
rate of heat transfer ∝ (surface area)(temperature difference)/ thickness
Convection is the process of heat transfer by the bulk movement of molecules within fluids
such as gases and liquids. The initial heat transfer between the object and the fluid takes
place through conduction, but the bulk heat transfer happens due to the motion of the fluid.
•Convection is the process of heat transfer in fluids by the actual motion of matter.
•It happens in liquids and gases.
•It may be natural or forced.
•It involves a bulk transfer of portions of the fluid.

P= dQ/dt = h A(T−T )- Newton’s law of cooling

0

Where,
•P=dQ/dt is the rate at which heat is transferred
•h is the convection heat-transfer coefficient
•A is the exposed surface area
•T is the temperature of the immersed object
•T0 is the temperature of the fluid which is under
convection
 Radiation differs from Conduction and Convection heat transfer mechanisms, in the sense
that it does not require the presence of a material medium to occur.
 Energy transfer by radiation occurs at the speed of light and suffers no attenuation in vacuum.
 Radiation can occur between two bodies separated by a medium colder than both bodies.
 According to Maxwell theory, energy transfer takes place via electromagnetic waves in
radiation.
 Thermal radiation is emitted by all substances and magnitude of emitted thermal radiation
depends upon temperature of the emitting substance. Thermal radiation received by a body is
partly absorbed, partly reflected and partly transmitted through the body.
 Absorptivity, transmissivity and reflectivity are dimensionless properties of the receiving body.
Measuring Temperature
 The thermodynamic temperature is defined as one of the seven quantities (length, mass,
time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance and luminous
intensity) in the International System of Unit (SI).
 The definition of unit is as described below: The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic
temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water.
 T(°C) = T(K) - 273.15
 Triple point of water, at temperature of 0°C and
pressure of 1 atm water exits in all the three
states (gas, liquid, solid). For the definition of any
standard scale (temperature), two fixed reference
points are needed.
 The ice point (temperature at which water freeze)
and boiling point ( temperature at which water
boils) are used as two reference points for
developing temperature scale.
 The two familiar temperature scales are the Fahrenheit temperature scale and the Celsius
temperature scale.
 The ice and steam point have values 32 °F and 212 °F respectively, on the Fahrenheit scale
and 0 °C and 100 °C on the Celsius scale.
 On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180 equal intervals between two reference points, and on
the Celsius scale, there are 100.
 Absolute zero of temperature. At this point, absolute zero, the particle constituents of matter
have minimal motion and can become no colder.
 In the quantum mechanical description,
matter at absolute zero is in its ground state,
which is its state of lowest energy.
 Relation between °F and °C
(°F − 32) × 5/9 = °C
 Relation between °F and K
(°F − 32) × 5/9 + 273.15 = K
 Relation between °F and °C
K = °C+ 273.15
Platinum Resistance Thermometer
 The platinum thermal resistance (PTR) uses platinum for
determining the temperature. It works on the principle that the
resistance of platinum changes with the change of temperature. 
 The thermometer measures the temperature over the range of
200°C to 1000°C.
 The resistance of platinum increases linearly with the
temperature, and this property of the metal is used for
measuring the temperature.
 The resistance of the platinum is measured by passing the
alternating or direct current through it.
 Because of the current, the voltage induces across the metal which measures through
the voltmeter.
 The reading of voltage is converted into
the temperature with the help of
the calibration equation. 
Advantages of Platinum Resistance Thermometer
•The temperature measurement through platinum resistance thermometer is easier as
compared to the gas thermometer.
•The meter gives the precise reading of temperature.
•The thermometer has a wide range from  200 to 1200° Celsius.
•The thermometer is quite sensitive.
•The platinum has same resistance at the same temperature.

Disadvantages of Platinum Resistance Thermometer

The following are the disadvantages of platinum thermal resistance.
•The thermometer gives the slow response.
•The melting point of the thermometer is 1800° Celsius. But when platinum measures the
temperature higher than 1200°C they start evaporating.
Thermocouple Working Principle
 The thermocouple working principle is that when a closed circuit is formed by jointing
two dissimilar metals at two junctions, and junctions are maintained at different
temperatures then an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced in this closed circuit.
 The amount of induced e.m.f. is different for different metal combinations and is
proportional to the temperature difference of the junctions. This is the basic
thermocouple working principle.
 Two dissimilar metals ‘A’ and ‘B’ are joined at the two junctions ‘P’ and ‘Q’. Here the ‘P’
junction is measuring junction or hot junction whereas the junction ‘Q’ is the reference
junction or cold junction. And a PMMC instrument is connected in this arrangement
 When these junctions are kept at different temperatures, generally cold junction is kept
at 0°C and measuring junction is kept at an unknown temperature which we want to
measure (i.e. the temperature of the
junction is raised by heating it).
 An e.m.f. will be generated in this circuit due to
the temperature difference of the junctions.
 The e.m.f. can be measured with the help of a
PMMC instrument by connecting it in the circuit.
Advantages:
 They follow the temperature changes with a small time-lag. So it can be used in the
applications where very rapid changes in temperature take places.
 It responds to those changes very quickly.
 These are very convenient for measuring the temperature at one particular point in any
apparatus or setup.

Disadvantages:
 They have very low accuracy. So they cannot be used for very high precision
measurement.
 They have to protect against contamination to ensure long life.
 They are placed at a very large distance from the measuring device. This increases errors
in the result.
Thermistor
 A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature. The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”.
 The thermistor works on the simple principle of change in resistance due to a change in
temperature. When the ambient temperature changes the thermistor starts self-heating
its elements. its resistance value is changed with respect to this change in temperature.
This change depends on the type of thermistor used. 
 There are two types of thermistors: Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC).
 With an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases. 
 In a PTC When temperature increases, the resistance increases, and when temperature
decreases, resistance decreases.
 Typically, a thermistor achieves high precision within a limited temperature range of
about 50ºC around the target temperature. This range is dependent on the base
resistance. 
Advantages of thermistors
•Less expensive.
•More sensitive than other sensors.
•Fast response.
•Small in size.
Dis-advantages of thermistors
•Limited Temperature range.
•Resistance to temperature ratio correlation is non-linear.
•An inaccurate measurement may be obtained due to the self-heating effect.
•Fragile.
Applications of thermistors
NTC Thermistor Application
•Digital Thermostats.
•Thermometers.
PTC Thermistor Application
•Over-current protection
•In-rush-current protection
Definition: Sound - a disturbance which propagates through an elastic material at a speed
which is characteristic of that material. Sound is usually caused by radiation from a solid
vibrating surface or fluid disturbances.
As sound propagates through air (or any elastic medium), it causes measurable fluctuations in
pressure, velocity, temperature and density.
The sound disturbance travels in space. There is energy transport (the disturbance
propagates), but there is no net transfer of mass (no convection).
Each particle in the fluid moves back and forth about one position. In general, sound waves in
any medium can be a mixture of longitudinal and shear waves, depending primarily on the
boundary conditions.
Longitudinal Wave – Simplest type of wave is compressional (or longitudinal wave) where the
particle oscillation is in the same direction as the energy transport. The disturbance
propagates in the direction of the particle motion. This is the predominant mechanism in fluids
and gases because shear stresses are negligible.
Shear Wave – The particle motion direction is orthogonal (perpendicular) to direction in which
the disturbance (and the energy) propagates. In solids, you can have transverse shear and
torsional waves. Bending waves (in a beam or plate), and water waves are a mixture of shear
and longitudinal waves.

 Depending on what the propagation medium is, the sound speed can change with
frequency.
 Non-Dispersive Medium – Sound speed is independent of frequency, therefore the speed of
energy transport and sound propagation are the same. Air is a non-dispersive medium.
 Dispersive Medium – Sound speed is a function of frequency. The spatial and temporal
distribution of a propagating disturbance will continually change. Each frequency
component propagates at each its own phase speed, while the energy of the disturbance
propagates at the group velocity: Cg. Water is an example of a dispersive medium.
Wavelength
The distance between adjacent troughs or adjacent crests, measured in unit of length such as
meters and expressed by symbol λ (lambda). For longitudinal wave, it will be distance between
two successive rarefactions or compressions.
Time Period This defines the time it takes for one complete wave to pass a given point,
measured in seconds (s).
Frequency The number of complete waves that pass a point in one second, measured in Hertz
(Hz).
Speed or velocity Wave speed is defined as the distance travelled by a wave disturbance in one
second and is measured in meters/second (m/s).
V=n×λ
the speed of propagation, c, of sound in air is 343 m/s, at 20C and 1 atmosphere pressure.
the period (T), which is the time taken for one cycle of a wave to pass a fixed point. It is related
to frequency by: T = 1/ λ
Audible sound
 The human ear can easily detect frequencies between 20 Hz
and 20 kHz. Hence, sound waves with frequency ranging from
20 Hz to 20 kHz is known are audible sound. The human ear is
sensitive to every minute pressure difference in the air if they
are in the audible frequency range.
 As we grow older and are exposed to sound for a longer
period of time, our ears get damaged and the upper limit of
audible frequencies decreases. For a normal middle-aged
adult person, the highest frequency which they can hear
clearly is 12-14 kilohertz.
Ultrasonic waves
Ultrasound is high-frequency sound and refers to mechanical vibrations above 20 kHz. 
Ultrasonic waves are high frequency waves that have a heating effect and has low wavelength
as compared to audible sound.
1. The ultrasonic waves cannot travel through vacuum.
2. These waves travel with speed of sound in a given medium.
3. Their velocity remains constant in homogeneous media.
4. These waves can weld certain plastics, metals etc.
5. These can produce vibrations in low viscosity liquids.
6. The ultrasonic waves are reflected and refracted just like light waves
Applications-
 Cooking of meat and vegetable products can be done by using ultrasound on industrial
scale it ensures evenly cooking of food materials.
 Drying of dehydrated food products can be achieved by using ultrasound.
 Emulsification of liquid food product on large scale and short time can be done by
ultrasound and cavitation is the basic phenomenon behind this process.
 In the process of electrocardiography, the ultrasonic waves are used to form an image of
the heart using reflection and detection of these waves from various parts.
 Ultrasonography, medical ultrasound is a diagnostic imaging technique based on it. It is used
for the imaging of internal body structures such as muscles, joints and internal organs.
Ultrasonic images are known as sonograms. In this process, pulses of ultrasound are sent to
the tissue using a probe. The sound echoes off the tissue, where different tissues reflect
sound varying in degrees. These echoes are recorded and displayed an image.
 Ultrasounds aids the process of filtration of liquid materials in food industries.
 Reflection of ultrasonic waves from regions in the interior of body is used for ultrasonic
imaging. It is used for prenatal (before the birth) examination, detection of anamolous
conditions like tumour etc and the study of heart valve action.
 At very high power level, ultrasound is selective destroyer of pathalogical tissues in
treatment of arthritis and certain type of cancer.
 SONAR is an acronym for Sound Navigational Ranging. This is a technique for locating objects
underwater by transmitting a pulse of ultrasonic sound and detecting the reflected pulse.
The time delay between transmission of a pulse and the reception of reflected pulse
indicates the depth of the object. This system is useful to measure motion and position of
the submerged objects like submarine.
Infrasonic sound
 Infrasonic waves are sub-audible acoustic waves which typically lie below the human
hearing threshold (usually between 0.1 to 10 Hz, sometimes going up to 20Hz).
 Infrasonic waves are use to communicate between individuals like elephants over a long
distance.
 Infrasound is created by several natural sources such as the wind, waves, earthquakes,
thunderstorms and volcanoes.
 Effects posited of Infrasound on the human body

 Monitoring Natural Phenomena Monitoring earthquakes, charting rock, tsunamis, volcano

eruptions and petroleum formations below the earth is made possible by the nature of
these waves and their occurrence as a by-product in each of these phenomena.
 Dominant infrasound signals observed in volcanoes during tremors are usually in the range
of 1 to 10 Hz.
 In pipelines, leakages generate vibrations in the infrasound frequency range which can be
detected by sensors.
Doppler effect
When a source of sound and a listener are in motion relative to each other the frequency
of sound heard by listener is not the same as the frequency emitted by the source.
Doppler effect is the apparent change in frequency of sound due to relative motion
between the source and listener.
Doppler effect is a wave phenomenon. It holds for sound waves and also for EM waves.
The changes is frequency can be studied under 3 different conditions:
1) When listener is stationary but source is moving.
n= observed frequency of sound, n0= actual frequency of sound
v= speed of sound in air
2) When listener is moving but source is stationary.

3) When listener and source both are moving.

Doppler effect is used in SONAR, RADAR and climatic studies.

MAGNETISM
 Magnetism is a phenomenon by which a material exerts
either attractive or repulsive force on another.
 Basic source of magnetic force is movement of
electrically charged particles.
 Thus magnetic behavior of a material can be traced to
the structure of atoms.
 Electrons in the atom revolves around the nucleus and
around itself as well and if these electronic motions are
aligned in the same direction in the lattice structure of
the material than magnetic moment is developed which
gives rise to magnetism.
Bohr magneton
Magnetic moment due to spin of an electron is known as Bohr magneton, MB .

where q is the charge on the electron, h – Planck’s constant, me – mass of electron.

Bohr magneton is the most fundamental magnetic moment.
A magnetic dipole is a small magnet composed of north and south poles instead of positive
and negative charges.
Within a magnetic field, the force of field exerts a torque that tends to orient the dipoles
with the filed.
Magnetic forces are generated by moving electrically charged particles.
Magnetic lines of force originate from the north pole and end at the south pole of a bar
magnet. The magnetic lines of force of a magnet have the following properties:
i) The magnetic lines of force of a magnet or a solenoid form closed loops.
ii) The direction of the net magnetic field B at a point is given by the tangent to the
magnetic line of force at that point in the direction of line of force.
iii) The number of lines of force crossing per unit area decides the magnitude of the
magnetic field B .
iv) The magnetic lines of force do not intersect. This is because had they intersected, the
direction of magnetic field would not be unique at that point.
Density of lines of force i.e., the number of lines of force per unit area normal to the surface
around a particular point determines the strength of the magnetic field at that point. The
number of lines of force is called magnetic flux (φ ). SI unit of magnetic flux (φ ) is weber
(Wb). For a specific case of uniform magnetic field which is normal to the finite area A, the
magnitude of magnetic field strength B at a point in the area A is given by
Magnetic Field = magnetic flux /area
i.e. B = φ/A
SI unit of magnetic field (B) is expressed as weber/m2 or Tesla. 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss.
Magnetic parameters of the Earth.
 The magnetic lines of force enter the Earth's surface at the
north pole and emerge from the south pole. Unless and
otherwise stated, the directions mentioned (South, North, etc.)
are always, Geographic.
 Magnetic Axis :- The Earth is considered to be a huge magnet.
Magnetic north pole (N) of the Earth is located below Antarctica
while the south pole (S) is below north Canada. The straight line
NS joining these two poles is called the magnetic axis, MM’.
 Magnetic equator :- A great circle in the plane perpendicular to magnetic axis is magnetic
equatorial circle, AA'. It happens to pass through India near Thiruvananthapuram.
 Geographic Meridian:- A plane perpendicular to the surface of the Earth (vertical plane)
perpendicular to geographic axis is geographic meridian.
 Magnetic Meridian:- A plane perpendicular to surface of the Earth (Vertical plane) and passing
through the magnetic axis is magnetic meridian. Direction of resultant magnetic field of the
Earth is always along or parallel to magnetic meridian.
 Magnetic declination:- Angle between the geographic and the magnetic meridian at a place is
called ‘magnetic declination’ (α).
 Magnetic declination:- Angle between the geographic and the magnetic meridian at a place
is called ‘magnetic declination’ (α).
 Magnetic inclination or angle of dip (φ):- Angle made by the direction of resultant magnetic
field with the horizontal at a place is inclination or angle of dip at the place
 Earth’s magnetic field:- Magnetic force experienced per unit pole strength is magnetic field
B at that place. It can be resolved in components along the horizontal, BH and along vertical,
BV. The vertical component can be conveniently determined. The two components can be
related with the angle of dip (φ) as

Special cases 1) At the magnetic North pole, B = BV , directed upward, BH = 0 and φ = 900 .
2) At the magnetic south pole, B = BV ,- directed downward, BH = 0 and φ = 2700 .
3) Anywhere on the magnetic great circle(magnetic equator) B = BH along South to North,
BV= 0 and φ = 0
Types of Magnetism
 A material is magnetically characterized based on the way it can be magnetized.
 This depends on the material’s magnetic susceptibility – its magnitude and sign.
 Magnetic susceptibility is the degree to which a material can be magnetized in an external
magnetic field. 
 The magnetization of a given sample material M can be defined as the net magnetic moment
for that material per unit volume.
 χm is called the magnetic susceptibility and is given as χm = μr −1
 where μr – relative magnetic permeability.
μr = μ/ μ0
μr is a measure of the degree to which the material can be magnetized
Where μ0 - magnetic permeability of vacuum

 Three basic magnetisms are:

Dia-magnetism
Para-magnetism
Ferro-magnetism.
Anti-ferro-magnetism and ferri-magnetisms are considered as subclasses of ferro-magnetism.
Dia-magnetism
 Very weak; exists ONLY in presence of an external field, non-
permanent.
 Applied external field acts on atoms of a material, slightly
unbalancing their orbiting electrons, and creates small
magnetic dipoles within atoms which oppose the applied
field. This action produces a negative magnetic effect known
as diamagnetism.
 The induced magnetic moment is small, and the
magnetization (M) direction is opposite to the direction of
applied field (H).
 all the electrons are spin paired in diamagnetic materials
 There are no atomic dipoles in diamagnetic materials because
the resultant magnetic moment of each atom is zero due to
paired electrons.
 Materials such as Cu, Ag, Si, Ag and alumina are diamagnetic
at room temperature.
 Paramagnetic
 materials that tend to get weakly magnetized in the
direction of the magnetizing field when placed in a magnetic
field. 
 Paramagnetic materials have a permanent dipole moment
or permanent magnetic moment.
 Paramagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons due
to these unpaired electrons the net magnetic moment of all
electrons in an atom is not added up to zero. 
 Slightly stronger; when an external field is applied dipoles
line-up with the field, resulting in a positive magnetization.
However, the dipoles do not interact.
 Materials which exhibit a small positive magnetic
susceptibility in the presence of a magnetic field are called
para-magnetic, and the effect is termed as para-magnetism.
 In the absence of an external field, the orientations of
atomic magnetic moments are random leading to no net
magnetization.
 Ferro-magnetism
 Certain materials possess permanent magnetic moments even in the absence of an
external field.
 This is result of permanent unpaired dipoles formed from unfilled energy levels.
 These dipoles can easily line-up with the imposed magnetic field due to the exchange
interaction or mutual reinforcement of the dipoles. These are characteristics of
ferromagnetism.
 Materials with ferro-magnetism (Examples: Fe, Co, Ni, Gd) possess high magnetic
susceptibilities.
 Above the Curie temperature, ferro-magnetic materials behave as para-magnetic
materials and their susceptibility is given by the Curie-Weiss law, defined as

 where C – material constant, T – temperature, Tc – Curie temperature.

 Ferro Magnets are very strong; dipoles line-up permanently upon application of external
field.
 Has two sub-classes:- Anti-ferro-magnetism and Ferri-magnetism
 Anti-ferro-magnetism
 Dipoles line-up, but in opposite directions, resulting in zero magnetization.
 Eg: Mn, Cr, MnO, NiO, CoO, MnCl2
 Ferri-magnetism
 In a magnetic field, the dipoles of a cation may line up with the field, while dipoles of other
cation may not. These ceramics are called ferrites, and the effect is known as ferri-magnetism.
 Ferri-magnetism is similar to anti-ferro-magnetism in that the spins of different atoms or ions
line up anti-parallel. However, the spins do not cancel each other out,
and a net spin moment exists.
Nuclear magnetism –
 Nuclear magnetism arises due to the spinning
protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
 Spinning protons and neutrons develop a magnetic
moment, the protons and neutrons spin in different
directions.
 Nuclei with an even number of protons and
neutrons will have no magnetic force, but nuclei
with an odd number of protons and neutrons the
nucleus will have a net permanent magnetic dipole
moment.
 No. of Protons ≠ No. of neutrons
 The nucleus should have a permanent spin in order
to have permanent magnetic moment.
 H1, C13, P35, etc elements have odd number of
protons and neutrons and thus have a permanent
magnetic dipole moment.
 Nuclear magnetism is used in NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in order to
determine structures of biomolecules.
 NMR Active Nuclei: nuclear spin quantum number (I) atomic mass and atomic number
 Number of spin states = 2I + 1 (number of possible energy levels)
 Even mass nuclei that have even number of neutron have I = 0 (NMR inactive)
 Odd mass nuclei have half-integer spin quantum number (I = 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc)
I= 1/2: 1H, 13C, 19F, 31P
I= 1: 2H, 14N
I= 3/2: 15N
I= 0: 12C, 16O
 The nuclear spin quantum number (I) will have a corresponding
angular momentum (L) and a set of quantized spin states.
 The magnitude of the spin angular momentum is give by:
 The magnitude of the magnetic moment (µ) is given by:
 The gyromagnetic ratio (γ) is an empirically determined constant that is unique for each
nucleus type.
 Values of γ can be positive or negative and determine the sense of precession and thus the
direction of the magnetic moment.
 Biomagnetism.
 Biomagnetism arises due to the fact that cells of different organisms contains paramagnetic
and ferromagnetic elements in it which are present in the earths magnetic field which leads
to orient the atoms of these elements in the direction of magnetic field.
 Biomagnetism Is the phenomenon of magnetic fields produced by living organisms. In
contrast, organisms' use of magnetism in navigation is magnetoception and the study of the
magnetic fields' effects on organisms is magnetobiology such as Magnetocardiography,
 MRI Scan is a radiology technique that uses magnetism, radio waves & computer to produce
image of body structures.
 MRI scan uses radiofrequency waves & strong magnetic field to provide remarkably clear &
detailed pictures of internal organs & tissues. 
 Biomagnetism arises due to presence of magnetic elements in the tissues and cells like iron
in heme proteins, and rare isotopes like 13C, etc.
 The concentration of these magnetic elements in any body part of the animals helps in
navigation by sensing the earths magnetic field.
 Magnetosomes are prokaryotic organelles that serve as navigational devices in
magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) and consist of membrane-enclosed intracellular
crystals of a magnetic iron mineral.
VISCOSITY
 Viscosity is that property of fluid, by virtue of which, the relative motion between different
layers of a fluid experience a dragging force.
 This force is called the viscous drag. In liquids, the viscous drag is due to short range
molecular cohesive forces
 Viscosity is the force of friction between the successive layers of a flowing liquid. It is also
the resistance to the flow of a liquid.
 Viscosity also depends on molecular size and shape.
 Larger molecules have more viscosity and spherical molecules offer the least resistance to
flow and therefore are less viscous. Greater the viscosity, slower is the liquid flow.
 Viscosity is a temperature dependent property. Viscosity α 1 /Temperature
 Unit : Viscosity is expressed in terms of coefficient of viscosity, ‘η’ (Eta). It is defined as the
degree to which a fluid resists flow under an applied force,
measured by the tangential frictional force per unit area per
unit velocity gradient when the flow is laminar.
 SI unit of viscosity coefficient is N s m-2 (newton second per
square meter). In CGS system the unit (η) is measured in poise.
1 poise = 1 gm/cm s = 10^-1 kg/m s
Flow of Liquids through Capillaries
When a liquid flows through a tube, the central layer has the highest velocity, whereas the
layer along the inner wall in the tube remains stationary. This is a result of the viscosity of a
liquid.
A velocity gradient exists across the cross-section of the pipe/tube.
Steady flow: During steady flow the measurable property such as pressure or velocity of the
fluid at a given point is constant over time.
Laminar flow/Streamline flow: It is a steady flow in which adjacent layers of a fluid move
smoothly over each other with least and constant force of friction between the layers of fluid.
Turbulent flow: It is a flow at a very high flow rate so that there is no steady flow and the
flow pattern changes continuously with the force of friction between the layers of fluid is
maximum.

Steady flow Laminar flow Turbulent flow

Critical velocity
The flow of a fluid, whether streamline or turbulent, is differentiated on the basis of velocity
of the flow. The velocity beyond which a streamline flow becomes turbulent is called critical
velocity.
According to Osborne Reynolds (1842 -1912), critical velocity is given by

where,
vc= critical velocity of the fluid
Rn= Reynolds number
η = coefficient of viscosity
ρ = density of fluid
d = diameter of tube
Reynolds number is a pure number. It has no unit and dimensions.
It is found that for Rn less than 1000, the flow of a fluid is streamline while for Rn greater
than 2000, the flow of fluid is turbulent. When Rn is between 1000 and 2000, the flow of
fluid becomes unsteady, i.e., it changes from a streamline flow to a turbulent flow.
 Stokes’ Law:
In 1845, Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903) stated the law which gives the viscous force
acting on a spherical object falling through a viscous medium.
The viscous force (Fv) acting on a small sphere falling through a viscous medium is directly
proportional to the radius of the sphere (r), its velocity (v) through the fluid, and the
coefficient of viscosity (η) of the fluid

This is the expression for viscous force acting on a spherical object moving through a viscous
medium.
 Determination of η by falling sphere
Let us consider the particle to be a sphere of radius 'r' and density ρ. The liquid through which
it falls has a density ρL' The gravitational force acting on the particle pulling it downwards is
given by

where g is the acceleration due to gravity. The frictional force acting simultaneously on the
particle leading to a viscous drag can be given by
At equilibrium, F1 balances F2 so that,
Total downward force = Total upward force

This equation is called the Stokes’ equation and is applicable to the fall of spherical bodies in
all types of liquid media, provided the radius of the falling body 'r' is large compared to the
size of the solvent molecule.
The above equation gives coefficient of viscosity of a fluid.
 Terminal velocity
 defined as the highest velocity attained by an object that is
falling through a fluid. 
  It is seen when the sum of drag force and buoyancy is equal
to the downward gravity force that is acting on the object.
 The acceleration of the object is zero as the net force acting
on the object is zero.
 In fluid mechanics, for an object to attain its terminal velocity
should have a constant speed against the force exerted by the
fluid through which it is moving. 
 The mathematical representation of terminal velocity is:
Where,
vt: terminal velocity
m: mass of the falling object
g: acceleration due to gravity
Cd: drag coefficient
𝜌: density of the fluid through which the object is falling
A: area projected by the object
Viscosity Estimation by Oswald’s Viscometer.
Aim - Determine the absolute viscosity of organic liquids.
Theory:
The internal property of a fluid for its resistance to flow is known as
viscosity. In 1844 Hagen–Poiseuille did their work concerning the
interpretation that liquid flow through tubes and he proposed an equation
for viscosity of liquids. This equation is called Poiseuille’s equation.
------ 1

Where η is called the viscosity coefficient, t is the time of flow of liquid, V is

the volume of the liquid, P is the hydrostatic pressure, and L is the distance
travelled by the liquid during time t. In the honor of Hagen–Poiseuille the
unit of  viscosity is called the Poise (P). The official SI unit for absolute
viscosity is kg/m s (or Pascal-seconds, Pa s).
In an Ostwald viscometer the measured distance the liquid travels, L, will be always a constant;
the radius, r will always be a constant; and by procedure the volume of liquid, V will also be
constant. Equation (1) can then be simplified to: 
Where K is a constant

The hydrostatic pressure is P proportional to the density of the fluid being

measured. In our experiment we will be measuring the mass of equal
volumes of liquid so that the viscosity will be proportional to the masses
measured. Therefore we have the relation:

Where K and t are defined above and m is the mass of the liquid.
For finding the viscosity of liquids it is important to calibrate the viscometer
using a reference liquid. Water is a commonly used reference liquid. The
viscosity of water at 30.0 °C is 0.8007 centipoise (cP). Knowing the values
for the reference liquid and relation (3), we get:
Where: ηr is viscosity coefficient of the reference sample (water), mr is the mass of the
reference sample, and tr is the time flow of the reference sample.
With an Ostwald viscometer we can measure the time flow of a liquid and determine its
viscosity by solving equation (4) for η.

Materials Required:
Ostwald viscometer, Beaker, Wash bottle, Stop watch, Sucker, Pipette, Electronic balance, Hot
Air gun
 
Reagents:
1.Chromic acid
2.Acetone
3.Toluene
4.Nitrobenzene
5.Water
Procedure:
 
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of organic liquids. 
1.Select the liquid from the list.
2.Click on the button "Fill the liquid".
3.Click "Start" button. (Note: DO NOT use "Start" button on the stopwatch)
4.Click "Stop" button on stopwatch when liquid reaches "label D". (Mark "Show Label" for
seeing the labels)
5.Note the flow time on the stopwatch.
6.Calculate the Viscosity coefficient of the liquid.
Observations and Calculations:

Room temperature = 30oC

Mass of water = 25.06 g
Mass of Toluene = 21.55 g
Mass of Nitrobenzene = 30.01 g
Time of flow of water=...........................sec
Time of flow of  Toluene=......................sec
Time of flow of Nitrobenzene =............sec
Absolute viscosity of water = 0.8007 centipoise
Absolute viscosity of the Toluene = ........................centipoise
Absolute viscosity of the Nitrobenzene = ...............centipoise

Results:
1.Absolute viscosity of the Toluene = .......................centipoise
2.Absolute viscosity of the Nitrobenzene =..............centipoise
 Surface tension
 Surface tension T is defined as, the tangential force acting per unit length on both sides of
an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of liquid.
 T=F/L
 SI unit of surface tension is N/m. Its dimensions are, [L^0 M^1 T^-2].
 This force per unit length is the surface tension.
 Imagine a line PQ of length L drawn tangential to the free surface of the liquid
 All the molecules on this line experience equal and opposite forces tangential to surface as
if they are tearing the surface apart due to the cohesive forces of molecules lying on either
side.
 Intermolecular force: The force of attraction between any molecules is called
intermolecular force.
 Cohesive force: The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance is
called cohesive force or force of cohesion.
 Adhesive force: The force of attraction between the molecules of different substances is
called adhesive force or force of adhesion.
 Surface energy
 Surface energy is the energy applied per unit area of a liquid surface to reduce the
liquid surface to the least possible area so that the potential energy associated with it is
minimized
 Surface energy = energy/ area
 Surface tension is the tendency of fluid surfaces to shrink into the minimum surface
area possible.
 The surface molecules possess extra potential energy as compared to the molecules
inside the liquid.
 The extra energy of the molecules in the surface layer is called the surface energy of
the liquid.
 As any system always tries to attain a state of minimum potential energy, the liquid
tries to reduce the area of its surface film.
 Capillary Action
 A tube having a very fine bore ( ~ 1 mm) and open at both ends is called a capillary tube.
 If one end of a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid which partially or completely wets the
surface of the capillary (like water in glass) the level of liquid in the capillary rises.
 On the other hand, if the capillary tube is dipped in a liquid which does not wet its surface
(like mercury in glass) the level of liquid in the capillary drops.
 The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid inside a capillary tube when it is dipped in the
liquid is called capillarity.
 Capillarity Depends On The Nature Of The Liquid And Solid (i.e.) T, P, R and θ where,
 T – surface tension
 ρ – density of liquid
 R – Radius of capillary
 θ – the angle of contact
 If  >90:-
If meniscus is convex & h will be negative than the liquid will falls (descends) in the
capillary.
 If  θ <90:
The meniscus is concave and h will be positive than the liquids level rises up (ascends)
in the capillary 
 Angle of Contact
 The angle of contact, θ , between a liquid and a solid surface is defined as the angle
between the tangents drawn to the free surface of the liquid and surface of the solid at the
point of contact, measured within the liquid.
 When a liquid surface comes in contact with a solid surface,
it forms a meniscus, which can be either convex (mercury-glass)
or concave (water glass)
 When the angle of contact is acute, the liquid forms a concave
meniscus
 When the angle of contact is obtuse, it forms a convex meniscus
 Concave meniscus - acute angle of contact: is formed when the
cohesive force of attraction between the liquid molecules is less
than the adhesive force of attraction between the solid and the
liquid atoms
 Convex meniscus - acute angle of contact: is formed when the
cohesive force of attraction between the liquid molecules is more
than the adhesive force of attraction between the solid and the
liquid atoms
 Wettability
 There exists a surface tension between a fluid and a solid interface.
 When two fluids are in contact with a solid surface, the equilibrium configuration of the two
fluid phases (say air and water) depends on the relative values of the surface tension
between each pair of the three phases.
 Let us denote surface tension as g, and solid, liquid and gas as s, l, and g respectively. Each
surface tension acts upon its respective interface, and define the angle q at which the liquid
contacts the surface.
 This is known as the wetting (or dihedral) angle of the liquid to the solid in the presence of
the gas. Equilibrium considerations allow us to calculate the wetting angle from the surface
tensions:
 This is known as Young’s equation
 Temperature Dependence of Surface Tension.
 In most liquids, as temperature increases surface tension decreases.
 The surface tension of a liquid becomes zero at critical temperature.
 As the temperature increase the cohesive forces of attraction between the molecules
decreases because the vibrational energy associated with the molecules increases.
 Surface tension and temperature are inversely proportional to each other.
 Hot water is a better cleaning agent because the lower surface tension makes it a better
"wetting agent" to get into pores and fissures rather than bridging them with surface tension.