Week-9

Temperature & Heat

Chapter 10: William C Dunn

Temperature

  Temperature is a measure of molecular

energy, or heat energy, and potential to
transfer heat energy
 In Process control of chemical reactions,
temperature control is of major importance
 Instrumentation can also be temperature
dependent, requires careful design or
temperature correction
 Temperature
Four temperature scales are defined to measure the relative
 
hotness or coldness of a material
 Fahrenheit
 Celsius
 Kelvin
 Rankine
 Fahrenheit scale is based on freezing point of a saturated salt
solution at sea level (14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa)
 Celsius scale is based on the freezing and boiling point of pure
water at sea level
 Kelvin and Rankine scales are referenced at absolute zero which is
the temperature at which all molecular
motion ceases, or the energy of a molecule is zero
Temperature Conversion Formulas
Temperature Conversion Formulas
Heat Energy

 Temperature of a body is a measure of heat energy in

a body
 When energy is supplied to system, the vibration
amplitude of the molecules in a system increases and
its temperature increases proportionally
 Phase change is a transition between the three states
that exist in matter i.e. solid, liquid and gas.
 Energy supplied (Solid Liquid Gas )
 Energy removed (Gas Liquid Solid)
 Sublimation (Solid Gas ) or (Gas Solid)
 Heat Transfer
 Heat energy is transferred from one point to another
by conduction, convection and radiation
 Conduction is the flow of heat through a material
where molecular vibration amplitude or energy is
transferred from one molecule in a material to next.
Heat conduction through a material is derived from
the following relationship:

 K is thermal conductivity and Q is heat transfer rate.

 Heat Transfer
 Convection is the transfer of heat due to motion of
elevated temperature particles in a liquid or a gas.
Typical examples are air conditioning systems, hot water
heating systems.
 If the motion is due solely to the lower density of the
elevated temperature material, the transfer is called free
or natural convection.
 If blowers or pumps move the material, then the transfer is
called forced convection.
 Heat convection is given by:
 Heat Transfer
 Radiation is the emission of energy by electromagnetic
waves, which travel at a speed of light through most
materials that do not conduct electricity.

 where Q is the heat transferred, C is the radiation

constant, A is the area of the radiating surface, T2
is the absolute temperature of the radiating surface, and
T1 is the absolute temperature of the receiving surface
 Thermal Expansion
 Linear thermal expansion is due to the change in
the dimensions of the material due to temperature
changes.

 where L2 is the final length, L1 is the initial length,

α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion, T2
is the final temperature, and T1 is the initial
temperature.
Thermal Expansion
 Volumetric Expansion
 Volume thermal expansion is due to the change
in the volume of the material due to temperature
changes.

 where V2 is the final volume, V1 is the initial

volume, β is the coefficient of volumetric thermal
expansion, T2 is the final temperature, and T1 the
initial temperature.
Temperature Measuring Devices

 The methods of measuring temperature are

categorized into
 Expansion of materials
 Electrical resistance change
 Thermistors
 Thermocouples
 Pyrometers
 Semiconductors
 Expansion Thermometers
 Some commonly expansion thermometer
instruments are
 Liquid in glass thermometer
 Bimetallic strip
 Pressure spring thermometer
Liquid in glass thermometer

  It consists of mercury and it is most common

direct visual thermometer
 Operating range:
 Inexpensive and accurate
 Limited Application
 Toxicity of mercury
 Ease of breakage
 Fragile
 Bimetallic strip

 This
  device operate on the principle that metals are
flexible, and different metals have different coefficient of
expansion
 Two strips of dissimilar metals are joined together along
their length, they will flex to form an arc as temperature
changes
 They are usually configured in spiral or helix and can be
used with pointer to make an inexpensive thermometer
 Operating range:
 Relatively inaccurate and slow to respond
Bimetallic strip
 Bimetallic strip
 When using a straight bimetallic strip, an important calculation to
determine the movement of the free end of the strip is given by:

 where d is the deflection, α_A is the coefficient of linear expansion

of metal A, α_B is the coefficient of linear expansion of metal B, T1
is the lower temperature, T2 is the elevated temperature, l is the
length of the element, and t is the thickness of the element.
 Spiral or Helix
 When the bimetallic element is wound into a spiral, the
deflection of the free end of the strip is given by:

 where d is the deflection, α_A is the coefficient of linear

expansion of metal A, α_B is the coefficient of linear expansion
of metal B, T1 is the lower temperature, T2 is the elevated
temperature, l is the length of the element, and t is the
thickness of the element and where r is the radius of the spiral
 Pressure Spring Thermometer
 It is used where remote indication is required as compared
to on spot indication
 It consist of metal bulb along with a long narrow metal
tube. Both metals have high temperature coefficients
 Bulb is placed at monitoring point
 Metal tube is terminated with Bourdon pressure tube
 The pressure system can be used to derive a
potentiometer wiper to obtain an electrical signal
 As temperature in the bulb rises, pressure in the system
rises
 Bourdon tube, Bellows or diaphragm sense change in
pressure and calibrated to give temperature variation
Pressure Spring Thermometer
 Resistance Temperature Devices
(RTDs)
  RTDs are either a metal film deposited on a wire
wound resistors, which are then sealed in glass
ceramic material
 Electrical resistance of pure metal is positive and
can linearly increase with increase in temperature,
i.e., increase of 1 ohm on rise of 2.5 .
 Made of Platinum, Nickle and Copper
 Examples of Platinum RTD are Pt 100, Pt 500 and
Pt 1000
 Resistance Temperature Devices
(RTDs)
  Increase of 1 ohm on rise of 2.5 100Ω
0.5Ω Pt 100 0.5Ω
Temperature Resistance
() (Ω)
A B
26 100+10.4=110.4
D
27 100+10.8=110.8 100Ω
28 100+11.2=111.2 0.5Ω Pt 100 0.5Ω 0.5Ω
29 100+11.6=111.6
30 100+12.0=112.0 A B C

2-Wire RTD (RAB = 0.5 + 0.5 + 100 = 101 Ω

3-Wire RTD (RAD + RBD ) - (RBD + RCD ) = (0.5 + 100 + 0.5) – (0.5 + 0.5) = 100 Ω
 Thermistors
 Thermistor resistance changes rapidly (highly
sensitive) with change in temperature.
 These are class of metal oxide (superconductor
material) that typically has high negative/ positive
temperature coefficient of resistance.
 They are used as temperature measurement and
temperature protection devices.
 Thermistors have high sensitivity, which can be up
to a 10% change per degree Celsius, making it the
most sensitive temperature element available.
 Thermisters
LED 110.4Ω at 26C

Temperature Measurement Thermistor I=V/R

100Ω at 0C

100Ω at 0C

Electronic Appliance

Thermistor
I=V/R

R I Temperature Protection B

110.4Ω at 26C
 Thermistors
  Operating range:
 Thermistors are low cost and available in different
sizes and shapes
 Thermistor materials have a temperature
coefficient of resistance (α ) given by:
 Thermocouples
 They are formed by joining two
dissimilar metals to form a
junction
 Joining together the other ends
of dissimilar metals to from a
junction completes an electrical
circuit
 A current will flow in a circuit if two
junctions are at different potential.
 Potential difference between two
junctions is measured, and
difference is proportional to
temperature difference between
two junctions
 Three effects of thermocouples
 Seeback Effect: It states that voltage produced in
thermocouple is proportional to temperature difference
between two junctions
 Peltier Effect: It states that if a current flows through a
thermocouple, then one junction is heated (outputs
energy) and other junction cools (absorbs energy)
 Thompson Effect: It states that current flows in a
conductor along which there is a temperature
difference, heat is produced or absorbed, depending
upon the direction of current and variation of
temperature