Wollo University

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Chemical Engineering Department

Process Measurement and

Instrumentation (ChEg4182)

BY: Merid D.
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 Temperature Measurement

There are many ways to measure temperature, using various

principles. three of the most common are:

 Thermal expansion methods (liquid-in-glass thermometers,

bimetallic strips, etc.).
 Electrical methods (thermocouples, RTDs and thermistors).
 Radiative (infrared and optical pyrometers).

• Each of these is defined and discussed in this learning module,

with most of the emphasis placed on thermojunctive
temperature measuring devices – thermocouples.

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 Thermal expansion methods
Thermal expansion methods make use of the fact that the
dimensions of all substances, whether solids, liquids or gases,
change with temperature.

Instruments operating on this physical principle include:-

 The liquid-in-glass thermometer,
 The bimetallic thermometer and
 The pressure thermometer.
 Liquid-in-glass thermometer
 The most common and well-known thermometer is the liquid-
in-glass thermometer.
 As the temperature rises, the liquid expands, moving up the
tube. The scale is calibrated to read temperature directly.
 Usually, mercury or some kind of alcohol is used for the liquid.

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Two major types of liquid in glass thermometer

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Two dissimilar metals are bonded together into what is
called a bimetallic strip, as sketched to the right.

 Suppose metal A has a smaller coefficient of thermal

expansion than does metal B. As temperature
increases, metal B expands more than does metal A,
causing the bimetallic strip to twist upwards as
sketched.

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Temperature sensors using electrical
effects
❑ Thermocouple
❑ Resistive Thermometers Detectors or RTD
❑ Thermistors

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 Thermocouple (TC)

 Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical principle that,

when any two different metals are connected together, an EMF is
generated at the junction between the metals.
 This electricity, produced by the direct action of heat, is used
today to measure temperatures from subzero to high ranges.
 In normal use this junction is placed in or on the material being
tested, and the other ends of the wire are connected to the
voltage-measuring instrument.
 Thermocouples
■ How it works:
■ Made up of two different

metals joined at one end to

produce a small voltage at a
given temperature.
■ Make up:

■ Made up of two

different metals.
Ex: A type J is made up of
Iron and Constantan.
■ Temperature Range
■ Type J: -40°C to 750°C
Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples)

The general form of this relationship is:

where e is the e.m.f. generated and T is the absolute

temperature. The higher powers of T (a 2T 2 , a 3T 3 etc.) are
approximately zero and the e.m.f.–temperature relationship is
approximately linear according to:
Seebeck Effect
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end,
and there is a temperature difference between the joined
ends and the open ends, thermal emf is generated, which
can be measured in the open ends. As T1 increases, so
does VOUT

This forms the basis of thermocouples.

The EMF produced is proportional to the difference in temperature
and to difference thin metallic thermal transport constants.

Thus, E =

E = electromotive force produced in mV or (V)

T1, T2 = junction temperature in K or 0C

QA, QB = thermal transport constants .

In practice, QA, QB are nearly independent of temperature and

approximately linear relation exist as
E ~ = α(T2-T1), α = constant in mV or V per K or 0C
 Example

1. Find the Seebeck EMF for material with 50mV/0C if

the junction temperatures are 200C and 2000C.
Standard Thermocouple Types
Iron-Constantan:
Type J
color coded white and red
generates about 50 µV/°C
Temperature range −40 to
+750 °C

Chromel-Alumel:
Type K
color coded yellow and red
generates about 40 µV/°C
T range −200 °C to +1350 °C

Copper-Constantan:
Type T
color coded blue and red
generates about 40 µV/°C
−200 to 350 °C
Thermocouple Advantages and Disadvantages

■ Advantages: ■ Disadvantages:
■ Self Powered (does not ■ Extremely Low
require a current or Voltage output (mV)
voltage source) ■ Not very stable
■ Rugged
■ Inexpensive
■ Simple
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

 The Resistance thermometers, which are alternatively known as

resistance temperature devices/ detectors (or RTDs), rely on the
principle that the resistance of a metal varies with temperature.

 A typical platinum RTD may have a range of -1000C to 6500C,

whereas an RTD constructed from nickel typically have a
specified range of – 1800C to 3000C.
Resistive Thermometers Detectors - RTD
■ How it works:
■ Utilizes the fact that resistance of

a metal changes with

temperature. Thus the
temperature is indicated through
the measurement of the change
in resistance of the element
■ Make up:
■ Traditionally made up of

platinum, nickel, tungsten or

copper wound around an
insulator.

Thin Film RTD

The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can be
calculated from the equation,

This equation is non-linear.

The equation becomes linear if all the terms in a2T2 and higher powers of T
are negligible such that the resistance and temperature are related
according to:
R(T) = R(T0)[1+α0ΔT)
Where, R = The resistance of at temperature T
Ro = The resistance at temperature T0
ΔT = T-T0
α0 = Fractional change in resistance per degree of temperature T0
 Example 1

A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 150Ω at

20oC. Calculate its resistance at 50oC ( 20 = 0.00392 Ω/oC).

Solution

𝑅=𝑅0 (1+𝛼 Δ𝑇 )  150  [1  0.00392 (50  20) o C ]

 167.64 
 Example 2

If the resistance of a platinum resistance

thermometer is 100 Ω at 00 C,

Calculate:
the resistance at 600 C if α=0.00392 Ω 0C -1

Solution:

Rt = R0 [ 1 + α (Tt – T0) ]

= 100 Ω x [1 + 0.00392 x 60]

= 123.5 Ω
 Thermistor

• The thermistor represents another class of temperature sensor that

measures temperature through changes of material resistance.
• The characteristics of the these devices are very different from those
RTDs and depend on particular behavior of semiconductor resistance
versus temperature.
• A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering mixtures of
metallic oxide, such as oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, and
uranium.
a negative temperature coefficient, that is their resistance decreases as their
temperature rises.
 Thermistors
■ How it works:
■ Like the RTD a thermistor uses the
fact that resistance of a metal changes
with temperature.
■ Make up:
■ Generally made up of semiconductor

materials
■ Temperature Range:
■ About -45°C - 150°C
 Thermistor Advantages and Disadvantages

■ Advantages: ■ Disadvantages:

■ Very sensitive (has the ■ Output is a non-linear

largest output change function
from input ■ Limited temperature
temperature) range.
■ Quick response ■ Require a current
■ More accurate than source
RTD ■ Self heating
■ Fragile
 Thermistor Characteristics
Sensitivity
• Typically, 10% resistance change per 1 °C
Construction
• Can be fabricated in discs, bead, and rods
The Temperature and resistance of the thermistor is related
according to following equation.

Where,
 R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature To (Kelvin)
 R is the resistance at the measured temperature T (Kelvin)

 ᵦ is the experimentally determined constant for the given

thermistor material.
The values of ᵦ usually lie between 3000 and 4000 K depending on
the formulation or grade.
 Exercise

A thermistor used for temperature measurement

has ᵦ = 3140 K and the resistance at 27 is 1050Ω.
If the resistance of the thermistor is measured as
2330 Ω, find the temperature.
Summary
Thermocouples are inexpensive, rugged, and have a fast response
time but are less accurate and the least stable and sensitive.
Thermocouples also read only relative temperature difference
between the tip and the leads while RTD's and thermistors read
absolute temperature.

RTD's are the best choice for repeatability, and are the most stable
and accurate. However they have a slow response time and because
they require a current source they do have a low amount of self
heating.

Thermistors have a fast output and are relatively inexpensive but

are brittle and have a limited range. They also require a current
source and do experience more self heating than an RTD and are
nonlinear.
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