AVENDAÑO, Jay Russell A.

Written Report
PURUGGANAN, Stephanie Claire
SISON, Kelly

Heat and Temperature Sensors

I. Heat and Temperature

Heat and temperature are terms that are related to each other and often confused by
others. They are related in such a way that you cannot get the other without having the other
one. They come both in pair and cannot be separated from one another.

Heat is a kind of energy with a unit Joules (J) that is possessed by the molecules in a
certain matter. It can be transferred from one body to another that is why temperature
difference occurs. On the other hand, temperature is measure of hotness or coldness of an object
expressed in different scales such as Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F).

II. Overview of Heat and Temperature Sensors

Temperature sensors are vital to a variety of everyday products and applications. It is

the key component because heat is the governing process as it provides a feedback of
temperature which monitors and controls the process.

For example, household appliances such as ovens, refrigerator and thermostats all rely
on temperature maintenance and control to function properly. In chemical engineering
applications, maintaining the chemical reactor’s temperature is significant as it provides the
ideal design temperature of the reactor and also provides the safety for the workers. A process
requires a precise quantitative measure of hotness or coldness in order to accurately control the
process. It is achieved through the use of temperature sensors and regulators which process the
signals they receive from the sensors. In general, temperature sensors are designed to measure
a property which changes in response to time.

III. Measurement Instruments

A. Contact Sensors
Contact sensors measure the temperature of the object to which the sensor is in contact
by assuming or knowing that the sensor and the object are in thermal equilibrium, or in
other words, there is no heat flowing between them.

1. Thermocouples
The main principle of thermocouple function is based on the “Seebeck Effect”
wherein the temperature difference between the two junctions of two different
metals generates an electromotive force (EMF) in a closed loop. This effect converts
the thermal energy to electrical energy.

Figure 1.0 Thermocouple Setup

 Based from figure 1.0, the two junctions are called hot and cold junctions,
where electrons flow from the hot to cold junction, while current flows vice versa.
The formula governing the Seebeck effect is: V= k1(TH-TC) + k2((TH2-TC2), where V is
the electromotive force, k is the Seebeck constant and T H and TC are the absolute
temperature of the hot and cold junction respectively.

Most common types of thermocouples are J, K and T. J ranges from -346°F to

2193°F, K ranges from -454°F to 2501°F and lastly T ranges from -454°F to 752°F.
They have usually assigned colors easily determine the type. Refer on figure 2.0.

Figure 2.0 Thermocouple Types (From

left to right): J, K and T.
Thermocouples have also laws governing its principle:
i. Law of homogenous materials
It states that no EMF will be generated if homogenous metals or same
materials will be used since there will be no temperature difference due to its
conductivity.
ii. Law of intermediate materials
This law implies that the sum of all the thermoelectric forces in a circuit
with a number of dissimilar materials at a uniform temperature is zero. This
means that if a third metal is added at the same temperature, no net voltage is
generated by the new material.
iii. Law of successive/ intermediate temperatures
For the third law, If EMF 1 measures the junctions T1 and T2, and EMF2
measure the junctions T2 and T3, this means the EMF generated at junctions T 1
and T3 will be the sum of EMF1 and EMF2.

2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

Resistance temperature detectors are also called as “Resistance
thermometers” which are usually made from platinum, nickel or copper. It
provides an electrical means of temperature measurement, thus making it
more convenient for use with a computerized system. An RTD utilizes the
relationship between electrical resistance and temperature, which may either
be linear of non-linear. RTDs are known for its high accuracy and precision.
However at high temperatures above 700°C, they become very inaccurate due
to degradation of the outer sheath which contains the thermometer. Therefore,
RTD usage is preferred at lower temperature ranges where they are most
accurate.

Figure 3.0 Structure of RTD

 It works by correlating the resistance of the elements with the
temperature in °C and it is based on the principle of Callendar-Van Dusen
equation.

Figure 4.0 Callendar-Van Dusen Equation

3. Semiconductor based sensors

4. Filled System Thermometers
In general, filled-system thermometers are designed for use in locations where
the indicating part of the instrument must be placed some distance away from the
point where the temperature is to be measured. Many physical properties change
with temperature, such as the volume of a liquid, the length of a metal rod, the
electrical resistance of a wire, the pressure of a gas kept at constant volume, and
the volume of a gas kept at constant pressure. Filled-system thermometers use the
phenomenon of thermal expansion of matter to measure temperature change.

The filled thermal device consists of a primary element that takes the form
of a reservoir or bulb, a flexible capillary tube, and a hollow Bourdon tube
that actuates a signal-transmitting device and/or a local indicating temperature
dial. A typical filled-system thermometer is shown in Figure 5.
In this system, the filling fluid, either liquid or gas, expands as temperature
increases. This causes the Bourdon tube to uncoil and indicate the
temperature on a calibrated dial.

Figure 5. Filled bulb thermometer

The filling or transmitting medium is a vapor, a gas, mercury, or another

liquid. The liquid-filled system is the most common because it requires a
bulb with the smallest volume or permits a smaller instrument to be used.
5. Bimetallic Thermometers
A bimetallic strip curves or twists when exposed to a temperature change, as
Figure 6 shows, because of the different thermal expansion coefficients of the
metals used in it. Bimetallic temperature sensors are based on the principle that
different metals experience thermal expansion with changes in temperature.
At any temperature above absolute zero (-273.15°C), the atoms of the solid vibrate.
When the temperature is increased, the amplitude of the vibrations increases, and
the average distance between atoms increases. This leads to an expansion of the
whole body as the temperature is increased. The change in length that arises from a
change in temperature (∆T) is designated by ∆L. Through experimentation, we find
that the change in length ∆L is proportional to the change in temperature ∆T and
the original length L. Thus,

Figure 6. Bimetallic Strip

where k is called the coefficient of linear expansion. This coefficient has different

values for different materials.

A bimetallic thermometer is an onsite measurement instrument suitable for

measuring middle and high temperature, and can be used to measure directly the
temperature of gasses and liquids. Compared with glass thermometer, it is featured
with no mercury harmless, distinct reading, strong and durable and other
advantages. Our company produces multipurpose bimetallic thermometers. The
types and models are complete. The quality is high and reliable. It can be used
widely in industry, agriculture, national defense and scientific research etc.

It is a coiling thermal bimetal temperature sensor. One end is fixed inside the
protective sleeve (fixed end) and another end (free end) is connected at a fine axle.
The axle end is equipped with a needle. When the temperature changes, the free
end of the temperature sensor rotates, hereupon, the fine axle moves the needle.
The dial plate indicates the temperature change. The steering drive mechanism in
the straight meter moves the needle. The meter housing is made of steel plate, cast
aluminum alloy and stainless steel. For the head of the adjustable angle
thermometer, by means of corrugated pipe, angle mechanism and other parts, the
angle can be adjusted freely from the angle type to straight type, or from the
straight type to angle type. The electric contact bimetallic thermometer is added
with electrical contacts, adjusting devices, outlet box etc. When the temperature
fluctuates, at the moment when the needle (moving contact) and the pre-
established temperature control contact (upper limit or lower limit) are connected
 or disconnected, the relay or the contactor in the control circuit moves, thereby,
realizing automatic temperature control or producing alarm.

Figure 7. Bimetallic Thermometer

Figure 7 shows a typical bimetallic dial thermometer using a spiral

wound element. The spiral element provides a larger bimetallic element in
a smaller area, and it can measure smaller changes in temperature. It is a
low-cost instrument but has the disadvantages of relative inaccuracy and
a relatively slow response time. It is normally used in temperature measurement
applications that do not require high accuracy.

B. Non-Contact Sensors
These temperature sensors measure the radiant power of the infrared or optical
radiation received from a known or calculated area on its surface or volume within it.

1. Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a device that is used for the temperature measurement of an
object. The device actually tracks and measures the amount of heat that is radiated
from an object. The thermal heat radiates from the object to the optical system
present inside the pyrometer. The optical system makes the thermal radiation into a
better focus and passes it to the detector. The output of the detector will be related
to the input thermal radiation. The biggest advantage of this device is that, unlike a
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) and Thermocouple, there is no direct
contact between the pyrometer and the object whose temperature is to be found
out.
In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure the
temperature. As a measure of the reference temperature, a color change with the
growth in temperature is taken. The device compares the brightness produced by
the radiation of the object whose temperature is to be measured, with that of a
reference temperature. The reference temperature is produced by a lamp whose
brightness can be adjusted till its intensity becomes equal to the brightness of the
source object. For an object, its light intensity always depends on the temperature
of the object, whatever may be its wavelength. After adjusting the temperature, the
current passing through it is measured using a multimeter, as its value will be
proportional to the temperature of the source when calibrated. The working of an
optical pyrometer is shown in the figure below.
 Figure 8. Optical Pyrometer

IV. Applications

V. References
1. Heat vs Temperature. (n.d.). Retrieved September 9, 2018, from
https://www.diffen.com/difference/Heat_vs_Temperature

2. Lecture#04 temperature sensors - ppt download. (n.d.). Retrieved September 10, 2018,
from https://slideplayer.com/slide/3499378/
3. Filled Thermometers. Retrieved September 10,2018, from
https://www.globalspec.com/reference/10945/179909/chapter-7-temperature-
measurement-filled-system-thermometers

4. Bimetallic Thermometers. Retrieved September 10, 2018, from http://www.qf-

meter.com/english/Detail_pro_67.html

5. Optical Pyrometer. Retrieved September 10, 2018, from

http://www.instrumentationtoday.com/optical-pyrometer/2011/08/

6.