1.

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to measure
temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element with
temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire
wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite fragile,
so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD element is
made from a pure material, typically platinum, nickel or copper. The material
has a predictable change in resistance as the temperature changes and it is
this predictable change that is used to determine temperature.

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) - Principle of

Operation
An RTD (resistance temperature detector) is a temperature sensor that
operates on the measurement principle that a materials electrical resistance
changes with temperature. The relationship between an RTDs resistance and
the surrounding temperature is highly predictable, allowing for accurate and
consistent temperature measurement. By supplying anRTD with a constant
current and measuring the resulting voltage drop across the resistor,
theRTDs resistance can be calculated, and the temperature can be
determined.

2. THERMISTORS

type

of resistor whose resistance varies

significantly

with temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word is

a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush
current

limiter,

temperature sensors (NTC

type

typically), self-resetting

overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.

Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that

the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while
RTDs use pure metals. The temperature response is also different; RTDs are
useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a
higher precision within a limited temperature range, typically 90 C to
130 C.

How Does A Thermistor's Resistance Depend Upon

Temperature?
o The Steinhart-Hart equation gives the reciprocal of absolute
temperature as a function of the resistance of a thermistor.
o Using the Steinhardt-Hart equation, you can calculate the
temperature of the thermistor from the measured resistance.
o The Steinhardt-Hart equation is:
1/T = A + B*ln(R) + C*(ln(R))3 R in W, T in oK
o The constants, A, B and C can be determined from experimental
measurements of resistance, or they can be calculated from
tabular data.

3. THERMOCOUPLE
A

temperature-measuring

device

consisting

of

two

dissimilar

conductors that contact each other at one or more spots, where a

temperature differential is experienced by the different conductors (or
semiconductors). It produces a voltage when the temperature of one of the
spots differs from the reference temperature at other parts of the circuit.
Thermocouples

are

widely

used

type

of temperature

sensor for

measurement and control, and can also convert a temperature gradient into
electricity. Commercial thermocouples are inexpensive, interchangeable, are
supplied with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of

temperatures.

In

contrast

to

most

other

methods

of

temperature

measurement, thermocouples are self powered and require no external form

of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy; system
errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.
Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential
related to temperature. Thermocouples for practical measurement of
temperature are junctions of specific alloys which have a predictable and
repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys
are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to
corrosion may also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple.
Where the measurement point is far from the measuring instrument, the
intermediate connection can be made by extension wires which are less
costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are
usually standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius;
practical instruments use electronic methods of cold-junction compensation
to adjust for varying temperature at the instrument terminals. Electronic
instruments can also compensate for the varying characteristics of the
thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of measurements.

PRINCIPLE
In

1821,

the GermanEstonian physicist Thomas

Johann

Seebeck discovered that when any conductor is subjected to a thermal

gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric
effect or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily
involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional
conductor experiences the same temperature gradient and also develops a
voltage, which normally opposes the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of
the effect depends on the metal in use, and so a nonzero voltage will be
measured if two dissimilar metals are used. After carefully calibrating the

temperature-voltage dependence for a given pair of metals, these metals

can be used as a thermometer.

K-type thermocouple (chromelalumel) in the standard thermocouple

measurement configuration. The measured voltage
calculate temperature

, provided that temperature

can be used to
is known.

The standard configuration for thermocouple usage is shown in the

figure. Briefly, the desired temperature Tsense is obtained using three inputs
the characteristic function E(T) of the thermocouple, the measured voltage V,
and

the

reference

junctions'

temperature Tref.

The

solution

to

the

equation E(Tsense) = V + E(Tref) yields Tsense. These details are often hidden
from the user since the reference junction block (with Tref thermometer),
voltmeter, and equation solver are combined into a single product.

4. BIMETAL STRIPS
Used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement.
The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different
rates as they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases steel
and

brass.

The

strips

are

joined

together

throughout

their

length

by riveting, brazing or welding. The different expansions force the flat strip to
bend one way if heated, and in the opposite direction if cooled below its
initial temperature. The metal with the higher coefficient of thermal
expansion is on the outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on
the inner side when cooled

The sideways displacement of the strip is much larger than the small
lengthways expansion in either of the two metals. This effect is used in a
range of mechanical and electrical devices. In some applications the bimetal
strip is used in the flat form. In others, it is wrapped into a coil for
compactness. The greater length of the coiled version gives improved
sensitivity.

Curvature of a Bimetallic Beam:

Where
and
are the Young's Modulus and height of Material One
and
and
are the Young's Modulus and height of Material Two. is the
misfit strain, calculated by:

Where 1 is the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Material One and

2 is the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Material Two. T is the
current temperature minus the reference temperature (the
temperature where the beam has no flexure).

5. GAS THERMOMETER
A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in volume
or pressure of a gas.

VOLUME THERMOMETER

This thermometer functions by Charles's Law. Charles's Law states that

when the temperature of a gas increases, so does the volume.
Using Charles's Law, the temperature can be measured by knowing the
volume of gas at a certain temperature by using the formula, written below.
Translating it to the correct levels of the device that is holding the gas. This is
works on the same principle as mercury thermometers.

or

T is the temperature.
V is the volume.
k is the constant for the system. k is not a fixed constant across all
systems and therefore need to be found by doing some experiments
from your system and testing it with known temperature values.

6. VAPOR PRESSURE THERMOMETER

A vapour pressure thermometer is a thermometer that uses a pressure gauge to
measure the vapour pressure of a liquid.

PRINCIPLE

The vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure under which a liquid is in

equilibrium with its vapor phase. the vapor pressure is a function of the
temperature of the liquid in question. At a temperature corresponding
pressure. At the temperature increase is an increase in the transition from
liquid to gas, a state of equilibrium is created between liquid and vapor, as
well as the pressure has increased. These thermometers are very sensitive
but the scale is not linear.
The measurement accuracy is 1%. The typical temperature range is
from - 20 C to 280 C depending on the nature of the gaz (Butane propane,
ammonia...).

7. LIQUID EXPANSION THERMOMETER

The temperature measurement is carried out by measuring the expansion of
a liquid under the effect of heat. The expansion is reversible. The
thermometer consists of a glass reservoir topped with a small diameter
capillary terminating in a safety bulb (in case of exceeding the maximum
temperature value of the temperature range).
the tank is filled with a liquid, the fineness of the capillary can enjoy a large
displacement with a small change in volume. The other end of the tube
contains an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon to a pressure below that of
the atmosphere.
The engraved on the temperature scale used to assess the glass
temperature by comparing the level of liquid to the corresponding
graduation.

8. SOLID-STATE TEMPERATURE SENSOR

A solid state temperature sensor uses the PN junction of a diode to measure
temperature. In a similar manner to a thermocouple, a voltage is developed
across this junction and is measured.

This voltage changes predictably

according to the temperature of the junction.

This signal is referred to as a

band gap voltage, because the mechanism that forms the voltage is a
quantum effect called an energy gap or band gap that occurs between the N
and P type semiconducting materials. Because this effect is so predicable, it
can be used in a feedback loop to create a voltage constant with
temperature instead of one that varies with temperature. This arrangement
is called a bandgap voltage reference. The bandgap effect is very predicable
because it relies on inherent material properties. The effect also depends on
what is called the doping density of the N and P type materials. This source
of variation is well understood in the semiconductor industry and the
industry has developed reliable and sophisticated methods to calibrate out
this effect as well as other sources of error. Essentially it is the time that it
takes to calibrate the sensors at the semiconductor fabrication plant that
determines the cost and accuracy of the finished sensor.
One of the major advantages of the solid state sensors is that the required
signal conditioning electronics can be built along side of the actual sensor.
This eliminates what is often the most expensive cost of the installation
which is the signal conditioning module. A solid state sensor can accurately
drive an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) directly. Thermocouples and RTDs
both require specialized electronics to maintain an accurate measurement.
Although solid state sensors are not commonly packaged as a completed
probe, they are very common. For example, the computer that you are using
to view this page probably contains multiple sensors, the most notable one
inside the CPU itself to prevent overheating. They are used in the medical
industry, electronics industry, for science and research, etc.

Why use a solid state temperature probe?

There are many reasons why a solid state temperature probe is the
best choice. Two important reasons are accuracy and ease of use. When
installed in a factory, wire nuts can be used to make connections to the
sensors and to make splices in cable runs. Let say you've just pulled a new
cable 50 feet trough complex conduit from the control box to the tank where
the sensor is mounted. But you're two feet too short! The obvious solution
is to splice some more cable and finish the job. If you're using a solid state
sensor, you're done. If you're using a thermocouple, it means either using an
expensive and specialized junction block that you probably don't have, or it
means pulling new thermocouple wire. With an RTD, you might be tempted
to just use wire nuts to splice the cable and finish the job. But the added
measurement error introduced by the resistance of wire nuts can be both
significant and unknown. You either have to pull a new piece of wire, or
solder the splice.
Solid state sensors are also easy to connect to a measurement device.
This is especially true if you're using a computer with a generic data
acquisition device. With a solid state sensor, you connect the wires and
you're done. With any other temperature sensor you will probably need a
signal conditioning module. One signal conditioning module can easily cost
$200.

Furthermore, the fine print on the specifications of the signal

conditioning module often show that the module itself dominates the
measurement error.

When is an RTD or thermocouple better?

A solid state temperature probe can only be used over a relatively
narrow temperature range (-40C to 125C). Solid state temperature probes
made by other manufactures besides Brew Data can also have further
limitation on temperature range or cable length.

RTDs and especially

thermocouples come in many different sizes and shapes and may be have a

more appropriate physical shape. Also, if extreme accuracy is required, RTDs

can be more accurate, but be aware that it will also require lab grade
measurement devices and very careful wiring to achieve a very high level of
accuracy.