HEAT AND THERMOMETRY

TEMPERATURE AND THERMOMETRY

Temperature is physical quantity which corresponds to hotness or coldness of a substance. It is
measured with a thermometer. The temperature of an object depends on type of thermometer
and scale used.

Types of Thermometers

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Thermometers are based on some measurable property of a substance which is sensitive to
temperature changes. Examples of thermometric properties: expansion of a fluid, pressure in a
gas and resistance in an electric circuit.
Gas thermometers: most accurate and are used as standards. They are based on gas laws.
Example is constant-volume gas thermometer.
Electrical thermometers: accurate, responds fast, easily portable.
- thermoelectric thermometer i.e. based on induced emf between a joint of two different wires
- resistance thermometer i.e. based on spiral of fine wire e.g. platinum wire.
Other thermometers: Liquid thermometers
mercury-in-glass thermometer.

Read about advantages/disadvantages, range of temp, suitability of thermometer.

Temperature scales
To establish a temperature scale we need:
1. Some physical property of a substance which is sensitive to temperature changes i.e.
increases with increasing temperature, but is constant at constant temperature.
2. Fixed and easily obtainable temperatures - fixed points. Such two points are steam point
(100oC, at 760 mmHg) (temperatures for steam from boiling water) and ice point (0oC, at
760mmHg) (temperature for pure melting ice) under standard atmospheric pressure of
760 mmHg.

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 Solid Liquid gas

Graduation of all types of thermometer is based on the fixed points. The fundamental interval
between these two fixed points is divided into a number of equal parts or degrees.

Common Temperature Scales

Three temperature scales are in general use today.
1) The Fahrenheit (°F) temperature scale is used in the United States and a few other
English-speaking countries.
2) The Celsius (°C) temperature scale is standard in virtually all countries that have adopted
the metric system of measurement, and it is widely used in the sciences.
3) The Kelvin (K) scale, an absolute temperature scale (obtained by shifting the Celsius
scale by −273.15° so that absolute zero coincides with 0 K), is recognized as the
international standard for scientific temperature measurement.

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1. Celsius Temperature Scale
In this scale, the fixed points are 0 oC (ice point) and 100 oC (steam point), respectively. Celsius
temperature scale is divided into 100 equal parts.
If X is the physical quantity sensitive to temperature (e.g. expansion, ΔL), then the temperature
X on the Celsius scale which corresponds to a value X is given by

Θ=(Lθ-Lo)/(L100-L0)*100
where X100, X0: values of X at steam and ice points, respectively
Example: The length of mercury in a mercury glass thermometer is 5 cm and 25 cm, when
placed in pure ice and steam, respectively. If its length is 16 cm, what is the
corresponding temperature?

2. Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

For accurate and consistent measurement of temperature, a standard temperature scale is
adopted for scientific measurements. This is absolute thermodynamic temperature scale based
on one fixed point, the triple point of water at temperature 273.16 K (0.01 oC, pressure 4.58
mmHg). Thermodynamic temperature is measured in Kelvins, K.
Suppose X is the chosen temperature-measuring quantity. Then the unknown temperature T is
by definition:

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 where XT - value of X at an unknown temperature, T.
Xtr - value of X at the triple point.
Examples
a) Using the constant-volume gas thermometer, the gas pressure of 40 cm-Hg is measured
at the triple point of water, 273.16 K. If the pressure is 65 cm-Hg at an unknown
temperature T on the thermodynamic scale, then, by definition

b) For platinum resistance thermometer,

where RT - resistance of the metal at unknown temperature.

Rtr - resistance at the triple point.
The relationship between Celsius temperature, , and thermodynamic temperature, T, is given
by ,

Ice and steam points correspond to 273.15 K and 373.15 K in absolute thermodynamic scale.
Triple point: 273.16 K

HEAT TRANSFER
Thermal energy is the total internal energy of an object: molecular kinetic and potential energies.
If heat is supplied to a solid, or a fluid, then it becomes hot i.e. its temperature is raised. If heat is
lost, the temperature falls. Two objects are in thermal equilibrium if and only if they are at the
same temperature.

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Heat flows from a higher temperature to a lower temperature. There are three ways heat is
transferred from one region to another: conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction
The method of transferring heat in solids is called conduction. Energy is transferred by
molecular collisions and movement of free electrons from higher to lower temperature.
Application of conduction of heat.
 Cooking Utensils
 Iron boxes
Convection
Convection is the process in which heat is transferred by actual mass motion of a material
medium. A liquid or gas when heated, expands and so its density becomes less, and rises, taking
heat with it. The colder liquid (or gas) flows in to take its place. This movement of liquid (or
gas) forms convection current, which circulates throughout the medium.
Applications of convection currents in liquids and air
 cooling motor car engines
 refrigerators
 ocean currents, land and sea breezes, monsoons
 ventilation, air conditioning

Heat Radiation
This is mode of transfer of heat in a vacuum .i.e. does not require a material medium. Heat from
the sun reach the earth through radiation. Thermal radiation consists of electromagnetic waves
emitted by a solid, liquid or gas by virtue of its temperature.
NB:
 Heat radiation travels in straight lines
 Heat radiation warms a body only if the radiation falls directly on the body.

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 Bodies radiate heat only if their temperature is higher than their surroundings.
 Good absorbers of heat radiation are good emitters of radiation i.e. blackbody
 A body at the same temperature as its surroundings radiates and absorbs heat at the same
rates
Application of heat radiation
- The thermos flask

GAS LAWS

Boyles Law
The pressure of a given mass of gas, at constant temperature, is inversely proportional to its
volume .i.e. PV = constant
P ∞ 1/V, P = k/V, PV = k

Charles Law
The volume of a given mass of gas, at constant pressure, is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature i.e. V/T = constant
V ∞ T, P is constant V = kT

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Gay-Lussacs Law
The absolute pressure of a given mass of gas, at constant volume, is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature .i.e. P/T = constant
P∞T

Ideal gas equation (law)

PV = nRT

PV/T = k, PV = kT, k = nR (n = moles, R = Universal gas constant)