CHAPTER 6

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Learning Outcomes
It is expected that the students will
 Identify that thermal energy is an internal energy of a matter.
 Explain why heat is considered to be a form of energy.
 Distinguish between heat and temperature.
 Examine thermometric properties of substances and differentiate thermometric properties
of mercury and alcohol.
 Examine linear, area and volume expansion.
 Explain heat as the energy transferred between substances that are at different
temperatures.
 Apply basic knowledge and skill of thermal physics to daily-life phenomenon such as
thermal expansion.
The concept of temperature is very important for the physical and biological
science. This is because the temperature of an object is directly related to the
energies of molecules composing the object. Natural processes often involve
energy changes and the temperature is an indicator for these changes.
6.1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
The sensations of hotness, warmness and coldness can be experienced by
touching the objects. There is a relation between heat and temperature.

To measure the temperature accurately, we use instruments called

thermometers.
Temperature

Temperature is the quantity that determines how cold or how hot the object is. (or)
Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness of a body.
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K).
Heat
The energy exchanged between an object and its surrounding due to different temperatures is
defined as heat.

The SI unit of heat is the joule (J).

 Heat is the energy in transit.

 The unit of heat is the same as the unit of energy. (joule, erg, foot-pound)

 Heat and temperature are different quantities.

Transfer of Heat
The temperature of a hot body is higher than that of a cold body. When the two
bodies of different temperatures are in contact, heat flows from a body at a
higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature.

The motions and positions of molecules in matter result in the kinetic energy and
potential energy. The total energy, that is the sum of the potential energy and
kinetic energy, of molecules in matter is in fact the internal energy of that matter.
Temperature is measure of the internal energy of molecules.
6.2 Types of Thermometer

There are three types of thermometers namely the liquid-in-glass thermometer,

the thermocouple thermometer and the resistance thermometer.

Thermometric properties

Thermometric substances can be solids, liquids or gases. They have physical

properties that vary continuously and linearly with temperature. These properties
are called thermometric properties.

Every thermometer uses a thermometric property. For example, the thermometric

property of a liquid-in-glass thermometer is the thermal expansion of the liquid.
(1) Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer

The liquid-in-glass thermometer consists of a thin glass blub joined to a

capillary tube. The tube has a narrow bore and it is sealed at the other end. The
liquid fills the bulb and the adjoining section of the capillary tube as shown in
figure.

Figure1. A liquid-in-glass thermometer

(i) Function of these thermometers

When the bulb becomes warmer:

 The liquid in it expands more than the bulb so some of the liquid in the bulb is forced
into the capillary tube.

 The thread of liquid in the capillary tube increases in length. When the wall of the bulb
is thinner, the response of thermometer to the temperature changes will be faster.

(ii) Liquid used in these thermometers

 Mercury and coloured alcohol are the liquids usually used in these thermometers.
Alcohol has a lower freezing point than mercury so it is more suitable for low
temperature measurements.
(2) Thermocouple Thermometer
Thermocouple thermometers are electrical thermometers. They use the voltage that
develops when two different metals are in contact. This voltage varies with temperature.
An iron wire and two copper wires may be used to make a thermocouple thermometer, as
shown in figure.
One of the junctions is maintained at 0℃ and the other junction is used as the temperature
probe. The voltmeter can be calibrated directly in ℃.
Because of the small size of a thermocouple junction, thermocouple thermometers are used
to measure rapidly changing temperatures. In addition, they can be used to measure much
higher temperatures than liquid-in-glass thermometers. Also, the voltage of a
thermocouple can be measured and recorded automatically.
Figure 6.2. A thermocouple thermometer
(3) Resistance Thermometer
Resistance thermometer uses the fact that the electrical resistance of a metal
(e.g. platinum) wire increases with temperature.
A resistance thermometer can measure temperatures accurately in the range - 200
℃ to 1200 ℃. It is best for steady temperature, but it is bulky.
 Food Thermometer Digital Forehead Thermometer Ear Thermometer

Mercury Thermometer Meat Thermometer Laboratory Thermometer

Types of thermometer Thermometric property Examples of use

liquid-in-glass thermal expansion of a Home, office, green house,

mercury-in-glass liquid hospital (clinical
alcohol-in-glass thermometer)

thermocouple Voltage between two Food heated in an oven,

different metals in temperature variation of gas
contact flow, data logging, remote
locations
resistance electrical resistance of a Industrial application between
thermometer piece of metal 600℃
Reviewed Exercise
1.Why the temperature range of a clinical thermometer is from 35 ℃ to 42 ℃?
Because the temperature of a human being is generally between 35 ℃ to 42 ℃.
2. State the physical property that varies with temperature in (a) liquid-in-glass
thermometer (b) thermocouple thermometer.
(a) thermal expansion of liquid (or) The volume of the liquid increases with increasing
temperature.
(b) variation of voltage with temperature (or) electromagnetic force or electrical voltage
(or) The voltage that develops when two different metals are in contact varies with
temperature.
3.Distinguish between heat and temperature.
6.3 Unit of Thermometer or Temperature Scales
Three types of temperature scales
(1)Celsius scale (Centigrade scales)
(2)Fahrenheit scale
(3)Kelvin scale
Ice point and boiling point of water
To calibrate a thermometer two reference points, the freezing point and boiling
point of water under normal atmospheric pressure, are chosen. These points are
marked on the thermometer.
 On the Celsius scale, the freezing point or ice point is marked 0 ℃ and the
boiling point of water or steam point is marked 100 ℃. The interval between
these two points is divided into 100 equal parts.
 On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point or ice point is marked 32 ℉ and
the boiling point of water or steam point is marked 212 ℉. The interval
between these two points is divided into 180 equal parts.
 On the Kelvin scale, the ice point is 273 K and the steam point is 373 K.
Relation between temperature scales

5
TC = TF − 32 or
9

TF = 1.8 TC + 32

TK = TC + 273
where TC = Celsius temperature, TF = Fahrenheit temperature,
TK = Kelvin temperature
For example, the normal body temperature is 98.6 ℉.
5 5
On the Celsius scale, T𝐶𝐶 = 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 32 = 98.6 − 32 = 37 ℃
9 9
Reviewed Exercise

1. What temperature on the Celsius scale corresponding to 104 ℉, the body temperature
of the person who is gravely ill?

𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 = 104℉, T𝐶𝐶 =?

5 5
T𝐶𝐶 = 𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹 − 32 = 104 − 32 = 40 ℃
9 9

2. What temperature on the Celsius scale corresponds to 212 ℉, the boiling

temperature of the water?
3. What temperature on the Fahrenheit scale corresponds to 37 ℃, the normal
body temperature of a healthy person?
4. Derive the relation between different temperature scales.
THERMAL EXPANSION OF SUBSTANCES
 When a substance is heated, its volume (generally) usually increases. In the
volume expansion, the dimensions of the substance increase correspondingly.
 It can be explained like this. When a substance is heated, the molecules in the
substance get heat energy. Therefore, the kinetic energy of the molecules
increases.
 The additional kinetic energy causes each molecule to collide more forcefully
with its neighbours. The molecules push each other further apart and the size
of the substance increases.
 The increase in temperature of a gas at constant pressure causes the
increase in volume of the gas. The increase in temperature also causes the
increase in volumes of liquids and solids. This phenomenon is known as
thermal expansion.
An example for making allowance to the thermal expansion of substances
 The concrete roadway segments of a sidewalk are separated by gaps. This
is necessary because concrete expands with increasing temperature.
 Without these gaps, thermal expansion would cause the segments to push
against each other, and they would eventually buckle and break apart.
[buckle = distort, bend]
Linear Expansion
When an object is heated, its length increases. This is called the linear
expansion of the object.

In the above figure, the original length of the object is l and its temperature is
T. When it is heated, its temperature increases by ∆T and its length increases
by ∆l . Its final temperature is T + ∆T and its final length is l + ∆l .
The change in length is directly proportional to its original length and the
change in temperature.
∆ 𝑙𝑙 ∝ l . ∆ T
∆ 𝑙𝑙 = 𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙 ∆
where, ∆ 𝑙𝑙 = change in length
𝛼𝛼 = coefficient of linear expansion
𝑙𝑙 = original length
∆ T = change in temperature = ∆ T = (T2 - T1 )
Final temperature = original length + increase in length
𝑙𝑙 ′ = 𝑙𝑙 + ∆ 𝑙𝑙 (or) 𝑙𝑙 ′ = 𝑙𝑙 + 𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙 ∆ T (or) 𝑙𝑙 ′ = 𝑙𝑙 + 𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙 (T2 - T1 )
Area expansion
When an body is heated, its area increases. This is called the area expansion of
the object.
The change in area is directly proportional to its original area and the change in
temperature.
∆A ∝A.∆T
∆ A = β A∆ T
∆ A = change in area
β = coefficient of area expansion
A = original area
∆ T = change in temperature = ∆ T = (T2 - T1 )
final area = original area + increase in area
A′ = A + ∆ A (or) A′ = β A∆ T (or) A′ = A + β A (T2 - T1 )
Volume expansion
When an body is heated, its volume increases. This is called the volume expansion
of the object.
The change in volume is directly proportional to its original volume and the
change in temperature.
∆V ∝V.∆T
∆ V = 𝛾𝛾V∆ T
 ∆ V = change in volume
𝛾𝛾 = coefficient of volume expansion
V = original volume
∆ T = change in temperature = ∆ T = (T2 - T1 )
final volume = original volume + increase in volume
V ′ = 𝑉𝑉 + ∆ V (or) V ′ = V + 𝛾𝛾 V∆ T (or) V ′ = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝛾𝛾 V (T2 - T1 )
SI units of α , β and γ
α , β and γ have the same SI unit, the per kelvin (K −1 ).
coefficient of linear expansion
The coefficient of linear expansion of a substance is the change in length per unit
length for one degree change in temperature.
coefficient of area expansion
The coefficient of area expansion of a substance is the change in area per unit
area for one degree change in temperature.
coefficient of volume expansion
The coefficient of volume expansion of a substance is the change in volume per
unit volume for one degree change in temperature.
Relation between α , β and γ
β = 2α , γ = 3α , γ = 1.5 β

Material coefficient of linear expansion, (K-1)

celluloid 1.09 × 10-4
steel 1.27 × 10-5
copper 1.70 × 10-5
diamond 1.00 × 10-6
glass (ordinary) 8.30 × 10-6
glass (pyrex) 3.00 × 10-6
platinum 8.90 × 10-6
Reviewed Exercise: Obtain the relationship between the coefficient of linear
expansion and the coefficient of area expansion of a substance.
Anomalous Expansion of Water
Generally all substances expand on heating and contract on cooling. But
water has a different behavior. When water at 0 ℃ is heated, its volume
decreases up to 4 ℃, and its density increases. At 4 ℃ its density becomes
maximum and beyond this temperature its volume starts to increase. This
unusual expansion of water is called anomalous expansion of water.
Example 1.The room temperature is found to be 27 ℃ . What is the
temperature in kelvin?

Example 2. The lowest air temperature recorded in the world is 184 K. This
temperature was measured in Antarctica in 1983. What is the temperature in
degree Celsius?
Example 3. One roadbed of a steel bridge is 12.80 m long. If the temperature
varies from 25℃ to 35 ℃ during a day, what is the difference in lengths at those
temperatures? The road is supported by steel, α = 1.27 x10-5 K-1 .
Example 4. The length of a metal bar having coefficient of linear expansion α is at
the temperature T. What is the length of that metal bar at the temperature T + ∆ T ?
Example 5. The area of a metal plate is A1 at the temperature T1 and A2 at T2 . If
T2 > T1 , obtain the relation between A1 and A2 . The coefficient of area
expansion of the metal is β.
Ex 1. Complete the sentences below using words from the following list.
(a)The degree of hotness of an object is a measure of its ……
(b) The liquid in glass thermometer makes use of the ……of the liquid when
its ……changes.
(c) In a thermocouple thermometer, a change of ……causes its ……to change.
Ex 2(a). A liquid-in-glass clinical thermometer is marked with a scale from 32
℃ to 42 ℃ which convers a distance of 80 mm. A liquid-in-glass laboratory
thermometer is marked with a scale from 0 to 100 which converts a distance
of 160 mm . State and explain; which thermometer (i) has greater range, (ii) is
more sensitive.