PART A: HEAT & TEMPERATURE, ANOMALOUS EXPANSION

HEAT

Heat is defined as the internal energy of molecules that make up an object or body. It flows from a hot
body to a cold body.

The amount of heat energy contained in a body depends on the body’s–

 Mass  Temperature and  Material

Heat energy is the sum of the internal potential energy (P.E.) and kinetic energy (K.E.) of the molecules.

P.E. of the molecules is due to the intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules and the
inter-atomic forces of attraction between the protons and electrons.

K.E. of molecules arises due to their vibrations / movements from their positions.

Since heat is a type of energy it has the same unit as that of energy.

The S.I. unit of heat is Joule (J). The C.G.S unit of heat is Erg (erg). The relationship between these is –

1 J = 107 erg

Other units of heat are calorie (cal) and kilocalorie (kcal), where

1 kcal = 1000 cal

1 cal = 4.186 J (or nearly 4.2 J)

∴ 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 1000 x 4.2 J = 4200 J

TEMPERATURE

Heat flows from a hot body to a cold body. Thus, when a hot body is kept in contact with a cold body, it
is noticed that the hot body becomes less hot over time and the cold body becomes less cold (or
warmer). The hot body (that imparts heat) is said to be at a higher temperature compared to the cold
body (that receives the heat). This transfer of heat energy continues till both bodies arrive at the same
temperature – i.e. they are in thermal equilibrium.

When a body receives heat energy, the molecules start vibrating more vigorously, with an increase in
their kinetic energy (K.E.) which results in an increase in the temperature, provided its physical state
or dimensions remain unchanged.
Temperature is defined as the quantity which tells the thermal state of a body (i.e. the degree of hotness
or coldness of a body). It determines the direction of flow of heat when two bodies at different
temperatures are placed in contact.

The S.I. unit of temperature is kelvin (K). The other common units of temperature is degree Celsius (°C)
and degree Fahrenheit (°F).

The zero of the kelvin scale is called the absolute zero and at this temperature all molecular motion
ceases. A degree on both kelvin and Celsius scale is equal. There are 100 equal degrees between the ice
point and steam point on both scales. The relationship between Celsius and kelvin scale is

TK = T°C + 273

However, the 100 degrees are equivalent to 180 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. Thus,

𝐶 (𝐹 − 32)
=
5 9

Common Temperature Values in the 3 scales

Temperature Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit

Absolute zero 0K -273°C ~460°F
Ice point (freezing point of water) 273K 0°C 32°F
Steam point (boiling point of water) 373K 100°C 212°F
Normal Human body temperature 310K 37°C 98.6°F

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Heat
Amount of hotness or coldness of a body
Form of energy obtained due to the random
motion of molecules in a substance
S.I. unit: Joule (J)
Amount of heat contained in a body depends on
the mass, material and temperature of the body
Temperature
Degree of hotness or coldness of a body
Quantity that determines the direction of flow of
heat energy when two bodies at different
temperatures are kept in contact with one
another
S.I. unit: kelvin (K)
Temperature of a body depends on the average
kinetic energy of the molecules due to their
random motion
 Measured by the principle of calorimetry
Bodies having the same quantity of heat may
differ in their temperature
When two bodies are kept in contact, the total
amount of heat is equal to the sum of heat of the
individual bodies.
Measured by a thermometer
Bodies having the same temperature may differ
in the quantity of heat energy in them
When two bodies at different temperatures are
placed in contact, the resultant temperature is in
between the two temperature values

THERMOMETER

Thermometer is an instrument for measuring and indicating temperature, typically one consisting of a
narrow, hermetically sealed glass tube marked with graduations and having at one end a bulb
containing mercury or alcohol which extends along the tube as it expands.

Thermometers can be classified as clinical (used by medical practitioners), laboratory / scientific (used
in laboratories for more accurate readings) and digital thermometer (display digital reading). Based on
the thermometric liquid used, thermometers can also be classified as mercury thermometers and
alcohol thermometers.

THERMAL EXPANSION

On heating a substance any or all 3 of the below effects are produced –

 Change in temperature: On heating the molecules begin to move faster. Thus the average kinetic
energy of molecules increases and so temperature rises. On the other hand, on cooling the
average K.E. decreases leading to fall in temperature.
 Change in state: The process of change from one state of matter to another at a constant
temperature is called change of state.
On heating, solids change to liquids at a fixed temperature (melting). The reverse happens when
a liquid is cooled (freezing/fusion).
When liquids are heated to a fixed temperature, they change to gas (vaporization / boiling). The
reverse happens when a gas is cooled (condensation).
When some solids are heated at fixed temperatures they convert directly to gaseous form
(sublimation). The reverse happens when some gases are cooled (solidification).
 NOTE: Boiling is different from evaporation (which occurs at all temperature, and is a surface
phenomenon).

 Change in size / shape: Matter exists in three states. They are –

 Solid state  Liquid state  Gaseous state

If we supply heat energy to a substance, its dimensions increase. The kinetic energy of molecules
increases and they start vibrating faster from their positions with greater amplitude. This
increases the inter-molecular separation leading to expansion of the substance, equally in all
directions. This is called thermal expansion.

Of the three states of matter, liquids expand more than solids, and gases expand more than liquids.

The expansion of a substance on heating is called thermal expansion of that substance.

THERMAL EXPANSION IN SOLIDS

A solid has a definite shape and volume. When a solid is heated, it expands in all direction equally. Hence
the length, area and volume all increase on heating.

The increase in length is called linear expansion. Increase in area is called superficial expansion while
increase in volume is referred to as cubical expansion.
EXPERIMENTS TO DEMONSTRATE THERMAL EXPANSION

Experiment 1: Ring and Ball Experiment

Thermal expansion in solids can be understood with the ball and ring experiment.

 Take a metal ball and a ring, the diameter of the ball should be such that it just passes through
the ring.
 Heat the ball for some time over a burner.
 Try to pass it through the ring.
 It is observed that the ball does not pass through the ring.
 This is because the volume of the metal ball increases on gaining heat energy. The increase in
the volume of matter on gaining heat energy is called expansion or thermal expansion.
 After a while, it is observed that the ball passes the ring again. This is because the heated ball
imparts heat to the ring, thus contracting a little, while the ring acquires the heat energy and
expands in turn.

Experiment 2: Bar and Gauge Experiment

 Take a bar and a gauge setup as shown in the above figure. It consists of a metal bar and a metal
gauge such that the bar just fits into the gauge at room temperature.
 Heat the bar and try to fit into the gauge. It is observed that it no longer fits into the gauge as it
has expanded and become longer than the gap provided by the gauge.
 When the bar is allowed to cool, it is seen that it contracts and can again fit into the gauge as
before.
LINEAR EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

When a solid, in the form of a rod or wire, is heated; only linear expansion (i.e. increase in length) if
effective.

Activity to demonstrate linear expansion

A metal rod is clamped and its free end touches the pointer. On heating it, the rod elongates, pushing
the pointer which points at a scale which can show the degree of expansion.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LINEAR EXPANSION

This increase in length depends on 3 factors –

 Original length of the rod (L0) – The longer the rod (i.e. the greater the original length of the rod)
the greater is the increase in its length.

In the above figure, we can see two rods of the same material but of different lengths. The longer
rod expands more for the same amount of heat than the shorter one.
For a solid rod of original length L0, the expansion produced for a given temperature (T) is given
as Lt. The relation between increase in length (LT - L0) and original length L0 is given as –

LT - L0  L0

NOTE: Heating two rods of equal length, made of the same material, one hollow and another
solid, to the same rise in temperature expands both EQUALLY. This is because linear expansion
does not depend on whether the solid is hollow or solid.
  Increase in Temperature: If we increase the temperature of a rod at initial temperature (T0) to a
greater temperature value of T1, the difference in the two temperature is given as t.
T1 – T0 = t
“The more the increase in temperature (t) of the rod, the greater is the increase in length.”
If we heat two rods of same length and same metal to different temperatures, it is seen that the
rod which is heated to a greater temperature shows more increase in length than the other rod
which is heated to a lower temperature. For the first rod, t is 50°C whereas for the second t is
20°C. Thus the first rod expands more than the second one as t value is greater for the first one.

This is mathematically given as –

LT - L0  t

 Material of the Rod: Rods of different materials expand differently. E.g. a copper rod expands
more than an iron rod.

The dependence of linear expansion can be mathematically shown as follows –

If L0 is the original length of the rod at 0°C and the length at t°C is Lt - then the increase in length is given
as follows –

Lt – L0  L0

And Lt – L0  t

Thus it can be given as

Lt – L0  L0 t

Removing the proportionality, we get

Lt – Lo = α Lo t
Where α is the coefficient of linear expansion. It is dependent on the material of the rod. Thus α varies
with different substances. The unit of α is /°C or °C-1.

Some values for α for different material are tabulated below –

COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION

SUBSTANCE COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION (°C-1)
(× 10-6 °C-1)
ALUMINIUM 24 0.000024
BRASS 19 0.000019
COPPER 17 0.000017
STEEL 13 0.000013
IRON 12 0.000012
INVAR 0.9 0.0000009

Superficial Expansion of Solids

Superficial expansion of solids refers to the increase in area of solids. This implies that both the length
and the breadth increases. Superficial expansion of solids depends on –

 Initial area of the solid plate: more the initial area (A0) of the plate, greater is the superficial
expansion. This implies that two plates made of the same material but of different area, when
raised to the same rise in temperature will expand differently. The one with the greater area will
expand more superficially.
AT – A0  Ao
 Increase in temperature: more the increase in temperature (t), greater is the superficial
expansion
AT – A0  t
 Material of the plate: plates made of different materials expand differently. A brass plate expands
more than an iron plate of the same dimensions for the same rise in temperature.

Mathematically, superficial expansion can be explained as –

AT – A0  A0
AT – A0  t
∴ AT – A0  A0 t
AT – A0 = β A0 t

Where β is the coefficient of superficial expansion, which depends on the material of the plate.
Cubical Expansion of Solids

Cubical expansion of solids refers to the increase in volume of solids. This implies that the length,
breadth and thickness increases. Cubical expansion of solids depends on –

 Initial volume of the solid plate: more the initial volume (Vo) of the solid, greater is the cubical
expansion for the same rise in temperature. This implies that two solids made of the same
material but of different volume, when raised to the same rise in temperature will expand
differently. The one with the greater volume will show more cubical expansion than the one with
lesser volume.
VT - Vo  Vo
 Increase in temperature: more the increase in temperature (t), greater is the cubical expansion
VT - Vo  t
 Material of the plate: solids made of different materials expand differently. A brass ball expands
more than an invar ball of the same dimensions for the same rise in temperature.

Mathematically, cubical expansion can be explained as –

VT - Vo  Vo
VT - Vo  t
∴ VT - Vo  Vo t
VT - Vo = γ Vo t
Where γ is the coefficient of cubical expansion, which depends on the material of the plate.

Pyrex has a very low coefficient of cubical expansion making it suitable for making kitchenware as it
will not expand much and crack due to heat.

NOTE: The 3 coefficients are related. β = 2 α and γ = 3α. Thus the relationship between α. β and γ is
given as α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3

APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS IN DAILY LIFE

1. Construction of bridge: Steel girders are used in the construction of bridges. One end of the
girder is fixed in concrete with the pillar and the other end is supported on rollers (as shown).
This allows the girder to expand or contract as per rise / fall in temperature without affecting
the pillar or bridge.
2. Railway tracks: Rail tracks are made of steel that are laid over wooden or concrete planks. Small
gaps are left between successive lengths of the rail to allow for expansion in length due to rise in
temperature during summers. If this gap is not provided, the tracks would bend sideways.
3. Riveting: Riveting is the process of joining or fastening two steel plates. This is used in joining
steel girders, boiler plates etc. For joining two plates, the plates are placed one above the other
and holes are drilled through them. Then rivets or small steel rods are heated red hot and
inserted into the holes of the plates (fig <a>). On heating the rivets become soft and their heads
can be easily hammered as heads (fig<b>). Now the rivets are allowed to cool. On cooling the
rivets contract and bring the plates closer and firmly grip them together making the joints water
or steam proof (fig <c>).

4. Electric cables and telephone wires: Electric cables are overhead power transmission lines.
These cables as well as telephone wires between two poles may break in winter due to
contraction and may say in the summer due to expansion. Therefore, while putting up these
cables or wires in the summer, care is taken to keep them slightly loose so that they do not break
in winter due to contraction. When installing these during winter, care is taken to keep them
tight so that they do not sag too much when summer arrives.
5. Fitting of steel rim onto wheel of horse cart: The wooden wheel of a horse cart is fitted with a
steel rim to make it strong and smooth. To ensure a tight fit, the steel rim is made of a diameter
slightly smaller in diameter of the wooden wheel. To fit this rim, it is heated uniformly along its
circumference till its diameter now becomes larger than that of the wooden wheel. The expanded
rim is then fitted over the wooden wheel and allowed to cool. On cooling, the rim contracts and
makes a tight fit over the wooden wheel.
 Steel rim

Wooden Wheel

6. Kitchen Glassware: The glassware used in a kitchen is generally made of pyrex glass. Pyrex has
a low coefficient of cubical expansion. Thus it does not expand much nor crack when hot food is
put into the container.
7. Invar is used for making Clock Pendulum: Invar is an alloy made of nickel and iron. It has a low
coefficient of linear expansion. Thus it expands or contracts negligibly due to heat. Thus it is
chosen to make pendulum of the clock. If the pendulum is made of any other material, it could
expand in summer making the clock slower or contract in winter making the clock run faster.
8. Loosening of glass stopper or metal screw cap: A glass stopper or metal screw cap can be
loosened by warming it as the heat would expand it.
9. Cracking of thick glass tumbler: When hot liquid is poured into a glass tumbler, it cracks. This
occurs as glass is a poor conductor of heat. The inner surface of the tumbler becomes hot from
the liquid and expands whereas the outer surface remains at room temperature and does not
expand. This unequal expansion of the tumbler causes it to crack.
10. Concrete Roads: While constructing cement roads using concrete slabs, a small gap is left
between two slabs. The concrete slabs undergo thermal expansion during summer. The gap
allows space for this expansion. If these gaps were not left, the concrete slabs would crack during
summer due to thermal expansion.
11. Expansion of Metal Pipes in Industries: In certain industries, hot liquids or hot water is
transported through metal pipes from one place to another. These pipes are subjected to
expansion and contraction. To avoid cracks in the pipes when they expand and contract, they are
arranged in the form of loops.
12. Bimetallic Strip and Thermostat Switches: Bimetallic strips used in thermostats work on the
principle of thermal expansion. A bimetallic strip is a combination of two different metal strips,
usually brass and iron, joined together with rivets. The two metals have different rates of
thermal expansion.
 Consider a bimetallic strip made of two metals A and B. Let the rate of thermal expansion of A be
greater than that of B. When the bimetallic strip is heated, metal A expands more than metal B.
As a result, the bimetallic strip bends, with metal A on the outer side of the bend. When the
bimetallic strip is cooled, the metal-A contracts more than the metal-B. Then the bimetallic strip
bends with the metal-B on its outer side.
Working of a Thermostat Switch 
When a thermostat is used in an electrical circuit, its bimetallic strip gets heated and bends if the
temperature in the circuit exceeds a certain limit. Hence the circuit breaks. Since there is no
current in the circuit now, the temperature of the strip decreases. The strip gets restored to its
original position, and the circuit is completed, allowing current to flow again.

Thermostats are used in appliances like geysers, refrigerators, electric irons, air conditioning
machines, fire alarms, etc.

Cubical Expansion of Liquids

Liquids do not have a definite shape, but have a definite volume. Thus liquids only have cubical
expansion. However liquids expand to a greater degree than solids. This is because the inter-molecular
forces of attraction is lesser as compared to that of solids, allowing molecules to move farther apart
from one another on acquiring kinetic energy when the liquid is heated.

Experiment to demonstrate cubical expansion of liquids

  Take a round bottomed flask and fill it with coloured water (just add ink to the water!) up to
the brim.
 Close the flask with a single-holed rubber stopper or cork stopper. Put some molten wax
through the stopper to avoid leakage of water
 Insert a capillary tube (or a straw) into the flask such that some water from the flask gets
into the capillary tube and reaches a certain level. Mark this level.
 Heat the flask over a burner.
 Observe the level of water in the capillary tube.
 As the flask is heated, the water expands, and the level of water in the tube rises. This is due
to the thermal expansion of water. As the water is heated more and more, this level of water
continues to rise.

NOTE: When a liquid is heated in a vessel, the vessel first gets heated and expanded. This leads to a
drop in the liquid level inside the vessel. Thereafter, when the liquid also gets heated it expands. In turn
the level of liquid also rises. Since liquids expands more than solid, it is seen that the liquid level is much
above its initial level (before the vessel was heated). Thus the real expansion of liquid is more than the
observed expansion.

Factors Affecting Cubical Expansion of Liquids

1. Original volume of the liquid: Larger the initial volume of liquid taken, the more is the increase
in volume of the liquid when heated.
2. Increase in temperature: Greater the rise in temperature of a liquid, the greater is the increase
in its volume.
3. Nature of Liquid: Equal volumes of different liquids when heated to the same temperature
expand different increase in their volumes. This can be seen with the help of an activity –
Water, ether, benzene and alcohol are taken into identical glass bottles fitted with narrow glass tube
with a cork at its mouth. These bottles are then heated to the same rise in temperature by placing them
in a water bath containing boiling water. It is observed that each liquid rises to different levels. Ether
expands the most, then benzene, followed by alcohol and lastly water.

Mathematically, cubical expansion of water can be expressed as

VT - Vo = γ Vo t

Where γ is the coefficient of cubical expansion of the liquid. Some common values of γ are tabulated
below –

COEFFICIENT OF CUBICAL EXPANSION (× COEFFICIENT OF CUBICAL EXPANSION

LIQUID
10-4 °C-1) (°C-1)
MERCURY 1.8 0.0018
WATER (above 15 °C) 3.7 0. 0037
PARAFFIN OIL 9.0 0. 0090
TURPENTINE 10.5 0. 0105
ALCOHOL 11.0 0.0110
BENZENE 11.8 0.0118

Applications of thermal expansion of solids in daily life

Thermal expansion property of liquids is used in the working of mercury thermometer. Mercury is
preferred as a thermometric liquid as –

 It has a high coefficient of expansion – When the bulb of the thermometer is kept in contact with
a hot body, the mercury in the bulb expands. The level of mercury expands in the capillary tube
which is graduated to read the temperature. For every degree rise in temperature, mercury
expands by the same volume uniformly making the calibration of thermometer easier. Also, since
the coefficient of cubical expansion is large for mercury. Thus for small rise in temperature, the
volume rise/ change in level is appreciable making it easier for reading the values.
 It is reflective, shiny and silver making it easy to see and read accurately
 Does not stick to the glass tube
 Mercury is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature, which is also a good conductor
of heat
Cubical Expansion of Gases

Gases do not have definite shape nor volume. The inter-molecular forces of attraction is weakest in
comparison to solids and liquids. Thus, when heated gases expand the most as molecules move further
apart on gaining kinetic energy.

Thermal expansion in gases can be demonstrated by the below experiment –

 Take an empty bottle, a balloon and a water bath containing boiling water.
 The empty bottle has air in it. Attach the balloon to it neck (as shown in the figure).
 Place the bottle in the water bath containing boiling water. After sometime, the balloon is seen
to inflate due to the expansion of air inside the bottle which fills up the balloon.

DENSITY & TEMPERATURE

𝑀
Density of a substance (d) is the mass (M) per unit volume (V) of the substance  𝑑 = 𝑉

1
Thus it can be inferred that density and volume have an inverse relationship  𝑑 ∝ 𝑉

Thus when a substance expands on heating the volume of the substance increases. This leads to a
decrease in the density of that substance.

As we know cubical expansion is least in solids and most in gases. In solids, this increase in volume is
very small, and thus decrease in the density of the solid is not appreciable. However, in the case of
liquids and gases, the volume increases by an appreciable amount. Due to this, density of the liquid or
gas also considerably decreases.

When a substance cools, the volume decreases and density thus conversely increases.

EXAMPLE: On heating an iron washer, the mass remains unchanged. Its internal and external diameter
both increase along with an increase in the thickness of the washer. Thus the overall volume of the
washer increases. Thus density of the washer decreases.
ANOMALOUS EXPANSION: The expansion of a substance on cooling in a certain range of temperature
is called the anomalous expansion of that substance. Following substances exhibit this phenomenon,
where they contract on heating and expand on cooling –

 Water (H2O) between 0°C and 4°C

 Silver Iodide (AgI) between 80°C to 141°C
 Silica (SiO2) below -80°C

CONSEQUENCES OF ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER

 The anomalous expansion of water helps in preserving the aquatic life during the very cold
weather
 The anomalous expansion of water is responsible for the burst of water pipelines, capillaries of
plants and rocks during the very cold nights when the atmospheric temperature falls to 00C or
less.

HOPE’S EXPERIMENT

OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate the anomalous expansion of water

DESCRIPTION: A simple device demonstrating the anomaly of water was designed in 1805 by Scottish
scientist Thomas Charles Hope (1766-1844).

The body of the device (Fig. 3) consists of a hollow cylinder, which is filled with water and allows two
thermometers to be inserted at different heights through two holes on the side. In the half of its height,
the cylinder is fitted with an outside reservoir for a cooling mixture (salt and ice). This reservoir is in
no way connected to the inside of the cylinder.
PROCESS: We prepare the cooling mixture using crushed ice and kitchen salt. After a thorough cooling,
we take Hope's device out of the fridge, and insert the thermometers into both holes. We pour the
precooled water (~ 6 oC) into the inner cylinder. The thermometers should now show the same
temperature. Now we fill the reservoir with the cooling mixture. After that we simply observe the
development of temperatures measured by both thermometers.

OBSERVATION: In the beginning of our measurement, before the addition of the cooling mixture, both
temperatures are similar, in our case between 5.5 °C and 6.0 °C; the better the water is stirred, the
smaller the difference we can expect.

After adding the cooling mixture, the water cools down in the middle of the cylinder, increases its
density and sinks to the bottom – the lower section of the cylinder fills up with cold water and the
temperature t2 decreases, whereas t1 reads around 6-7 oC.

The situation changes when the lower half of the cylinder fills up with water at approx. 4 °C, which
reaches its maximal density at that point. Subsequent cooling of water to temperatures lower than 4 °C
leads to a decrease in density – this colder water therefore accumulates in the upper half of the cylinder.
Whereas the temperature t2 stabilizes around 4 °C, the temperature t1 rapidly decreases all the way to
0 °C.