Thermodynamics

Introduction: The word thermodynamics is the combination of two Greek words, thermo and
dynamics. Thermo means heat and dynamics means motion. Thus, thermodynamics means the
movement of heat.

Definition: The branch of physics dealing with the relationship between heat and work is known
thermodynamics. OR

The science of heat and entropy is known as thermodynamics. OR The theory of heat, temperature
and the behaviour of a system of large particles is called thermodynamics.

The study of heat and its transformation to mechanical energy is known as thermodynamics.

The study of the transformation of heat into other forms of energy (such as mechanical energy,
electrical energy) and other forms of energies into heat energy is known as thermodynamics. Thus
we can say that thermodynamics is the study of heat and its transformation to mechanical energy.

Thermodynamics deals with the conversion of heat into mechanical work. It is easy to produce heat
by doing mechanical work. For example, if you rub your hands, practically mechanical work is
converted into heat.

Thermodynamics explains nicely the working of heat engine, refrigerator, heat pump and entropy of
a system.

Thermodynamics is based on four important laws;

(i) First law of thermodynamics (ii) Second law of thermodynamics

(iii) Zeroth law of thermodynamics (iv) Third law of thermodynamics

Thermal equilibrium:

Definition: Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium if the transformation of heat between
them is zero when they are brought in contact. OR

Two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other if they have the same
temperature.

Explanation: Consider a hot body (such as iron) is placed in a cold body (such as water), then it will
be observed that heat transfer from the hot iron to cold water. The net transfer of heat is due to
temperature difference between the two bodies.. In this transfer of heat, the hot iron loses heat due
which its decreases while the water gains heat due to which its temperature increases. But with the
passage of time, the temperature difference between the iron and water decreases and thus the net
transfer of heat also decreases. A stage will reach at which the iron and water will have the same
temperature. At this stage the net transfer of heat between iron and water stops and they are said to
be in thermal equilibrium.

When thermal equilibrium is reached, then the temperature difference between the bodies becomes
zero. Thus the net transfer of heat becomes zero.

In any heat exchange system, the net resultant temperature attained by the two bodies at different
temperature when brought in contact for sufficient long time is called equilibrium temperature. At
this equilibrium temperature, the heat is lost by hot body equal to the heat is gained by cold body
i.e.

Heat lost by hot body heat gained by cold body

This process is called law of heat exchange.

Heat:

Definition: The energy which is transferred from one body to another body due to the temperature
difference between two bodies is known as heat or thermal energy. OR

The form of energy associated with the molecular motion is known as heat. OR

The total kinetic energy of all the molecules of a body is called heat. Greater the K.E of the molecules
of a body, greater will be the thermal energy (heat) possessed by the body. For example, when a
metal is struck with a hammer then it becomes hot due to which molecules of the metal move faster
and K.E of the molecules increases. Hence, metal becomes hot.

Explanation: When a hot body is placed in contact with a cold body, heat is transferred from the
hot body to the cold body. This transfer of heat between the two bodies is due to their temperature.
When we hold an iron rod on the fire, then iron rod becomes hot after some time. It means that
there is something that flows from fire to the iron rod, which increases its temperature. This
something which is transferred from fire to the iron rod is known as heat.

Similarly, when the hot iron is placed into cold water, then there is something which flows from the
hot iron to cold water. This something which flows from hot iron to cold water is called heat. Thus
heat is the form of energy which flows from one body to another body due to the temperature
difference only when they are brought in thermal contact.

Units of heat: There are two commonly used units of heat i-e calorie and joule.
(i) Calorie: In C.G.S system the unit of heat is calorie. The amount of heat energy required to
increase the temperature of 1gm of pure water through 10C is known as calorie.

For example, if 5 gram of water is heated from 50 0C to 600C, then the amount of heat required for
this is equal to 5 10 = 50 calories.

Note: Bigger unit of heat is C.G.S system is kilocalorie. One kilocalorie is defined as “the amount of
energy required to increase the temperature of 1kg of pure water through 1 0C.

1 kilocalories = 1000 calories

1 kilocalorie = 4186 joule

(ii) Joule: In SI system the unit of heat is joule (J). The amount of work done that produces heat of
0.42 calorie is known as joule. Experimentally it is found that 1 calorie is equal to 4.184 joules i-e

1 cal = 4.186 J

(iii) British Thermal Unit (B.T.U): In F.P.S system, the unit of heat is B.T.U (British Thermal Unit).
One BTU is defined as “the amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of 1 pound
of pure water through 10F.

1 B.T.U = 252 calories . . . . (1)

We know that

1 calorie = 4.184 joule

Equation (1) becomes;

1 B.T.U = 252 joules

1 B.T.U = 1055 joule

Theories about heat:

(i) Caloric Theory:

According to this theory, heat is a kind of some fluid known as caloric. Caloric is an invisible,
weightless and a tasteless fluid. The caloric cannot be produced but can be transferred from one
body to another. When caloric is added to a body, it becomes hot and when caloric is removed from
a body then it becomes cold. When a hot body is placed in contact with a cold body, then caloric
flows from the hotter body to the colder body till the two bodies attain same temperature. Caloric
theory was failed because it was unable to explain production of heat in many thermodynamic
processes like production of heat by friction.
(ii) Mechanical Theory:

With passage of time, experiments showed that heat (caloric) can be produced. The theory which
showed that heat can be produced is called mechanical theory. According to mechanical theory, heat
is form of energy which can be produced when two bodies rubbed together.

Work:

When two bodies are rubbed together, then work is done against the force of friction which exists
between the surfaces of two bodies. This work is the mechanical energy which is produced due to
rubbing of two bodies together, converts into heat energy that warms the bodies. A few examples
are as follows;

• It is possible to warm up our hands by rubbing them together.

• When a nail hits with a hammer in hard surface, the nail gets hot.

• Pumping air in tire with hand pump, heat up the pump.

In all these examples work is done on the body which warm up without supply of heat.

Difference between Work and heat:

Both work and heat are the forms of energy. To warm a body by heat, the temperature difference
between the bodies is required while to warm a body in case of work, temperature difference
between the bodies is not necessary.

Equivalence of heat and work:

The equivalence between heat and work was established by Count Rumford, James Joule and others.

Count Rumford’s observations:

In 1798, Count Rumford observed that heat is a form of energy, which can be produced when two
bodies are rubbed together. In rubbing process, work done against the frictional force is converted
into heat. This was verified by Joule in 1845. The work done against the frictional force is
mechanical energy, which is converted into heat energy. He was unable to derive the mathematical
relationship between work and heat. Count Rumford was unable to derive the mathematical
relationship between heat and work.

Joule’s Mechanical Theory:

In 1845, Joule experimentally verified the idea of Count Rumford. Joule conducted a series of
experiments and established a relation between heat and work. According to this theory work and
heat are interchangeable. He showed that when a given amount of work is done, the same amount
of heat is always produced. He showed that the work done is directly proportional to quantity of
heat. Mathematically,

Where “J” is the constant of proportionality and it is called Mechanical equivalent of heat or Joule’s
constant.

The ratio of work done in joules to the heat produced in calories is called mechanical equivalent of
heat (J).

Unit: Its SI unit is joule/calorie (J/Cal).

The currently accepted value of mechanical equivalent of heat is; 1 J = 4.18 Joule/calorie.

Temperature:

Definition: The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature.

According to the kinetic molecular theory of gases, the temperature can also be defined as “the
average kinetic energy associated with the molecular motion of a body. Greater the average K.E of
molecules of a body, greater will its temperature and vice versa.

When two bodies at different temperature are brought in contact, heat flows from the hotter body
to the colder body till the temperature of the two bodies become equal. Thus temperature is a
physical quantity which determines the direction of flow of heat from a hot body to the cold body
when they are brought in thermal contact.

Difference between Temperature and Heat: Consider the ocean and a glass of water at the same
temperature. The average K.E of one molecule in the ocean is equal to the average K.E of water
molecule in the glass. But ocean contains more thermal energy (heat) than water in the glass
because water molecules are much more in the ocean than in the glass.
 Conceptual questions:
(i) After snow fall, the temperature of the atmosphere becomes very low. This is because the snow
absorbs the heat from the atmosphere to melt down. So, in the mountains, when snow falls, one
does not feel too cold, but when ice melts, he feels too cold.

(ii) There is more shivering effect of ice-cream on teeth as compared to that of water (obtained
from ice). This is because, when ice-cream melts down, it absorbs large amount of heat from teeth.

(iii) It is more painful to get burnt by steam rather than by boiling water at same temperature. This
is because when steam at 100°C gets converted to water at 100°C, then it gives out 536 calories of
heat. So, it is clear that steam at 100°C has more heat than water at 100°C (i.e., boiling of water).

(iv) A solid and hollow sphere of same radius and material, heated to the same temperature then
expansion of both will be equal because thermal expansion of isotropic solids is similar to true
photographic enlargement. It means the expansion of cavity is same as if it has been a solid body of
the same material. But if same heat is given to the two spheres, due to lesser mass, rise in
temperature of hollow sphere will be more
Hence its expansion will be more.

Internal energy (U):

Definition: The sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules of a gas is known as
internal energy. OR The sum of translation, rotation and vibrational kinetic energy and potential
energy associated with the random motion of the atoms or molecules of the substance (system ) is
called Internal energy.

Internal energy = Translational K.E Rotational K.E vibrational K.E Potential energy.

Explanation: According to the kinetic molecular theory of gases, the molecules of ideal gas do not
exert intermolecular forces on each other. So the ideal gas molecules do not possess potential
energy (P.E). As a result internal energy of ideal gas is totally kinetic energy.

Internal energy (U) in case of ideal gas,

But in case of real gases, the molecules of real gases exert intermolecular forces of attraction on
each other and so they possess potential energy (P.E) in addition to kinetic energy (K.E). Potential
energy is due to the binding forces between the molecules of gases.

Internal energy (U) in case of real gas,

When the heat is added to a system, then it is converted into internal energy of that system. Internal
energy is a state variable and it has a unique value at certain state of the system.

Note: (i) If volume of a gas increases at constant temperature (T= constant), the K.E energy remains
constant (as K.E depends on temperature only) but the P.E increases. So internal energy (U) of the
gas will increase. Hence, we can say that internal energy (U) of a gas depends on volume of the gas
as well as on temperature.

(ii) In the limit of low pressure, P.E of the gas molecules will be negligible. In this case internal
energy is totally kinetic and depends only on temperature. Internal energy of an ideal gas is totally
due to the K.E of the gas molecules.

System:

Anything which is under the observation (study) is known as a system. OR

The quantity of matter (solid, liquid and gas) enclosed by some boundary is known as system.

For example: Tea in a cup, gas in a cylinder or air in a balloon represents a system.

Surroundings:

Everything other than the system is known as surroundings of a system. OR

Everything outside the boundary of a system is called the surroundings of a system.

Boundary:

Anything which separates a system from its surrounding is called boundary of a system.

Something (wall) which encloses the system is known as its boundary.

For example: walls of a cylinder represent a boundary.

The exchange of energy between the surrounding and system can take place through the boundary.

Types of system: There are three types of a system.

(i) Closed system: A system in which there is an exchange of heat between the system and its
surrounding but no exchange of matter (mass) is known as closed system. OR
The system in which there is a transformation of energy across its boundary but there is no
transformation of mass is known as closed system.

In a closed system, the transfer of heat energy can take place from system to surroundings and vice
versa.
Example: Hot water in a cylinder is example of a closed system.

(ii) Open system: A system in which there is an exchange of both heat and energy between the
system and surrounding is known as open system.

In an open system, the transfer of mass and energy can take place from system to surroundings
and vice versa.

Example: Animals, human beings and plants are the examples of open system because they
exchange material (food, oxygen, waste products) with surroundings.

(iii) Isolated system: A system in which there is no exchange of heat and energy between the
system and surrounding is known as isolated system. OR

A system in which no heat enters or leaves the system is called isolated system.

Example: Thermo-flask (thermos bottle) an example of nearly isolated system.

Walls of a cylinder: Anything which separates a system from its surrounding is called walls of the
system. There are two types of walls.

(i) Adiabatic walls: The walls of a cylinder through which heat cannot pass are known as adiabatic
walls.

(ii) Diathermic walls:

The walls of a cylinder through which heat can pass are called diathermic walls.

Thermodynamics state:

Definition: The definite values of pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature (T) of a gas at any time
represent the state of the gas (system).

Explanation: When a gas reaches its equilibrium state, at equilibrium the gas has definite values of
pressure (P), volume (P) and temperature (T). These definite values of P, V and T represent the
thermodynamic state of the gas. For example, if a gas has pressure, volume and temperature , then ,
and represent the state of a gas (system).

State variables OR Thermodynamics state variables:

Definition: Those parameters (or variables) which show the state of a system in thermodynamics
are called state variables. OR

The variables (P, V and T) which determine the behaviour of a system (gas) is called state variables.

For example, pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature (T), are state variables.

The internal energy is also a state variable but heat and work are not state variable because there is
no way to measure how much heat or work a system contains. Entropy of a system is also a state
variable.

Note: State variables do not depend on the history or path of the system while those variables
which depend on the path are called path variables. For example, work (W) and heat (Q) are the
path variables.

Thermodynamic process: A thermodynamic process is said to be taking place if the

thermodynamic variables (P, V and T etc.) of the system change with time.

Equation of state:

Definition: The relationship between pressure, volume, temperature and number of moles (n) for a
given mass of gas (system) is known as equation of state.

The equation of state for n moles of an ideal gas is given by,

PV=nRT

First law of thermodynamics (FLOT):

Statement: This law states that “heat can be converted into other forms of energy and other forms
of energy can be converted into heat energy but the total energy remains constant. OR

This law state that in any thermodynamic process, when heat is added to a system, this heat will
increase the internal energy of the system plus the work done by the system on its surrounding.

Mathematically,

Explanation: Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder provided with a movable piston having
conducting base and non-conducting walls. When amount of heat is added to the system (gas), part
of this energy is used to increase the internal energy of the system from by increasing its
temperature and the remaining heat is used in work done (W) by the system on its surrounding
such that,
Sign Convention: (i) Heat supplied or added to a system is taken as positive i-e .

(ii) Head removed from a system is taken as negative i-e = Neagative.

(iii) Work done by the system on its surroundings (expansion) is taken as positive i-e = Positive.

(iv) ) Work done on the system by its surrounding (contraction) is taken as negative i-e = negative.

(v) Increase in internal energy is taken as positive (when Temperature of the system increases), but
if temperature of the system decreases then internal energy is taken as negative.

FLOT and Conservation of energy:

First law of thermodynamics is consistent with the law of conservation of energy. Using 1 st law of
thermodynamics,

Heat energy supplied = internal energy + work done by the system (mechanical energy)

The left hand side of the above equation shows that the heat energy supplied to a system is equal to
the increase in internal energy plus the work done by the system i-e the total energy is remains
constant.

In terms of internal energy , 1st first law of thermodynamics can be written as,

Equation (1) shows that the change in internal energy of a system is equal to the energy flowing
into the system as heat energy minus the energy flowing out as work. The change in internal energy
of the system is the measure of energy contained by a system.

The change in internal energy of a system depends upon the initial and final state of the
system but does not depend on the path taken between the two states.

Practical Examples of First Law of Thermodynamics:

(i) Bicycle pump: When we pushes handle of bicycle pump up & down, it becomes hot due to
mechanical work done on the air which further increases the internal energy.

Let the opening of bicycle pump is blocked and a thermometer is connected through the blocked
opening to note its temperature. When the handle (piston) of pump is rapidly pushed up & down,
the thermometer shows rise in temperature of the air inside the pump. The pushing force does
mechanical work is done on the air inside the pump which increases its internal energy due to
which temperature of air rises.

(ii) Human metabolism also works on the first law of thermodynamics.

Applications of the first law of thermodynamics:

(1) Isochoric process: (Iso means same and chor means volume)

Definition: The process in which the volume of a system remains constant is called isochoric
process. OR The process that occurs at constant volume is called isochoric process.

Isochoric process is also known as isometric Process.

Equation of state: In isochoric process, P and T changes but V = constant. Hence Gay-Lussac’s law is
applicable in this process i.e. P T constant
Example: Consider an ideal gas is enclosed in a cylinder having a conducting base and non-
conducting walls provided with a fixed non-conducting fixed piston as show in figure.
Let be the heat supplied to the system (ideal gas) at constant volume such that its temperature
increases from to. To keep the volume constant, its pressure increases from to . Since the gas
neither expands nor contracts, so no work is done on the system (W=0).

According to the first law of thermodynamics,

For isochoric process (W=0), equation becomes,

Thus in case of isochoric process, the all heat energy supplied to the system is used to increase the
internal energy of the system due to which the pressure and temperature of the gas will also
increase.

Note: During isochoric process, when the heat energy is removed from the system then the
internal energy of the system decreases (becomes negative) and thus the pressure and
temperature of the system also decreases which will cool down the system.

Graph for Isochoric process: The graph for isochoric process is a straight line parallel to pressure
axis and the graph is known as isochors.
(2) Isobaric process: (Iso means same and bar means pressure)

Definition: The process in which the pressure of the system is kept constant is called isobaric
process. OR The process that occurs at constant pressure is called isobaric process.

Equation of state: In isobaric process, V and T changes but P remains constant. Hence Charle’s law
is applicable to this process.

Hence if pressure remains constant, then

V T V=kT

Explanation: Consider an ideal gas is enclosed in a cylinder having conducting base and non-
conducting walls provided with a non-conducting movable frictionless piston of cross sectional area
“A” as shown in figure.

Let the heat supplied added to the system at constant pressure (P = constant), the system (gas)
expands such its volume increases from to and its temperature increases from to due to which the
piston moves upward through a small displacement. If the displacement of piston is very small, then
the pressure of system will not change and can be consider constant. If the piston moves through a
small displacement in the upward direction, then the work done by the gas against the surrounding
is,

As are in the same direction, so angle between them is .

We know that

Put value of “F” in equation (1), we get;

For isobaric process first law of thermodynamics becomes,

Putting value of in equation (2), we get;

This equation shows that heat added to the system is partly used to increase the internal energy of
the system and partly used in work done to move the piston against the surrounding.

Graph for Isobaric process: For Isobaric process, the graph is a straight line parallel to volume
axis. The graph of Isobaric process is called Isobar.

Examples of isobaric process: All state changes occur at constant temperature and pressure.
Boiling of water
(i) Water vapours
(ii) Temperature constant
(iii) Volume increases
Isothermal process: (iso means same and therm means temperature)

Definition: The thermodynamics process in which the temperature of the system remains constant
is called isothermal process. OR The process that occurs at constant temperature is known as
isothermal process.

Equation of state: In this process, P and V change but T = constant (i.e. change in temperature T =
0).

For isothermal process, Boyle’s law is applicable i.e. PV= constant (T) P1V1 = P2V2
Explanation: Consider an ideal gas is enclosed in a cylinder having a conducting base and non-
conducting walls fitted with a movable frictionless piston as shown in figure. Let the cylinder
containing ideal gas is placed on a heat reservoir at temperature “T” and be the amount of heat
supplied to the system at constant temperature (T = constant) such that its pressure and volume
changes.

Let this gas is allowed to expand slowly by decreasing weights (small stones) on the piston due to
which the piston moves upward slowly. This results increase in volumes and decrease in pressure.
Due to this expansion, work is done by the gas against the surrounding and thus gas cools down and
its temperature decrease. But in order to keep the temperature of the gas constant, heat is
continuously supplies from the heat reservoir.

According to the first law of thermodynamics,

For isothermal process, temperature is constant, so there will be no change in internal energy of the
system i-e , so equation (1) becomes,

Or

This equation shows that the heat supplied to a system during isotheral process is totally used to
do work done by the system against the surrounding.

Note: (i) For isothermal expansion (or , heat must be supplied to the system due to which volume of
the gas will increase, so work will be done by the system against the surrounding such that

(ii) For isothermal compression (or , heat must be removed from the system (gas) due to which
volume of the gas will decrease, so the work will be done on the system by the surrounding such
that

(iii) Isothermal process obeys Boy’s law PV = constant

(iv) Isothermal process should be carried out very very slowly.

Example of isothermal process: Melting of ice (at 0°C) and boiling of water (at 100°C) are
common example of this process.

Graph for isothermal process: The curve of isothermal process is called isotherm.

Note: Area between the isotherm and volume axis represents the work done in isothermal process.

If volume increases W = + (Area under curve) and if volume decreases W = – (Area under curve)
(4) Adiabatic process (or isolated process):

Definition: The thermodynamic process in which no heat enters or leaves the system is known as
adiabatic process. OR The process which is carried out in thermal isolation is called isothermal
process.

Equation of state: In adiabatic process, change ideal gases do not obeys Boyle's law but obeys
Poisson's law. According to Poisson's,

where

Explanation: Consider an ideal gas is enclosed a in cylinder having conducting base and non-
conducting walls provided with a non-conducting movable frictionless piston as shown in figure.

Let the cylinder is placed on insulated stand so that no heat can enter or leave the system (gas). So,

It the gas is expand suddenly by decreasing the pressure on the piston, then the gas will cool down
and its temperature decreases as no heat can enter the gas. Therefore, the internal energy of the gas
will decrease. Similarly if the gas is compressed suddenly, the gas will be heated up and the
temperature of gas will increase as no heat can leave the system. Therefore, the internal energy of
the gas will increase.

Using first law of thermodynamics,

In adiabatic process, no heat can enter or leave the system. So,

Putting value of in equation (1), we get;

This equation shows that during adiabatic expansion process, the work is done by the system at the
cost of internal energy, so internal energy of the system will decrease. Therefore internal energy will
be negative and work done will be positive.

During adiabatic compression the work is done on the system, so the internal energy of the system
will increase. Equation (2) can be written as,

Graph for adiabatic process: The graph of adiabatic process is known as adiabat.

Note: (i) A true adiabatic process is not possible.

(ii) As the temperature in adiabatic process does not constant, therefore Boyle’s law cannot be
applicable for adiabatic process. For adiabatic process, we use the relation,

Where
Essential conditions for adiabatic process:

(i) There should not be any exchange of heat between the system and its surroundings. All walls of
the container and the piston must be perfectly insulating.

(ii) The system should be compressed or allowed to expand suddenly so that there is no time for the
exchange of heat between the system and its surroundings.

Since, these two conditions are not fully realised in practice, so no process is perfectly adiabatic.

Examples of adiabatic process:

(i) Sudden compression or expansion of a gas in a container with perfectly non-conducting walls.

(ii) Sudden bursting of the tube of bicycle tyre.

(iii) Propagation of sound waves in air and other gases.

Free expansion: Free expansion is adiabatic process in which no work is performed on or by the
system. In free expansion, there is no transfer of heat between the system and surrounding and no
work is done on the system or by the system.

Consider two vessels placed in a system which is enclosed with thermal insulation (asbestos-
covered). One vessel contains a gas and the other is evacuated. When suddenly the stopcock is
opened, the gas rushes into the evacuated vessel and expands freely.
W = 0 (Because walls are rigid)
Q = 0 (Because walls are insulated)
U = Uf – Ui = 0 (Because Q and W are zero).
Thus the final and initial energies are equal in free expansion.
Comparison between isothermal and adiabatic indicator diagrams: Always remember that
adiabatic curves are more steeper than isothermal curves
(i) Equal expansion: Graph 1 represent isothermal process and 2 represent adiabatic process

(ii) Compression: Graph 1 represent adiabatic process and 2 represent isothermal process
Limitations of First law of thermodynamics (FLOT:

First law of thermodynamics fails to answer the following questions.

(i) This law does not tell indicate the direction of transfer of heat. We know that naturally heat
always flows from a hot body to a cold body but never the reverse. First law of thermodynamics
does not explain why heat cannot flow from a cold body to a hot body.

(ii) This law does not tell anything about the conditions under which heat can be converted into
work.

(iii) First law of thermodynamics does not tell why the whole heat energy cannot be converted into
mechanical work continuously.

The conversion of mechanical work into heat can be almost 100% but the conversion of heat into
mechanical work is never 100%.For example, if you rub your hands practically the whole
mechanical work done against friction is transformed into heat but the reverse cannot be 100%.
First law fails to explain this.

(iv) It does not tell us that how much heat can be converted into mechanical work.

(v) According to first law, ideal machine or heat engine is possible to construct but practically it is
not possible. A machine whose efficiency is 100% is called ideal machine. For example, in
isothermal expansion, , it means the total heat supplied is converted into work (i-e
efficiency=100%).

These drawbacks were removed by the second law of thermodynamics by introducing the concepts
of entropy.

Limitations: First law of thermodynamics does not indicate the direction of heat transfer. It does
not tell anything about the conditions, under which heat can be transformed into work and also it
does not indicate as to why the whole of heat energy cannot be converted into mechanical work
continuously.

Heat capacity and Specific heat of a substance (C):

Heat capacity of a substance:

Definition: The quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of a substance through 1 0C or
1k is called heat capacity of that substance.

Specific heat capacity of a substance (C):

Definition: The quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 0C or 1kg of a substance
through 1k is called specific heat or molar specific heat capacity of that substance.

Explanation: When heat is supplied to a body (solid or liquid), its temperature increases. It is found
that amount of heat absorbed by the body is directly proportional to mass (m) of the body and
increase in temperature

Mathematically,

Combining relations (1) and (2), we get;

Where “C” is the constant of proportionality known as heat capacity of the body,