Tempearature and Heat

Temperature and state coordinate:

In the study of mechanical systems, only three fundamental quantities have been
needed− length, mass, and time. All other mechanical quantities such as force,
energy, and momentum can be expressed in terms of these three quantities. We now
consider a class of phenomena called thermal or heat phenomenon that requires a
fourth fundamental quantity, called temperature.

Temperature can be defined as the quantity which determines whether a body will felt
hot or cold, worm or cool to touch.

In thermal phenomena, in any system the quantities such as length of an object, the
volume, pressure of liquid or gas or resistance of a body changes with the change of
temperature and is known as the state coordinate. Therefore L, V, P, R, etc are state
coordinates of the systems.

Thermal equilibrium:
If a body A which is felt hot and another body B is felt cold are placed in contact with
each other, after a sufficient length of time A and B give rise to the same temperature
sensation; then A and B are said to be in thermal equilibrium.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics:

According to zeroth law of thermodynamics, two systems in thermal equilibrium with a
third are in thermal equilibrium. If A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a
third body C then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Another statement of the zeroth law is, there exists a scalar quantity called
temperature which determines whether two bodies are in thermal equilibrium or not.
The essence of the zeroth law is the existence of a scalar quantity called temperature.

Phase equilibrium:
A material can exist in three phases namely solid, liquid, and gas. Only at a certain
definite temperature it is possible to exist two of the phases (solid & liquid, or liquid &
gas, or solid gas) together without changing their own phase. This condition is known
as phase equilibrium and is possible only if pressure is constant.

Melting point:
The temperature at which a solid and liquid of the same material coexist in phase
equilibrium at atmospheric pressure is called melting point. For water the melting point
is 0ºC.

Boiling point:
The temperature at which a liquid and vapour of the same material coexist in phase
equilibrium at atmospheric pressure is called boiling point. For water it is 100ºC.

Sublimation point:
If the solid and vapour phase are coexist at a definite temperature, it is called
sublimation point.

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PHY 101/Chapter- 6
Triple point of water:
It is possible for all three phases of water to coexist in equilibrium only at a definite
pressure and temperature, known as triple point. The pressure of triple point of water
is 610Pa or 4.58mm Hg and the temperature is 0.01ºC or 273.16K.

Different temperature scales:

Thermometer is used to measure the temperature. There are three well known scales
for measuring temperature, namely Celcius, Rankine and Farenhite scale. They are
related as
C F  32 R
 
5 9 4
There is another scale of temperature which is adopted as SI unit of temperature. This
is Kelvin scale and is defined as
0ºK = -273.15ºC or 0ºC = 273.15ºK

Definition of heat:
Heat is a form of energy which is transferred between a system and its surroundings
because of the temperature difference only.

Units of quantity of heat:

In the eighteenth century, a unit of quantity of heat, the calorie was defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm of water 1K or 1ºC. It was
found later that more heat was required to raise the temperature of 1gm of water from
90ºC to 91ºC than from 30ºC to 31ºC.
The definition was then refined, and the chose calorie became “15ºC calorie”, that is
“the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1gm of water from 14.5ºC to
15.5ºC”.
A corresponding unit defined in terms of Fahrenheit degrees and British units is the
British thermal units, or BTU.
By definition, 1BTU is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1lb of
water from 63ºF to 64ºF.
A third unit in common use, especially in measuring food energy, is kcal. The relations
among these three units are
1BTU = 252cal = 0.252kcal

Heat capacity:
The heat required to change the temperature of a body a unit amount is defined as the
heat capacity of that body. It is denoted by C.
Q
C  …………. (1)
T
unit: The SI unit of heat capacity is JK-1.

Specific heat capacity:

The heat required per unit temperature rise per unit mass of the body is known as the
specific heat capacity. It is denoted by c.
dQ
c  …………. (2)
mdT
where m is the mass of the body.
unit: The SI unit of specific heat capacity is Jkg-1K-1.
To calculate the quantity of heat, we have from (2)
dQ  mcdT

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PHY 101/Chapter- 6
Integrating, we get
T2

Q  mc  dT
T1

 Q  mcT2  T1 
This is the quantity of heat to change the temperature from T1 to T2 of a body whose
mass is m and specific heat capacity is c.

Change of phase:
We know any matter can exist in three phases− solid, liquid and gas; and at a
particular temperature two of their phase can exist without changing their phase.
Above this temperature the phase is changed.

For water at 0ºC the solid and liquid phase can coexist. As soon as this temperature is
reached, the ice begins to melt and temperature remains 0ºC until all the ice has been
melted. The heat required to melt all the ice at a fixed temperature is known as the
heat of fusion of ice and is measured as the unit of Jkg-1. For ice, the heat of fusion is
3.34×105 Jkg-1.
At 100ºC the liquid water and water vapor can coexist and if the heat is being supplied
continuously after reaching 100ºC the liquid water starts to convert into vapor until all
the water has been converted.
The heat required to convert the liquid into its vapor at a constant temperature (boiling
point) is known as heat of vaporization. For water the heat of vaporization is 2.26×106
Jkg-1.
The temperature remains constant during each change of phase, providing the
pressure remain constant.

Heat transfer:
There are three processes of transferring heat energy form one place to another
namely
i) Conduction
ii) Convection
iii) Radiation
The processes are discussed below briefly.
Conduction:
If heat is transferred through a medium (or a body) only due to the energy transfer
from one particle to other particle of the medium; that is, if the particles of the medium
do not take part in transferring process then the process is known as conduction. In
solid bodies the heat is transferred by conduction process.
We can calculate the amount of heat which is transferred from one end to other of a
body of length L and are A. Experiment shows that for a body with uniform cross
section the heat transfer per unit time is directly proportional to the area of the body,
temperature difference between two ends of the body and inversely proportional to the
length of the body. i.e.
H A
HT2  T1 
1
H
L
KAT2  T1 
H 
L

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PHY 101/Chapter- 6
where K is a proportionality constant known as thermal conductivity of the body.
The quantity H is the heat transferred per unit time is known as the heat current.
If the cross section is not uniform then this expression can be written as
dT
H   KA
dx
The quantity dT/dx is known as temperature gradient. The (-ve) sign indicates that if T
increases with x then the direction of heat flow is the direction of decreasing x.

Convection:
Convection is process for transfer of heat by actual motion of material; that is, if the
particles of the medium take part in the transferring process the process is then called
convection. In liquids the heat is transferred by convection process.

Radiation:
If heat is transferred without any medium the process will be called radiation. We get
heat from the sun by radiation process.

Stefan-Boltzmann law:
The rate of radiation of energy from a surface is proportional to the surface area and to
the fourth power of the absolute temperature T. It also depends on the nature of the
surface, described by a dimensionless number e, which in between 0 and 1.
HAeT 4
 H  AeT 4
where ×Wm-2K-4 is universal physical constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant. e characterizing the emitting properties of a particular surface, is called the
emissivity.

Exercise 15-8: A calorimeter contains 100gm of water at 0ºC. A 1000gm copper cylinder
and a 1000gm lead cylinder, both at 100ºC, are placed in the calorimeter. Find the final
temperature if there is no loss of heat to the surroundings. The specific heat capacity
of water, copper, and lead are 4.19Jgm-1ºC-1, 0.47Jgm-1 ºC-1 and, 0.13Jgm-1 ºC-1,
respectively.

Solution:
Given that
mH 2 O  100 gm, mCu  1000 gm, mPb  1000 gm,1  0C , 2  3  100C
cH 2 O  4.19 Jgm 1 C 1 , cCu  0.47 Jgm 1 C 1 , cPb  0.13 Jgm 1 C 1
Let us suppose that the final temperature is f.
Heat absorbed by water Q1  mH 2 O cH 2 O  f  1   100  4.19   f  0
  
Heat released by copper Q2  mCu cCu  2   f  1000  0.47  100   f 
  
Heat released by lead Q3  mPb cPb 3   f  1000  0.13  100   f 
Since,
Heat released = Heat absorbed
Q2  Q3  Q1
 1000  0.47  100   f   1000  0.13  100   f   100  4.19   f  0 
 f  55.86C

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PHY 101/Chapter- 6
Exercise 15-10: An aluminium can of mass 500gm contains 117.5gm of water at a
temperature of 20ºC. A 200gm block of iron at a temperature of 75ºC is dropped into the
can. Find the final temperature assuming no heat loss to the surroundings. The
specific heat capacity of water, aluminium, and iron are 4.19Jgm-1ºC-1, 0.91Jgm-1 ºC-1
and, 0.47Jgm-1 ºC-1, respectively.

Solution:
Given that
mH 2 O  117.5 gm, mAl  500 gm, mI  200 gm,1   2  0C ,3  75C
cH 2 O  4.19 Jgm 1 C 1 , cI  0.47 Jgm 1 C 1 , c Al  0.91Jgm 1 C 1
Let us suppose that the final temperature is f.
Heat absorbed by water Q1  mH 2 O cH 2 O  f  1   117.5  4.19   f  20 
 
Heat absorbed by aluminium Q2  mAl c Al  f   2  500  0.91   f  20  
 
Heat released by iron Q3  mI cI 3   f  200  0.47  75   f  
Since,
Heat released = Heat absorbed
 Q3  Q1  Q2
 117.5  4.19   f  20   500  0.91   f  20   200  0.47  75   f 
 f  24.96C

Exercise 15-13: A copper calorimeter of mass 300gm contains 500gm of water at a

temperature of 15ºC. A 560gm block of copper at a temperature of 100ºC is dropped into
the calorimeter and the temperature is observed to increase to 22.5ºC. Find the specific
heat capacity of copper. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.19Jgm-1ºC-1.

Solution:
Given that
mCu  300 gm, mH 2 O  500 gm, mCu  block  560 gm,1   2  15C ,3  100C
 f  22.5C , cH 2O
 4.19 Jgm 1 C 1


Heat gained by calorimeter Q1  mCu cCu  f  1  300  cCu  22.5  15
Heat gained by water Q  m 2 c H 2O H 2O 
    500  4.19  22.5  15
f 2

Heat lost by copper Q3  mCu  block cCu  3   f   560  cCu  100  22.5
Since,
Heat lost = Heat gained
 Q3  Q1  Q2
 560  cCu  100  22.5  300  cCu  22.5  15  500  4.19  22.5  15
 cCu  0.382 Jgm 1 C 1

Problems for practice: Exercise 15- 14, 15- 26, 16- 01, 16- 03, 16- 09, 16- 12, 16-
21, 16- 26, 16- 27.

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PHY 101/Chapter- 6
 Kinetic Theory of Gases
Equation of state:
The state of a certain mass m of a material is described by its pressure P, volume V,
and temperature T. There is a functional relationship among these quantities, which is
V  f P, T , m 
That is, the volume of a certain mass of material depends on the pressure,
temperature, and mass. Any such relationship is called an equation of state.

Vapor pressure:
The pressure of vapor in equilibrium with liquid or solid at any temperature is called
vapor pressure of the substance at that temperature. The vapor pressure of a
substance is a function of temperature only, not of volume.

Humidity:
Atmospheric air is a mixture of gases consisting of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and
small amount of carbon-dioxide, water vapor, etc. The mass of water vapor per unit
volume is called absolute humidity.

Partial pressure:
The total pressure exerted by the atmosphere is the sum of the pressure exerted by
the component gases; these pressures are called partial pressure.

Molecular theory of matter:

Matter in all phases is composed of particles called molecules. The intermolecular
force which hold molecules of solid and liquid together are mainly electrical in nature.
When the molecules are far apart, as in gas, the intermolecular force is very small and
attractive. When the gas is compressed, the force increases. In liquids, relatively large
pressure is required to compress the substance appreciably.

Avogadro’s number:
One mole of any pure chemical contains a definite number of molecules, the same
number for all compounds. The number of molecules in a mole is called Avogadro’s
number and is denoted by NA.
N A  6.023  1023 molecules mol-1
If m is the mass of a single molecule and M is the molecular mass of the compound,
then the mass of one mole is
M  N Am
For example, the mass of one mole of hydrogen molecule is 2gm (molecular mass). It
means that 2gm of hydrogen contains 6.023×1023 molecules.

Equation of state for an ideal gas:

At low densities, all gases, no matter what their chemical composition, tend to show a
certain relationship among the thermodynamic variables; the pressure P, volume V and
temperature T. This suggests the concept of an ideal gas, one that would have the
same simple behavior under all conditions.
We can find the relationship by considering a gas of pressure P, volume V, and
temperature T. We find that

a) For a given mass of gas held at a constant temperature the pressure is

inversely proportional to the volume, i.e.

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PHY 101/Chapter- 6
 1
V (At constant T)
P
This is known as Boyle’s law.
b) For a given mass of gas held at a constant pressure the volume is directly
proportional to the temperature, i.e.
VT (At constant P)
This is known as Charles law.
c) For a given mass of gas held at a constant volume the pressure is directly
proportional to the temperature, i.e.
PT (At constant V)
This is known as pressure law.
We can summarize these three experimental results by the relation
PV
 constant
T
PV
 nR
T
 PV  nRT
where n is the number of moles and R is known as the universal gas constant having a
value R = 8.314 Joule mole-1 ºK-1.
Therefore, we define an ideal gas that obeys this relation under all conditions.

Assumption of an ideal gas:

From the microscopic point of view we can define an ideal gas by making following
assumptions.
1. A gas consists of particles called molecules.
2. The molecules are in random motion and obey Newton’s laws of motion.
3. The total number of molecules is large.
4. The volume of molecules is a negligibly small fraction of volume occupied by
the gas.
5. No appreciable forces act on the molecules except during a collision.
6. Collisions are elastic and are of negligible duration.

Exercise 17-3: A tank consists of 0.5m3 of nitrogen at 27ºC and 1.5×105Pa. What is the
pressure if the volume is increased to 5.0m3 and the temperature is increased to 327
º
C?

Solution:
Given that
V1  0.5m3 , T1  27 o C  300 K , P1  1.5  105 Pa ,V2  5m3 , T2  327 o C  600 K
We know
P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2
P1V1T2 1.5  105  0.5  600
 P2  
T1V2 300  5
 P2  3  10 4 Pa

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PHY 101/Chapter- 6
Exercise 17-4: A tank having a volume of 0.10m3 is filled with oxygen at a gauge
pressure of 4.0×105Pa and temperature of 47oC. Later it is found that, because of a
leak, the gauge pressure has dropped to 3.0×105Pa and temperature has decreased to
27oC. Find a) the initial mass of oxygen and b) the mass that has leaked out.

Solution:
Given that
V1  0.1m3 , T1  49o C  320 K , P1  1.01  105  4  105  5.01  105 Pa ,
P2  1.01  105  3  105  4.01  105 Pa ,V2  0.1m3 , T2  27 o C  300 K
We know
PV  nRT
a) Therefore
P1V1
n  18.8moles
RT1
Total mass = no. of moles × molar mass of oxygen = 18.8 × 32 = 602gm = 0.602kg.
b) Again
P2V2
n   16.08moles
RT2
Therefore
Mass of the gas remaining in the tank = 16.08 × 32 = 514.72gm
Mass of the gas leaked out = 602 – 514.72 = 87.2gm

Problems for practice: Exercise 17- 5, 17- 12.

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PHY 101/Chapter- 6