Thermo-

dynamics
BEN, JAN RESTY DEL C.
BOLA, MARK ANTHONY P.
BUNAG, KERVIL KORDEL
CORTEZ, IAN KARL
DE GUZMAN, RYLE D.

ENGINEERING SCIENCE
VISTA, IZACH BENEDICT
THERMODYNAMICS
OVERVIEW
Thermodynamics is the field of
physics that deals with the
relationship between heat and
other properties (such as
pressure, density, temperature,
etc.) in a substance.
It focuses largely on how a heat transfer
is related to various energy changes
within a physical system undergoing a
thermodynamic process. Such processes
usually result in work being done by the
system and are guided by the laws of
thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is the study of relationship
between energy and entropy, which deals with
heat and work. It is a set of theories that
correlate macroscopic properties that we can
measure
to energy and its capability to deliver work.
A thermodynamic system is defined as a
quantity of matter of fixed mass and
identity.
Some thermodynamics applications include the
design of:
air conditioners and refrigerators

turbo chargers and superchargers in

automobile engines

steam turbines in power generation plants

jet engines used in aircraft

Engineering thermodynamics plays a major role in the
consideration of power generation, air-conditioning, chemical
reactions, cryogenics (low temperatures) and low pressure
systems. In general, thermodynamic concepts can be applied over
a whole range of sciences, including biological systems, and they
govern the way in which energy can be transformed between its
various forms.
Temperature
- Temperature is a measure of the amount of
heat energy possessed by an object.
- It has three main scales
- Fahrenheit (°F) scale, the Celsius (°C)
scale, and the Kelvin (K)
Daniel
Gabriel
Fahrenheit
(1686-1736)
Using this scale,
Fahrenheit measured the
temperature of boiling
water as 212°F on his
scale. He later adjusted
the freezing point of
water from 30°F to 32°F
Anders
Celsius (1701-
1744)
The centigrade scale was
renamed the Celsius scale
and the freezing point of
water was set at 0°C and
the boiling point of
water at 100°C. After his
death, it is renamed to
Celsius scale.
Lord William
Kelvin
(1824-1907)
The Kelvin scale is based
on the idea of absolute
zero, the theoretical
temperature at which all
molecular motion stops and
no discernible energy can
be detected. In theory, the
zero point on the Kelvin
scale is the lowest
possible temperature that
exists in the universe: -
273.15ºC. The freezing
point of water is therefore
273.15 K and 373.15 K is
the boiling point of water.
Applications of Temperature
Help maintain the quality of products that
are put on storage warehouses and transport.
Theremometer: A device used to measure the
temperature of gaseous, liquid or solid
matter or of a chemical reaction such as
fire. Temperature measurement is important to
a wide range of activities, including
industry, scientific research, and health
care.
Specific heat
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat
energy required to raise the temperature of a
substance per unit of mass.
Heat capacity is defined as the ratio of the
amount of energy transferred to a material
and the change in temperature that is
produced:

C = Q / ΔT
where C is heat capacity, Q is energy
(usually expressed in joules), and ΔT is the
change in temperature (usually in degrees
Celsius or in Kelvin).
Alternatively, the equation may be
written:

Q = CmΔT

Specific heat and heat capacity are

related by mass:
C = m * S

Where C is heat capacity, m is the

mass of a material, and S is specific
heat. Note that since specific heat is
per unit mass, its value does not
change, no matter the size of the
sample. So, the specific heat of a
gallon of water is the same as the
Thermal
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity (k) is “the rate at
which heat passes through a specified
material, expressed as the amount of heat
that flows per unit time through a unit area
with a temperature gradient of one degree per
unit distance,” according to the Oxford
Dictionary. The unit for k is watts (W) per
meter (m) per kelvin (K). Values of k for
metals such as copper and silver are
relatively high at 401 and 428 W/m·K,
Thermal conductivity is also known as a
crucial component of the relationship between
materials, and the ability to understand it
enables us to achieve the best performance
out of the materials that we use in all
aspects of our lives.
Fourier’s law of thermal conduction (also
known as the law of heat conduction) states
that the rate at which heat is transferred
through a material is proportional to the
negative of the temperature gradient and is
also proportional to the area through which
the heat flows. The differential form of this
law can be expressed through the following
equation:

q = -k.∇T
Where ∇T refers to the temperature gradient,
q denotes the thermal flux or heat flux, and
k refers to the thermal conductivity of the
An illustration describing the thermal
conductivity of a material in terms of the
flow of heat through it is provided above. In
this example, Temperature1 is greater than
Temperature2. Therefore, the thermal
conductivity can be obtained via the
following equation:

Heat Flux = -k * (Temperature2 –

Temperature1)/Thickness
Every substance has its own capacity
to conduct heat. The thermal
conductivity of a material is
described by the following formula:
K = (QL)/(AΔT)
NEWTON’S
LAW OF COOLING
In 1701, Sir Isaac Newton first stated his
Law of Cooling in a short article titled
Scala graduum Caloris ("A Scale of the
Degrees of Heat

"the rate of change of temperature is

proportional to the difference between the
temperature of the object and that of the
surrounding environment."
Temperature difference in any situation
results from energy flow into a system or
energy flow from a system to surroundings.
Newton's law of cooling (or heating) states
that the temperature of a body changes at a
rate proportional to the difference in
temperature between the body and its
surroundings.
Suppose that a body with initial temperature
T1°C, is allowed to cool in air which is
maintained at a constant temperature T2°C.
Let the temperature of the body be T°C at
time t.
Then by Newton’s Law of Cooling,

𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘(𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
𝑑𝑡

Where k is a positive proportionality

constant. Since the temperature of the body
is higher than the temperature of the
surroundings then T-T2 is positive
The constant ‘k’ depends upon the
surface properties of the material
being cooled.
Initial condition is given by T=T1 at
t=0
Solving (1)
Applying initial conditions;

This equation represents Newton’s law of cooling.

If k <0, lim t --> ∞, e-kt = 0 and T= T2
In general,

where,
T(t) = Temperature at time t,
TA = Ambient temperature (temp of
surroundings),
TH = Temperature of hot object at time 0,
k = positive constant and
t = time.
 Example of Newton's Law of Cooling:

.
NEWTON’S
LAW OF COOLING
Heat – is the transfer of kinetic energy from
one medium or object to another, or from an
energy source to a medium or object.

Temperature – the amount of heat energy

available for work in a system.

Kinetic Energy Motion:

1. Translation
2. Rotational
3. Vibrational
Two physical systems are in thermal
equilibrium if there is no net flow of
thermal energy between them when they are
connected by a path permeable to heat.

Thermal Expansion – all phases of matter

expand with higher temperature.

A hot object will have more kinetic energy

which means faster moving particles.

A cold object will have less kinetic energy

which means slower moving particles.
Modes of Heat Transfer:
Conduction - occurs when two object at
different temperatures are in contact with
each other. Conduction is the movement of
heat through a substance by the collision of
molecules.
Convection – In liquids and gases, convection
is usually the most efficient way of heat
transfer. Convection occurs when warmer areas
of a liquid or gas rise to cooler areas in
the liquid or gas.
Natural Convection – variations in the
temperature of a fluid create natural
movement without any external forces.

Forced Convection – something external like a fan or the

wind moves the fluid.

Radiation – Both conduction and convection require matter to

transfer heat. Radiation is a method of heat transfer that does not
rely upon any contact between the heat source and the heated
object.
Examples:
1. What is the rate of heat flow through a glass window
that is 2m x 3m and 1.4cm thick if the outside
temperature is 22C and the inside temperature is 25C ? K
= 0.84 J/ s m C

2. A sphere (e= 0.42) of radius 25cm is at 27C. It’s

placed in a room with a temperature of 2C.
a. What is the rate of heat energy leaving the sphere?
b. What is the rate of heat energy entering the sphere?
c. What is the net rate of heat energy for the sphere?
List of Phase Changes Between States of
Matter

Melting - Melting is the process by which a

substance changes from the solid phase to the
liquid phase.
Freezing - is the process through which a
substance changes from a liquid to a solid.

Vaporization, or evaporation, is the process

by which molecules undergo a spontaneous
transition from a liquid phase to a gas
phase.

Condensation - the opposite of evaporation,

is the change in the state of matter from the
Deposition - is the settling of particles or
sediment onto a surface. The particles may
originate from a vapor, solution, suspension,
or mixture. Deposition also refers to the
phase change from gas to solid.

Sublimation is the transition from a solid

phase to a gas phase without passing through
an intermediate liquid phase.

Ionization energy (Gas to Plasma) - is the

energy required to remove an electron from a
gaseous atom or ion. Recombination (Plasma to
Gas) - Turning off the power to a neon light
allows the ionized particles to return to the
gas phase.
Applications of Heat Transfer
Energy production and conversion
-steam power plant, solar energy conversion
etc.
-Refrigeration and air-conditioning
-Domestic applications
-ovens, stoves, toaster
-Cooling of electronic equipment
-Manufacturing/materials processing
-welding, casting, soldering, laser machining
-Automobiles/aircraft design
-Nature (weather, climate etc)
Entropy
All thermodynamic systems generate waste
heat. This waste results in an increase in
entropy, which for a closed system is "a
quantitative measure of the amount of thermal
energy not available to do work," according
to the American Heritage Dictionary. Entropy
in any closed system always increases; it
never decreases. Additionally, moving parts
produce waste heat due to friction, and
radiative heat inevitably leaks from the
Perpetual motion is motion of bodies that
continues indefinitely. A perpetual motion
machine is a hypothetical machine that can do
work indefinitely without an energy source.
This kind of machine is impossible, as it
would violate the first or second law of
thermodynamics
One useful way of measuring entropy is by
the following equation:

DS = q/T
where S represents entropy, DS represents
the change in entropy, q represents heat
transfer, and T is the temperature.
Using this equation it is possible to
measure entropy changes using a calorimeter.

Units of Entropy
The SI units of entropy are J/K
(joules/degrees Kelvin).
A campfire is an example of entropy. The
solid wood burns and becomes ash, smoke and
gases, all of which spread energy outwards
more easily than the solid fuel. Ice melting,
salt or sugar dissolving, making popcorn and
boiling water for tea are processes with
increasing entropy in your kitchen.
THE FOUR LAWS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics is the
physical law which states that the
total energy of a system and its surroundings
remain constant. The law is also known as
the law of conservation of energy, which
states energy can transform from one form
into another, but can neither be created nor
destroyed within an isolated system.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The second law of thermodynamics is
formulated in many ways, as will be addressed
shortly, but is basically a law which -
unlike most other laws in physics - deals not
with how to do something, but rather deals
entirely with placing a restriction on what
can be done.
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The third law of thermodynamics is
essentially a statement about the ability to
create an absolute temperature scale, for
which absolute zero is the point at which the
internal energy of a solid is precisely 0.
Zeroth Law
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that
if two systems are in thermodynamic
equilibrium with a third system, the two
original systems are in thermal equilibrium
with each other. Basically, if system A is in
thermal equilibrium with system C and system
B is also in thermal equilibrium with system
C, system A and system B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
THE END