Crop Processing, Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer and Refrigeration

Prepared by
Arnold R. Elepano, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Agricultural and Bio-Process Division
Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro – lndustrial Technology
University of the Philippines at Los Banos
College, Laguna

January 2001
(Reproduction with Permission Only)

 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

 Thermodynamics - science which deals with transformations of energy of all kinds from one
form to another
 Laws of thermodynamics:
a. Zeroth law - when two bodies have equality of temperature with a third body they in turn
have equality of temperature with each other.
b. First Law - states that during any cycle a system undergoes, the cyclic integral of the heat
is proportional to the cyclic integral of the work. It deals with the quantity of energy (energy
conservation).
- If the mass of a system does not change, its energy can increase only
through the influx of heat and/ or the performance of work on it, according to
the equation:
Q+W=∆E
c. Second Law - deals with the quality of energy (energy degradation) There are two classical
statements of this law;
- Kelvin-Planck statement: it is impossible to construct a device that will operate
in a cycle and produce no effect than the raising of a weight and the exchange
of heat with a single reservoir.
- Clausius statement: it is impossible to construct a device that operates in a
cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler-
body to a hotter body.
 d. Third law - states that the entropy of a perfect crystal is zero at the absolute zero of
temperature.

 Thermodynamic Properties:

Two general classes:

1. Extensive property - its value for an overall system is the sum of its values for the part into
which the system is divided, it changes with time.
2. Intensive property - its value is independent of the size or extent of a system and may vary
from place to place within the system at any moment.
a. Temperature, t - indicates thermal state and the ability to exchange energy with a substance in
contact with it, it is a measure of the internal energy of a body.

Freezing point of water – 00 C

Boiling Point of water – 1000 C
Absolute temperature, T - is the number of degrees above absolute zero expressed in Kelvins.

Conversion of Temperatures
0
C = 5/9 (0F - 32)
K = 0C + 273.15
0
R = 0F + 459.69
0
R = 9/5K

b. Pressure - is the normal (perpendicular) force exerted by a fluid per unit area against which the
force is exerted. Unit: Newton’s per square meter (N/m2) or Pascal (Pa)

Absolute pressure - is the measure of pressure above zero.

Gage pressure - is measured above existing atmospheric pressure. lt is the excess of the absolute
pressure over the atmospheric pressure. This is used only in the United States Customary System.

Standard atmospheric pressure – 101.3 kPa

c. Density - mass per unit volume.

The density of air at standard atmospheric pressure and 25 0C: 1.2 kg /m3
Specific volume – vol. me per unit mass.
 d. Specific Heat, Cp - the quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass by
1K.
Cp dry air - 1.0 kJ/ kg.K
Cp water - 4.19 kJ/ kg. K
Cp ice – 2.095 kJ/kg.K

e. Enthalpy - a measure of the energy of the air expressed in kJ/kg dry air.
f. Entropy - a measure of the unavailability of energy.

 Definitions:

 Quality (x) of a two-phase mixture - fraction by mass of the vapor in the liquid-vapor mixture.
 Enthalpy (or latent heat) of vaporization - the amount of heat required to change unit mass of a
pure substance from the saturated state to\the saturated vapor stale\the pressure (or
temperature) remaining constant.
 Enthalpy (or latent heat) of sublimation - the amount of heat required to change unit mass of a
pure substance from the solid state to the vapor state, the pressure (or temperature) remaining
constant.
 Enthalpy (or latent heat) of fusion - the amount of heat required to change unit mass of a pure
substance from the solid state to the liquid state, the pressure (or temperature) remaining
constant.
 The 3 two-variable equations of state for an ideal gas:
1. Boyle's law (T = constant)
2. Charles law (P = constant)
3. Gay-Lussac's Law (V = constant)

 Carnot heat engine - it is the most efficient heat engine permitted by the first and second laws.
 Carnot heat pump has a coefficient of performance of 10.0 when pumping heat to a
temperature of 25 0C.

 HEAT TRANSFER
o Heat transfer is the study of energy solely as a result of temperature differences.
o Heat is a form of energy in transition and the temperature difference is the driving potential for
its propagation.
o Physical (natural laws) are statements in terms of concepts that have been found to be true
through many years of experimental observations. A physical law is called a general law if the
application of it is independent of the medium under consideration. Otherwise ii is called a
particular law.
  There are four general laws upon which all the analyses concerning heat transfer, namely:
a. The law of conservation of mass - states that mass is neither created nor destroyed.
b. The first law of thermodynamics
c. The second law of thermodynamics, and
d. Newton's second; law of motion

 There are three basic and distinct types or modes of heat transfer processes. These are:
a. Convection
Heat transfer by convection occurs when heat moves from one place to another by
means of currents that are set up within some fluid medium. These currents are known as
convection currents and result from the change in density that is brought about by the
expansion of the heated portion of the fluid.

When any portion of a fluid is heated, it expands and its volume per unit of mass
increases thus the heated portion becomes lighter, rises to the top, and is immediately
replaced by a cooler, heavier portion of the fluid.

The rate of energy transfer from the surface to the air can be quantified by the
Newton's
Law of cooling; Qc = hc A(ts – tf)

Where:
hc - heat transfer coefficient, W m2 .K
A = surface area, m2
ts = surface temperature, 0C
tf = fluid temperature, 0C
b. Conduction
o The process of heat transfer by molecular motion, supplemented in some cases by the
flow of free electrons, through a body (solid, liquid, or gaseous) from a region of high
temperature to a region of low temperature.

o It is the only mechanism by which heat can flow in opaque solids

o For any given temperature difference, the rate of heat flow by conduction through different
materials of the same length and cross section will vary with the particular ability! of the
various materials to conduct heat.

o The relative capacity of a material to conduct heat is known as its conductivity

 o ln general, solids are better conductors of heat than liquids, and liquids are better
conductors than gases. This is accounted for by the difference in molecular structure

o The time rate of energy transfer by conduction is quantified macroscopically by Fourier’s

law which states that the rate of heat transfer across any plane normal to the x direction,
Qx, is proportional to the wall area, A, and the temperature gradient in the x direction,
dT/dx: Qx = -kA dT/dx;
Where:
dT/dx = ∆t/L
k = thermal conductivity, W/ m.K
∆t = temperature difference, K
L = length, m

c. Radiation
o Heat transfer by radiation occurs in the form of a wave motion similar to light waves wherein
the energy is transmitted from one body to another without the need for intervening matter
Heat energy transmitted by wave motion is called radiant energy.

o Radiation can pass through certain types of substances (transparent and semitransparent
materials) as well as through vacuum.

o When radiant energy is transferred from a hot body to a cold through some intervening
medium such as air, the temperature of the intervening medium is unaffected by the passage
of the radiant energy. This is because the molecules of air are relatively few and widely
separated that the waves of radiant energy can easily pass between them so that only a very
small part of the radiant energy is intercepted and absorbed by the molecules of the air.

o The amount of radiant energy that will pass through a material depends on the degree of
transparency.

o The amount of radiant energy that is either reflected or absorbed by a material depends on the
nature of the material's surface i.e., its texture and its color. Materials with a light-colored,
highly polished surface such as a mirror reflect a maximum of radiant energy. Materials with
rough, dull- dark surfaces will absorb the maximum amount of radiant energy

o The rate at which energy is emitted, Qe, from a surface of are A is quantified macroscopically
by a modified form of the Stefan-Boltzmann Law: Qe = €ÕAT4 where
€ = emissivity, a property of the surface that indicates how effectively the surface radiates
 Õ = Stefan Boltzmann constant
T = absolute temperature of the surface

 REFRIGERATION
o Vapor compression system

 Principal parts of a simple vapor compression system:

1. Evaporator - provides a heat transfer surface through which heat can pass from the
refrigerated space or product into the vaporizing refrigerant.
2. Suction line - conveys the low-pressure vapor from the evaporator to the suction inlet of the
compressor.
3. Vapor compressor - removes the vapor from the evaporator and raises the temperature and
pressure of the vapor to a point such that the vapor can be condensed with normally available
condensing media.
4. Hot gas" or discharge line - delivers the high pressure, high-temperature vapor from the
discharge of the compressor to the condenser.
5. Condenser - provides a heat transfer surface through which heat passes from the hot
refrigerant vapor to the condensing medium.
6. Receiver tank - provides storage for the condensed liquid so that a constant supply of liquid is
available to the evaporator as needed.
7. Liquid Line - carries the liquid refrigerant from the receiver tank to the refrigerant flow control
8. Refrigerant flow control - meters the proper amount of refrigerant to the evaporator and
reduces the pressure of the liquid entering the evaporator so that the liquid will vaporize in the
evaporator at the desired low temperature.

 Refrigerants
o The substance employed as the heat absorber or cooling agent is called the refrigerant.
o Classification cooling process according to the effect the absorbed heat has upon the
refrigerant:
1. Sensible - the absorbed heat causes an increase in the temperature of the refrigerant
2. Latent - the absorbed heat causes a change in the physical state of the refrigerant (either
melting or vaporizing).

Note: With either process, if the refrigerating effect is to be continuous, the temperature of the
refrigerant must be maintained continuously below that of the space or material being refrigerated.

o A refrigerant is a medium of heat transfer which absorbs heat by evaporating at a low

temperature and gives up heat by condensing at a high temperature and pressure.
 Classification of refrigerants:
1. Halocarbon compounds - includes refrigerants which contain one or more of the three
halogens: chlorine, fluorine, and bromine, in this group are Refrigerant 12
(Dichlorodifluoromethane) and 22 (Monochlorodifluoromethane) which are sold under such
trade names as Freon, Genetron, lsotron, and Arcton.
2. Azeotropes - an azeotropic mixture of two substances is one which cannot be separated into
its components by distillation. An azeotrope evaporates and condenses as a single substance
with properties that are different from those of either constituent. The only such commercial
refrigerant is Refrigerant 500, which is a mixture of Refrigerant 12 and 152a (Difluoroethane) in
a proportion of 73.8 to 26.2 percent by weight.
3. Hydrocarbons - suitable for service in the petroleum and petrochemical industry. Ex:
Refrigerant 50 (Methane), 170 (Ethane), 290 (Propane).
4. Inorganic compounds - Refrigerant 717 (Ammonia), 718 (Water), 729 (Air), 744 (Carbon
dioxide), 764 (Sulfur dioxide).
5. Unsaturated organic compounds two seldom-used refrigerants which are unsaturated organic
compounds are Refrigerant 1150 (ethylene), and Refrigerant 1270 (propylene).

Uses of some of the more common refrigerants:

1. Air - the principal use of the air as a refrigerant is in the air-cycle refrigeration unit for aircraft.
Operating with air requires more work, but the light weight more than compensates for this
drawback in air-borne service.
2. Ammonia - the greatest use of ammonia is in large industrial and low-temperature installations.
Although its use in such low-temperature applications as frozen food and dairy plants has been
challenged by Refrigerants 22 and 12, many new ammonia systems come into operations each
year.
3. Carbon dioxide - its high horsepower requirements and high condensing pressures have now
limited its use to the low -temperature cycle in a cascade system, in the cascade system the
carbon dioxide condenses by giving its heat to the evaporator of a higher-temperature unit using a
different refrigerant.
4. Refrigerant 11 - the high value of volume flow per ton with R11 makes it suitable for service in
centrifugal compressors. R11 and R113 are the most-used refrigerants in centrifugal compressor
system.
5. Refrigerant 12 - this is the most widely used refrigerant it is used primarily with reciprocating
compressors for service in household refrigeration appliances, commercial and industrial air
conditioning, and in a multitude of other types of refrigeration systems. R12 possesses desirable
properties, having convenient operating pressures, low power requirement per ton, and is nontoxic
and noncorrosive.
6. Refrigerant 22 - R22, like R12, is nontoxic and has a low power requirement per ton. R22 is
competitive with Refrigerant 12 in small air-conditioning units it is competitive with ammonia in
industrial low-temperature systems in cases where toxicity of the refrigerant is of concern.
 o Secondary refrigerants include brines and antifreezes. Two of the most popular brines are
calcium chloride and sodium chloride solutions.

 Actual vapor compression system

 The actual vapor-compression cycle suffers some inefficiency compared with the standard
cycle. The essential differences between the actual and the standard cycle appear in the
pressure drops in the condenser and evaporator, in the sub cooling of the liquid leaving the
evaporator.
 The standard cycle assumed no drop in pressure in the condenser and evaporator
Because of friction, the pressure of the refrigerant drops in the actual cycle.

 LOAD CALCULATIONS
 Product load
The product load is made up of the heat that must be removed from the
refrigerated product in order to reduce the temperature of the product to the desired level.
The term product means any material whose temperature is reduced by the refrigerating
equipment and includes not only perishable commodities but also items such as welding
electrodes, masses of concrete, plastic, rubber, and liquids of all kinds.
 Infiltration
This is defined as the uncontrolled entry of unconditioned outside air directly into
the building, results from natural forces, e.g., wind and buoyancy due to the temperature
difference between inside and outside.
Infiltration is limited by sealing the building envelope where possible, using
vestibules or revolving doors or maintaining a pressure within the building slightly in
excess of that outside.

 Heat transmission through storage structure

o Heat loss or heat gain due to a temperature difference across a building element.
 Internal load
o Heat gain due to the release of energy within space (lights, people, equipment, etc.)
o The amount of heat gain in the space due to lighting depends on the wattage of the lamps
and the type of fixture.
 Ventilation
o Ventilation is defined as air intentionally brought into the building by mechanical means.
 PSYCHROMETRICS AND AIR CONDITIONING APPLICATION

Properties of moist air

o Air is a mechanical mixture of gases and water vapor. Dry air is composed mainly of
nitrogen (78% and oxygen (21%), the remaining 1% being made up of carbon dioxide and
minute quantities of other gases such as hydrogen, helium, neon and argon.
o Dew point Temperature - is the temperature at which tire water vapor in the air is
saturated.
o Humidity - is the water vapor in the air.
o Absolute humidity or vapor density - is the mass of water vapor per unit volume of air.
o Relative humidity - ratio of the actual partial pressure exerted by the water vapor in any
volume of air to the partial pressure that would be exerted by the water vapor if the water
vapor in the air is saturated at the temperature of the air.

Actual partial pressure x 100

RH = partial pressure at saturation

o Humidity ratio - also called as specific humidity, is an expression of the mass of water
vapor per unit mass of dry air.

P
_____ s________
W= 0.622Pt – Ps
Where:
Ps = water-vapor pressure of air
Pt = atmospheric pressure

o Saturation ratio - also called as percentage humidity, is the ratio of the mass of water
vapor in the air per unit mass of dry air to the mass of water vapor required for saturation
of the same air sample.
Saturation ratio = W x 100
W1
Where:
W = actual humidity ratio.
W1= humidity ratio at saturation for same air temperature.

o Dry bulb temperature of the air - temperature as measured by an ordinary dry bulb
thermometer.
 o Wet bulb temperature of the air - temperature as measured by a wet bulb thermometer. A
wet bulb thermometer is an ordinary thermometer whose bulb is enclosed in a wetted cloth
sac or wick.
o Enthalpy of the mixture of dry air and water vapor is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air
and the enthalpy of the water vapor. The zero value of the water vapor is saturated liquid
water at 00C. An equation for the enthalpy is:

Where:
H = Cp + W hg
Cp = Specific heat of dry air at constant pressure = 1.0 kJ/kg.K
t = temperature of air-vapor mixture, 0C
hg = enthalpy of saturated steam at temperature of air-vapor mixture, kJ/kg
W = humidity ratio, kg of water vapor/ kg of dry air
o Degrees of superheat - difference between the dew point and dry bulb temperature of air.

 Psychometric chart
Psychrometry - the study of the properties of the mixtures of air and water vapor.
Saturation line - if the condition of the mixture lies on the saturation line, the air is said to
be saturated, meaning that any decrease in temperature will result in condensation of the water
vapor into liquid.

 Processes in psychometric chart

1. Sensible heating or cooling - refers to a rate of heat transfer attributable only to a change in
dry-bulb temperature of the air.
2. Humidification - may be adiabatic or with addition of heat.
3. Cooling and dehumidification - results in a reduction of both the dry-bulb temperature and the
humility ratio.
4. Chemical dehumidification process - the water vapor from the air is absorbed or absorbed by a
hygroscopic material.
 Air conditioning calculations
 FANS AND DUCT SYSTEMS

Piping and accessories:

o Piping - conveys the refrigerant from one component in the system to the next.
o The piping which connects the major components of a refrigerating system are;
1. the suction line between the evaporator and compressor,
 2. The discharge line between the compressor and condenser, and
3. The liquid line between the condenser and expansion valve.
4. In order of importance, the sizing of the suction line requires the most attention, the
discharge line the next and the liquid line the least.

 Accessories:
1. Valves
- The most commonly used valves are shutoff, backpressure, and solenoid and back
seating.
- The shutoff valve is installed in the line to block flow completely when it is closed. This is
installed wherever any component of the system should at certain times be isolated from
the remainder of the system.
- A back-pressure valve or evaporator-pressure regulator is installed in the suction line to
maintain a sufficiently high pressure in an evaporator to prevent freezing or excessive
dehumidification of air in an air cooling coil.
- Solenoid valves are electrically powered magnetic valves which serve as automatic shutoff
valves. These are often installed in the liquid line and close when the compressor is not
operating.
2. Fittings - the fittings used in a refrigeration system are the elbows, tees, crosses, flanges, and
others in small copper tubing, flare fittings are popular, while the larger tubing lines are soldered.
Steel pipe is joined by screw fittings, special refrigerant flanges or the joints are welded.
3. Oil separator - Some oil escapes from all compressors into the discharge line. To recover as much
of this oil as possible before it goes through the condenser and collects in the evaporator, an oil
separator may be installed.
4. Vibration eliminators - these are installed in the suction and discharge lines to reduce the
transmission of vibration from the compressor. Vibrations cause irritating noise and weaken the
solder connections in the piping
5. Driers - contain desiccants such as silica gel or activated alumina which adsorbs moisture.
6. Filters - prevents foreign particles from flowing through the refrigerating system.
7. Liquid indicators - short transparent fitting that allows the flow of refrigerant to be viewed.
8. Heat exchanger - its purpose is to heat the vapor coming from the evaporator while it subcools
liquid flowing between the condenser and the expansion valve.
9. Liquid receiver - a vessel which stores liquid refrigerant.
10. Liquid accumulator - prevents suction vapor from carrying slugs of liquid to the compressor from
the evaporator.
11. Temperature, pressure and humidity controls.
12. Purger - removes air from the system. This is found mainly on large ammonia systems and on Iow
pressure centrifugal-compressor systems.
13. Defrosting - whenever a cooling coil operates with surface temperature below 32 0F. Frost is likely
to form on the coil. Three common methods of defrosting coils are to use warm air, water and hot
gas.
 Types of fans:
1. Radial flow or centrifugal fan - consists of a wheel or rotor within scroll spiral type housing. The
air enters parallel to the shaft, makes a 90 0 turn in the fan wheel and is discharged from the
wheel (and housing) in a radial manner.
a. Forward-curved-blade - it has a large number of blades; i e up to 60 narrow in the radial
dimension but wide parallel to the shaft and facing forward in the direction of rotation like a
scoop, it is a low-speed fan and is limited to handling clean air
Characteristics:
- have lower noise level
- have overloading characteristics
- normally operate in low pressure range (0-15 cm water)
- have one unstable operating region
- are usually of light construction

b. Backward-curved-blade - it has about 12 blades, essentially flat and tilted backward from
the direction of wheel rotation, it is a high-speed type of fan with a self-limiting horsepower
characteristic, it is the most efficient and more expensive It cannot be recommended for
dirty air

Characteristics:

- have non overloading characteristics

- operate against high pressure (0-30 cm water)
- have no unstable region of operation
- are of sturdy construction and easily installed

c. Straight or double-curved fan - it has a smaller number of blades - from 6 to 20 and the
blades are essentially in a plane radiating from the shaft. The blades are normally about 2
to 3 times as long radially as they are wide, it usually has a larger housing than the other
types, and it has the ability to handle dirty air and to convey materials that go through the
fan.

2. Axial-flow or Propeller fan - airflow is parallel to the shaft or axis.

Characteristics:
- Have non-overloading characteristics, highest noise levels and operate in a low or
moderate pressure range (0-15 cm water).
- Costs less than centrifugal fans.
- As the capacity increases, the horsepower decreases.
- The working range is less than for a corresponding centrifugal fan but its efficiency is 4 to
5% higher.
 Types of axial flow fans:
- Propeller – may have two or more blades which may be of sheet steel or airfoil shape. The
blades may be narrow or wide. They may have uniform or varied pitch. This is used to
handle large volumes of air against free delivery or low heads. This is suited for ventilation
of rooms and air ducts of low resistance. This is characterized by excessive noises at high
speeds.

- Vane-axial- is distinguished by large hubs and short blades, in addition to stationary

straight vanes on the discharge sides of the fan to prevent rotation or swirling of the air, it
is normally used for delivery of air for pressures lo 2.24 kPa (9 in. water) and for ventilation
systems where space is valuable or head room is limited.

- Intended for heavy-duty performance above the pressure range of propeller fans mounted
in an ordinary orifice. This type of fan is well suited for many agricultural jobs, but their
higher cost and power are a limiting factor.

- Tube-axial - this is similar to a vane-axial fan except that it does not contain guide vanes; it
is simpler and somewhat less efficient than the vane-axial.

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

 Product dimension and structure
- The length of the paddy grain varies due to variations in the length of the awn and the
pedicel.
- Types of paddy:
1. Extremely long – 80% of the whole brown rice have a length of 7.5 mm or more.
2. Long – 80% of the whole brown rice have a length of 6.5 mm or more but shorter.
3. Medium - 80% of the whole brown rice have a length of >=5.5 mm but < 6.5 mm.
4. Short – paddy with 80 % of the whole brown rice kernels are shorter than 5.5 mm.

 Length/ Width ratio of the whole brown rice kernel:

1. Slender: > = 3.0
2. Bold: > = but <3.0
3. Round: < 2.0