METEOROLOGY

THE ATMOSPHERE

• Composition, extent, vertical division

Atmosphere
➢ 78% nitrogen
➢ 21% oxygen
➢ 0.9% other gases (carbon dioxide, argon)
➢ Lowest layer is tropopause
➢ Is split up into layer according the vertical
temperature profile

Most important constituent in the atmosphere is water

vapour

Majority of the air is founded in troposphere

Tropopause
➢ That area where the temperature change doesn’t
exceed two-thirds of one degree Celsius per thousand
foot increase in altitude over a range of 6000 ft
➢ According to ISA tropopause temperature of -56.5°C
and average height is 11km
➢ Troposphere contains more than 90% of all water
vapour and is the part of the atmosphere below the
tropopause that concerns most of the aviators
➢ Height and temperature over the equator is 16km
and -75°C
➢ Indication about height in the tropics is not essential
for flight documentation because tropopause is
generally well above the flight level actually flown
➢ Warm surface – large mixing – high tropopause
➢ Cold surface – small mixing – low tropopause
➢ During summer from Azores to Bermuda, the mean
height is 47000 ft
➢ During January from Recife to Dakar the mean
height is 56000 ft
➢ During winter North Atlantic area north of 60°N, the
mean height is 29000 ft
➢ Tropical tropopause is 54000 ft and -75°C

Average seasonal tropopause height : latitude 55°N:

FL250 in winter, FL350 in summer
Tropopause breaks is important for aviation because the
cores of jet streams can be located near these breaks.
(Large changes in height, pressure and temperature
within a short distance)

*temperature above tropopause is always constant

Stratopause
➢ Typical height is 50km
➢ Layer normally stable and has few clouds
➢ In mid-latitudes extends on an average from 11 to
50km
➢ Majority of the ozone contained

• Air Temperature

The processes that contribute the most to atmospheric

warming are
➢ Convection: air that has been heated by conduction
process at the surface will become less dense (higher
temperature = lower density) so air will rise heating
the higher levels
➢ Condensation: as the result of convection, warm air
rises, when rising gets colder (adiabatic process) and
warms the atmosphere

Two most important methods for the transfer of heat from

surface to higher level of the troposphere are
➢ Formation of convective clouds
➢ Long-wave radiation (primary heating source)
(outgoing from Earth)

Temperature measured in Celsius.

Kelvin = °C + 273

Solar radiation: One part is absorbed in the ozone layer ,

another part is reflected by clouds and the surface of the
earth, the major part is absorbed by the surface

Primary change in Earths weather is variation of solar

energy at the Earth’s surface

Inversion: when the temperature increase with an

increase in altitude
➢ can occur during nocturnal radiation and could-
free nights in winter when the ground is dry
➢ Commonly located at the stratosphere
➢ Indicates a state of the atmosphere which is
absolutely stable
➢ Descending, the thrust most likely increase

Valley inversion: over night, cool dense air as a result of

radiation cooling will descend along the mountain slopes
into the basin and lead to the development of a valley
inversion

Insolation: Earth heating by solar radiation, reaches the

maximum at local noon and reaches the minimum half
an hour after sunrise

Maximum temperature during day occurs

approximately 2hours after local noon

Water has a higher specific heat than land that is why

land surfaces heat and cool more quickly

Isothermal layer: temperature remains constant with

height

Diurnal range of temperature is least in tropical

countries (because tropical countries have higher
humidity. Therefore, diurnal range of temperature is the
least).

Greatest annual range temperature will be found over

large land masses

Diurnal variation in temperature is largest when sky is

clear and wind is weak

Temperature variation during 24hours is least over sea

and greatest in a desert area

Concrete has not lower specific heat than grass

Amount of sun’s heat absorbed by Earth depends on Sun

elevation and duration of the insolation

Advection is a horizontal motion of air

Radiation: the heat of the Earth is transferred upwards

and leaves the atmosphere

Cause for a surface temperature inversion is by heavy

radiation cooling at night of the lowest layer of air, or if
warm air moves in over a colder surface

Convection
Subsidence Inversion

Effect of wind is to increase the difference in temperature

between the surface and 4ft

Higher air mass – higher pressure (distance between the

molecules is greater) - higher tropopause

Calm and clear sky cooler than a cloudy night because the
radiation from Earth’s surface slips into space

Temperature lapse rate of the standard atmosphere in the

troposphere is -2°C / 1000 ft
Rate of decrease of temperature with height per 100 m is
0.65°C

Tropical zero regre isotherm: 16000 ft

Temperature zero dregree isotherm: 6000 ft to 10000 ft
 • Atmospheric pressure

Unit of pressure: hPa

1hPa per 27ft at MSL

1hPa per 36ft at 10000ft (3050m)
1hPa per 50ft at 18000ft (5500m)
1hPa per 60ft at 25000ft (7620m)

ISA atmospheric pressure level

➢ 150 hPa – 45000ft (13720m)
➢ 200 hPa – 39000 ft (11890m)
➢ 250 hPa – 34000 ft (10360m)
➢ 300 hPa – 30000ft (9150m)
➢ 500 hPa – 18000ft (5500m)
➢ 700 hPa – 10000ft (3050m)
➢ 850 hPa – 5000ft (1525m)

Above sea level

➢ Temp warm than ISA – QNH > QFF
➢ Temp colder than ISA – QNH <QFF

Below sea level

➢ Temp warm than ISA – QNH < QFF
➢ Temp warm than ISA – QNH > QFF

Dynamic pressure – pressure caused by movement

Counter heights
➢ Are true heights AMSL
➢ High contour values are equivalent to high pressure

Isobars
➢ Drawn on a surface weather chart represent lines of
equal pressure reduced to seal level
➢ They appear on metereological surface charts
 ➢ Connects positions with the same air pressure at a
given level
➢ To short the distance between them, temperature
has to decrease and pressure will increase

Atmospheric pressure decrease with height (como a

temperatura)
Rate of pressure decrease with height is greater in cold
air ( less molecules) than in warm air BUT the pressure
column of warm air is greater than the column of cold
air

QFF: the present atmospheric pressure at na Aerodrome

converted to mean sea level in accordance with the actual
condition AND is the pressure used in surface weather
charts

Mercury at sea level is 29.92 inches

Pressure difference of 10 hPa close to the ground
correspond to a height difference of about 300ft

Half the mass of the atmosphere is found in the lowest

5km

HIGH
➢ An area with higher pressure than that of the
horizontal environments
➢ Ridge of high pressure, can be identified in a form of
a U-shaped pattern

LOW
➢ An area with lower pressure than that of the
horizontal environments
➢ Through is an elongated area of low pressure, can be
identified in a form of V-shaped
➢ Depression

• Density

Density
➢ Inversely proportional to temperature
o Increase temp – decreased density
o Decreased temp – increased density
 ➢ Directly proportional to pressure
o Increased pressure – increased density
o Decreased pressure – decreased density
➢ Density altitude Is the altitude in the standard
atmosphere to which the observed density correspond
and is inversely proportional to density
➢ At 40000 ft is ¼ of the mean sea level altitude
➢ Dry air is less dense than cold air

• ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

ISA atmospheric pressure level

➢ 150 hPa – 45000ft (13720m)
➢ 200 hPa – 39000 ft (11890m)
➢ 250 hPa – 34000 ft (10360m)
➢ 300 hPa – 30000ft (9150m)
➢ 500 hPa – 18000ft (5500m)
➢ 600 hPa – 14000ft (4270m)
➢ 700 hPa – 10000ft (3050m)
➢ 850 hPa – 5000ft (1525m)

Calculate the ISA temp at a certain FL: FL100 = 15° - (10

x 2°) = -5°

Difference between two flight levels = calculate the

difference between them x 2° and add to the temperature
given

In ISA conditions the tropopause height is 36090 ft AMSL

Vertical temperature lapse rate, up to 11km, in standard

ICAO atmosphere is 6.5°C per 1000m

• Altimetry

Atmosphere colder than ISA you are flying lower than

indicated
Atmosphere warmer than ISA you are flying higher than
indicated

When my true altitude is equal or more than indicated

and QNH (chave) less than 1013 air mass in which the
aircraft is flying is warmer than ISA
When QNH not given there is no sufficient information.

Barometric altimeter indicates altitude to the set

altitude reference
Prior take-off, the altimeter should be set to the current
local altimeter setting, if available, or the departure
airport elevation

ISA temp at FL = 15° - (FL x 2°)

Correction is 1% of height per 2.5°C

1ft = 0.3048 m
1m = 3.28ft

Altimeter indicating 0 during the night, and 1000

during the day, shows that the barometric pressure has
decreased by approx. 37hPa (100:27)

Altitude: vertical distance of a level or a point measured

from mean sea level

QFE – atmospheric pressure at the official aerodrome

elevation, zero at landing roll out
QFF
➢ QFE is reduced to MSL, using actual temperature
gradient, it needs the temperature
➢ To calculate from QNH we need to know the
elevation of the airfield
QNH
➢ can be defined as atmospheric pressure reduced to
mean sea level, using the standard temperature
gradient
➢ Highest value is QFE = 995 hPa, elevation = 1600
ft (488m)

Pressure altimeter indicates the distance between two

isobaric surfaces in the standard atmosphere

Pressure altitude
➢ is equal to the true altitude if standard
atmospheric conditions occurs
➢ Is obtained by setting the altimeter to standard sea
level pressure
Altimeter (without readjusting) will over-read (true
altitude will be lower than indicated)
➢ Flying into a low pressure
➢ Flying into a colder temp

Flying on the northern hemisphere with a crosswind

from the left – flying to low pressure
Flying on the northern hemisphere with a crosswind
from the right – flying to a high pressure

Flying high to low (look below), flying from warm to

cold - true altitude decreases
Flying low to high (clear the sky) flying from cold to
warm - true altitude increases

For an airport located at sea level QFF equals QNH,

regardless the temperature

You safely assume that the minimum usable flight level at

least lies at a temperature greater than or equal to that
of the ISA and where QNH is greater than or equal to
1013 hPa

If QFE, QNH and QFF of an airport have the same value

the airport must be at MSL

Lowest usable flight level - lowest value of QNH and

highest negative temperature deviation from ISA

Difference between QNH and QFE at an airport is always

the same

During climb after take-off the altimeter will increase

Uniform pressure prevails – pressure does not change
during flight
Local altimeter setting not available – pilot adjust the
altimeter the elevation of the departure area
Same value as density altitude at standard temperature
Altimeter reading of pressure must be corrected for
instrument, temperature and pressure

Environmental lapse rate (ELR) is less than 0.65°C /

100m
THE WIND

• Definition and measurement of wind

Cup anemometer – measures wind speed

Surface wind measured – 8 – 10m above the ground on a
mast with an anemometer

Wind changing clockwise – veering

Wind changing anti-clockwise - backed

Convert kts to m/s – kts divided by 2

Convert km/h to knots – km/h divided by 1.852
 • Primary cause of wind

Wind is caused by horizontal pressure difference,

difference in temperature

Relationship between the wind at 3000ft and surface

wind
➢ Wind at surface blows across the isobars towards a
low pressure and is less than the 3000ft wind
➢ Wind at 3000ft is parallel to the isobars
The gradient wind
➢ Is less than the geostrophic wind around a LOW
(cyclonic)
➢ Is greater than the geostrophic wind around a
HIGH (anti-cyclonic)
➢ Blows parallel to curved isobars due to a
combination of the PGF, Coriolis and centrifugal
force

Frictional forces together with curvature of isobars

deflects the wind to the left compared to the geostrophic
wind and causes in a low pressure system the convergence
at surface

Geostrophic wind
➢ Perpendicular to the horizontal pressure gradient
force (PGF)
➢ Flow of air parallel to the isobars at a speed
proportional to pressure gradient
➢ It blows parallel to straight equidistant isobars
➢ Acts at right angles to the wind vector (straight
lines and no friction involved)
➢ Depends on density, Earth’s rotation, Geographic
latitude
➢ Forces that are balanced: PGF and Coriolis Force
➢ Is present at altitudes higher than about 15°
north/south
➢ The speed will be greatest at 40°N
➢ Proportional to wind speed and to the horizontal
pressure gradient

Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)

➢ Perpendicular to the isobars and away from high
pressure
➢ The greater the horizontal, the closer the isobars and
the stronger the wind
➢ Exist when two points at the same level have a
different atmospheric pressure
➢ Acts across the isobars
➢ Difference to the gradient wind is caused by
curvature of isobars
Centrifugal force on a HIGH is added to the pressure
gradient force
Centrifugal force on a LOW is opposed to the pressure
gradient force

Coriolis force
➢ Northern hemisphere (wind)
o Clockwise in a HIGH (anti-cyclonic)
o Anti-Clockwise in a LOW (cyclonic)
➢ Southern Hemisphere (wind)
o Anti-clockwise in a HIGH
o Clockwise in a LOW
➢ Prevents air from flowing from high-pressure to
low-pressure
➢ Will be neglected for metereological purposes from
0 to about 10 degrees N/S
➢ Tends to balance with the horizontal pressure
gradient force
➢ Least effect on wind direction at the Equator
➢ At the equator horizontal motions do not induce any
horizontal Coriolis force

Surface friction causes the wind to flow across the

isobars at an angle rather than parallel to the isobars

Natural tendency for air to flow from areas of high

pressure to low pressure

At mid afternoon wind speed tends to be highest

Isobars are close together – wind is stronger and blowing
across the isobars
You can find the strongest winds in the transition zone
between two air masses

Wind speed is HIGHER around a HIGH (anti-cyclonic)

Wind speed is LOWER around a LOW (cyclonic)
Surface winds are “backing” in the Northern
hemisphere (when descending)
Surface winds are “veering” in the Southern
Hemisphere

At lower layers, wind changes direction towards the low

pressure area because wind speed decrease and therefore
Coriolis force decrease

Vertical extent of the friction layer depends primarily on

stability, wind speed and roughness of surface

Divergence in the upper air that is greater than

convergence in the friction layer results, near the surface,
in falling pressure and likely formation of clouds

In area of converging air at low level clouds can be

formed

• General global circulation

To Low wind from left

To High wind from right

Flying AWAY – hit the nose

Flying TOWARDS – hit the tail
South – left wind
North – right wind

Buys ballot’s law

➢ Northern hemisphere
• Wind from right (clockwise)– drift to the left –
flying towards a HIGH
• Wind from left (anti-clockwise) – drift to the right –
flying towards a LOW
➢ Southern Hemisphere
• Wind from right (clockwise) – drift to the left –
flying towards a LOW – in front of you
• Wind from left (anti-clockwise)– drift to the right –
flying towards a HIGH

In central EUROPE, you can find the highest wind speed

just below tropopause

Typical weather conditions in a warm anticyclone over

land is fine weather dominates in summer

Regarding a warm anticyclone – it increases in intensity

with increasing altitude
 • Local winds

Sea breeze
➢ We can expect crosswind from the sea during the day
➢ Occurs only in the lower layers of the atmosphere
in daytime
➢ Starts when land surface is heating by day

Land breeze
➢ We can expect crosswind from the “inland” during
the night
➢ Is weaker than sea breeze

Height of the vertical area affected by land breeze is 500-

1000ft

Mountain wind is a down-slope (katabatic) from colder

(higher) areas along the mountain down to the warmer
(smaller) areas, occurs primarily at night

Valley wind is a up-slope

(anabatic) from colder
(lower) areas along the
mountain up to the warmer
(larger) areas, occurs
primarily during the day

When flying in mountainous terrain and assuming ISA

temperatures and strong winds, in case of Venturi effect,
the actual altitude of the aircraft is lower than the
indicated altitude

Wind increase in velocity by afternoon

 • Mountain waves

3 types of weather phenomena associated with mountain

waves
➢ Rotor
➢ Cap
➢ Lenticular clouds

At the top of standing waves, in mountainous regions, the

cloud most likely to be encountered is Altocumulus
Lenticularis

Metereological conditions for the formation of mountain

waves a
➢ Wind profile whereby the wind velocity increases
with increasing altitude and a strong steady wind
flow at higher levels often extending to the
tropopause
➢ Wind speed in excess of 20 kts, blowing across the
ridge
➢ First few thousand feet above the ridge was stable
with less stable layers above and below
➢ Wind direction approximately at right angles to the
mountain range (or within 30° of this) – wind speed
30 kts and steadily increase with height
➢ The wind above the level of the ridge should
increase with little change in direction

Mountain waves up to FL600 and should be expected on

the downwind side of the mountain range

When mountain waves have not formed, air is too dry

• Turbulence
Turbulence at low level is associated with temperature
inversion
Turbulence due to obstacles are greatest at around 150 m
above ground
Turbulence caused by solar heating is most pronounced in
early afternoon

Greatest intensity in turbulence can be found in Cumulo-

Nimbus (CB), Altocumulus lenticularis
Cold front in summer over Central Europe at FL100 likely
to encounter severe turbulence in CB cloud

Clear air turbulence (CAT) can be expected near a jet

stream and around and above CB
Moderate to severe CAT is encountered specially in an
area with strongly curved, closely packed isohypes

Mechanical Turbulence is caused by the friction of air

flowing over Earth’s surface, increases when the wind
speed increases
Thermal turbulence or convective turbulence is caused
by vertical movements of air due to convection in unstable
airmass, dependent on the Sun’s radiation

More stable the atmosphere, the less turbulence

Conditions most favourable for formation of a low-level

friction turbulence are strong wind, rough terrain and
steep lapse rate

• Jetstream

2 permanent jet streams all year

Polar Front
➢ Jet(westerly): occurs as a result of temperature
gradient along the Polar front (boundary between
Polar and Tropical air masses)
➢ Greatest rate of windshear is most likely to occur
on polar side of the core
➢ Highest probability of turbulence is looking
downstream, area of the left of the core
➢ Wind speed is strongest in the area between a
trough and a ridge
 ➢ The core of the polar front jet stream is to be found
in the tropical air mass, in the warm air aloft, just
below the tropopause
➢ Are strongest over the South Pacific in July
➢ The position in July is approximately 60°N
➢ Fastest in Japan
➢ Connected with a surface front system
➢ During winter moves South and speed increases
➢ Normal average speeds are 150 kts in January /135
kts in July
➢ Average height of jet core is 30000 ft
➢ 50 to 200 NM behind the cold front and 300 to 450
NM ahead of the warm front
Sub-Tropical
➢ Jet(westerly): occurs as a result of Hadley and
Farrel cell circulation = in sub-tropical high pressure
belt
➢ Maximum wind speed are usually located in the
tropical air, below the tropopause at about 200hPa
➢ Average height can be found at FL400

2 seasonal jet streams

Arctic
➢ Jet(westerly) occurs in winter months, around 60°N,
between arctic and polar air mass
➢ Formed along the arctic front where arctic air meets
polar maritime air
➢ Average height of jet core is 20000 ft
Equatorial
➢ Jet(easterly) occurs in summer months, around
15°N, blowing from ASIA
➢ Can affect the aircraft at FL500 from June to
August, encountered from South-East Asia

Wind speed in jet stream in the Northern Hemisphere

➢ Colder air to the left when looking downwind
➢ Wind speed increase with height
➢ Colder air to the right the wind speed decrease with
height

Jet stream
➢ A zone of wind in the upper troposphere or lower
stratosphere with wind forces at 60kts minimum
➢ Minimum speed for a wind to be classified is 60 kts
➢ Located at the tropopause where intensified
 temperature gradients are located
➢ Both westerly and easterly can be found only in
northern hemisphere
➢ Approximate ratio between height and width is in
range of 1:100
➢ To encounter with clear air turbulence will be at
close to the core on the side facing the polar air

When temperature barely change you are crossing the jet

core

Thermal wind component (TWC)

➢ Increases as the horizontal temperature gradient
increases

Occluded front is normally crossed by jet stream

Cloud type associated with jet stream is cirrus cloud on

the equatorial side of the jet stream
Streaky Cirrus cloud sometimes identify a jet stream

CAT
➢ Worst area in vicinity of polar jet stream is on the
depression side
➢ The strongest is to be expected in the cold air side of
the core
➢ Most severe likely to be experienced in a curved jets
stream near a deep trough
➢ Should be anticipated when a sharp trough area
aloft is present, even through the wind speeds may
be considerably less than that of jet streams winds

Typical mid-latitude jet stream have 1000NM (length),

150NM (width) and 18000ft (vertical)
Thermodynamic

• Humidity

Relative humidity
➢ Ratio between the actual mixing ratio and the
saturation mixing ratio x 100
➢ Depends on moisture content and temperature of
the air
➢ Increases if the air is cooled whilst maintaining the
vapour pressure constant
➢ Decreases if temperature increase but the amount
of water vapour remains constant
➢ Remains constant if temperature decreases and a
volume of a parcel of 1m of saturated air stays
constant and the amount of water vapour decrease

Mixing ratio
➢ The number of grammes of water vapour per
kilogramme of dry air

Average distribution of water vapour content in Earth’s

atmosphere is almost 0 g/m3 near the poles to as much as
25g/m3 at the equator
Air cooled below its dew point temperature, the actual
water vapour content decrease to remain equal to the
saturated water vapour content

Dewpoint
➢ Can only be equal to, or lower, than the temperature
of the air mass
➢ The temperature to which moist air must be cooled
to become saturated at a given pressure
➢ Temperature can be reached by cooling the air
whilst keeping pressure constant

Parcel of rising air stays unsaturated, relative humidity

increases and temperature decrease
Parcel of air is said to be SATURATED if it has a relative
humidity of 100%

Increase in temperature leads to more evaporation and an

increase in pressure leads to less evaporation

Actual mixing ratio remains unchanged if unsaturated air

is fitted until it reaches the condensation level

Difference between temperature and dew point is greater

in dry air
If the temperature is further reduced than the dew point,
the dew point temperature reduces

Maximum amount of water vapour that the air contains

depends on the air temperature
Warm air – able to contain more water vapour

By volume, the percentage of the air in the lower

troposphere consists of water vapour is 0-5%

• Change of state of aggregation

Latent heat
 ➢ Quantity oh heat emitted which increase the
temperature of air
➢ Released – it colds
➢ Absorbed – it warms

Changes of water
➢ Melting – solid to liquid
➢ Freezing – liquid to solid
➢ Sublimation – from gas to solid or vice versa
➢ Vaporization – liquid to gas
➢ Condensation – gas to liquid, makes the
surrounding air warmer

Super cooled droplet – a droplet still in liquid state at a

temperature below 0°C

High level condensation trails are to be found occasionally

behind jet aircraft through water vapour released
during fuel combustion

Clouds will always form when water vapour condenses

When air reaches its saturation vapor pressure it
immediately becomes slightly warmer

Boiling water
➢ 212°F
➢ 100°C
➢ 373 K
 • Adiabatic Processes

Adiabatic
➢ Temperature of air changes by compression or
expansion with no heat added or removed

Environment lapse rate (ELR)

➢ Saturated: 1.8°C/1000ft and 0.6°C/100m
➢ Average ELR: 2.0°C/1000ft and 0.65°C/100m
➢ Dry (unsaturated): 3.0°C/1000ft and 1°C/100m
➢ Current: variable

Environment lapse rate in an actual atmosphere varies

with time

Unsaturated air moving downwards is heated at the dry

Adiabatic lapse rate

Lifting: unsaturated cools more rapidly then saturated

Sinking: unsaturated warms more rapidly then saturated
The height of the lifting condensation level is determined
by temperature and dew point

Rate of cooling of ascending saturated air is less than the

rate of cooling of ascending unsaturated air because heat
is released during the condensation process

A sample of moist but unsaturated air may become

saturated by expanding it adiabatically
Adiabatic cooling is caused by expansion of the air as it
rises

Moist but unsaturated parcel of air becomes saturated

by lifting the parcel to a higher level
Air temperature will gradually increase when cold, moist
air covers a warm surface

Rising air cools because it expands

Air mass stable
➢ When the vertical motion of rising air tends to
become weaker and disappears
➢ When the vertical motion of parcels of air are
suppressed by the atmosphere
➢ When lifters air returns to its original level

Air mass unstable

➢ When parcels of air may rise or descend
spontaneously
➢ Is forced to ascend a mountain slope. Clouds with
considerable vertical development and associated
turbulence

Instability
➢ The parcel tends to gain altitude after being released

Absolute Stability: ELR < SALR < DALR – isothermal

layer, inversion, temp increases with height
Absolute Instability: SALR < DALR < ELR – visibility
is good between showers – temp decrease is greater than
1°C / 100 m
Conditional Instability: SALR < ELR < DALR, 0.65°C /
100 m,

Layer
➢ Is unstable if is unstable for saturated air and stable
for dry air
➢ Can be stable for unsaturated air and unstable for
saturated air
➢ Which temperature decrease with 1°C per 100m
increasing altitude is neutral for dry air

SALR differs from DALR due to release of latent heat

SALR is closest to that DALR in cirrus cloud
DALR has a constant fixed value

Approaching: conditional unstable

Stability in a layer
➢ Increase if warm air is adverted in the upper part
and cold air in the lower part
➢ Temperature remains constant
Subsidence – an inversion over a large area with haze,
mist

Heat energy used to change water vapour into liquid water,

modifies the lapse rate of the air parcel – that moves
vertically – from the DALR to the SALR

If saturated air mass descends down a slope it’s

temperature increases at a lower rate than in dry air, as
evaporation absorbs heat

When dewpoint lapse rate and the dry adiabatic lapse rate
of raising air converge, cloud bases form

Cloud base = (Temperature – Dew Point) x 400

Saturated Adiabatic
Lapse Lines – red
Dry Adiabatic Lapse
Lines – green

CLOUDS AND FOG

• Cloud formation and description

The characteristic phenomenon for a stable atmosphere is
stratified clouds

Stable air mass restrain vertical motion of the air

➢ Stratiform (ST, SC, AS, NS, CI, CS)
o Weak vertical currents occur and the
temperature is nearly equal to the temperature of
the surrounding air at the same height
➢ Forced to rise – NS
➢ Subsidence and/or cooling from below is likely to
lead to stable air mass

Orographic lifting associated with stable conditions might

produce Cap clouds, AC lenticularis, standing waves
Orographic lifting associated with unstable conditions
might produce CU/CB clouds, showers

Formation of orographic cloud takes places when

sufficient wind forces the air over obstacles like a
mountain and with sufficient height of the mountain the
air temperature reaches dew point, thus creating a cloud

Unstable air mass intensifies vertical motion of the air

(eg. Warm rises up in colder air)
➢ Cumuliform (CU, TCU, CB, AC, CC), becomes
higher during the day because surface temperature
increases
o Large water droplets, instability, turbulence,
showers and mainly clear ice
➢ Vertical extent depends on the thickness of the
unstable layer

Primary factor that determines the structure or type of

cloud which will form as a result of air being forced to
ascend is the stability of the air before lifting occurs

Fog and cloud formation takes places by condensation

Towering Cumulus (TCU)

➢ Strong updraughts occur and the temperature in
the cloud is higher than in the surrounding air at the
same height
➢ Building upper part frequently resembles a
cauliflower

Cumulus
 ➢ Fair weather often is an indication of turbulence at
and below the cloud level
➢ Indication of up and down draughts
➢ Tops are often limited by a temperature inversion

Cumulonimbus (CB)
➢ Most severe icing and turbulence
➢ Encountered on a cross country flight
➢ During summertime we have bad visibility in
showers and pronounced turbulence
➢ Can project up into the stratosphere

Ground radiation
➢ Least likely to the formation of a cumulonimbus with
thunderstorm

Cirrus cloud
➢ Can be characterised by the optical phenomenon
called halo
➢ White or white delicate filament
➢ Narrow band
➢ Fibrous hair like or silky sheen
➢ Average horizontal visibility more than 1000 m
➢ Nil icing

Cappilatus
➢ Anvil, plume, vast, mass of hair
➢ Shower or thunderstorm, squalls
➢ Hail, virgo

Castellanus
➢ Turrets
➢ Taller than they are wide
➢ Seem to be arranged in line
➢ Instability in the middle troposphere

Lenticular clouds
➢ Indicates Turbulence
➢ Presence of mountain waves
➢ Most stable air mass

Advection
➢ Can produce both fog and clouds

Convection
➢ May lead to the building of CU and CB
 ➢ Convective cloud are formed in an unstable air mass

Nimbostratus
➢ Falling rain or snow, produce freezing rain
➢ Grey often dark
➢ Reach the ground
➢ Block out the sun

Stratiform indicate stable air

➢ Smooth with low ceiling and visibility

Stratus
➢ Uniform base and uniform appearance
➢ Give drizzle or snow grains
➢ The outline is clear
➢ Form over flat land due to radiation during the night
from the Earth surface in moderate wind

Layer of stratus is most likely to be dispersed by

insolation resulting in the lifting of the condensation
level

Lifting is the process in air mass that leads to the creation

of wide spreads NS and AS cloud coverage

Altostratus
➢ Sheet or layer of started fibrous, uniform appearance
➢ Doesn’t show halo appearance
➢ Thinner than NS
➢ Ice crystal and water droplets

Turbulence cloud is created as a result of mixing from

turbulence

Stratocumulus
➢ Pebble or cylindrical form
➢ Never touch the ground

Low level clouds – S - Sapatos

➢ 0 – 6500 ft
➢ Composed of water droplets, freezing water
➢ ST, SC, NS (can extend to the other levels)
➢
Cumulus congestus (can extend to the other levels) is of
great vertical extent
Medium level clouds – A – Abdomen
➢ 6500 ft – 23000 ft (Base – Top)
➢ AC, AS, NS

High level clouds – C – Cabeça

➢ 16500 ft – 45000 ft (Base – Top)
➢ Ice crystals
➢ CI, CS, CC

Subsidence
➢ Most effective way to dissipate cloud

If the relative humidity is low, you would expect a high

cloud base and vice versa. The cloud top would be located
where the SALR meets the ELR

There are no or very few clouds, when a high pressure is

present because of subsiding air, subject to adiabatic
heating

When a polar maritime air mass is affecting North-West

Europe at night, the cloud amount is expected to decrease
and the cloud base will lower

• Fog, mist, haze

Fog
➢ Can be supercooled and can also contain crystals
➢ Reported only when visibility is reduced by water
droplets or ice crystals to less than 1000m
➢ Danger of experiencing is greatest when there is
little dew point spread
➢ Formation of morning fog before sunrise is possible
if air temperature and dew point are equal or close
to one another

Orographic fog
 ➢ It is formed when air is forced to rise up a slope
➢ A change of wind will dissipate
➢ During day or night
➢ High relative humidity

Radiation fog
➢ Is most likely to form over flat land during a clear
night, with calm or light wind
➢ Occurs shortly after sunrise
➢ Weather condition: light wind, little or no cloud,
moist air
➢ Occurs when there is ground cooling due to
radiation
➢ The reason to dissipate or become low stratus is
increasing surface wind speed or surface heating
➢ Most likely to form in UK at an inland airport with a
relative humidity 80% in autumn with clear skies
and surface winds of 2 – 6kts
➢ Morning following a clear, calm night when
temperature has dropped to the dew point
➢ Average vertical extent is 500ft
➢ Cannot form over the sea
➢ Occurs in high pressure system over land

Frontal fog
➢ May be formed by day as well by night
➢ In advance of a warm front and will dissipate with
the passage of a warm front
➢ Rain falls from the warm air into the cold air
➢ When the air becomes saturated due to evaporation
of precipitation and water vapour condenses
(condensation of air saturated by evaporation)
➢ Increase of the relative humidity by evaporation of
rain drops
➢ Occurs in a narrow band where the frontal surface
meets the ground

Steam fog
➢ To form must have cold air mass and no wind, from
0 to 500 ft
➢ Likely to form with cold air moving over warm
water
Advection fog
➢ Forms by warm and humid (moist) air flowing over
cold areas with the wind speed less than 15kts
➢ Over a cold sea current such as the Labrador current
➢ An air mass moving inland from the coast in winter
➢ Can appear suddenly by day or by night
➢ Observed in the coastal region of Newfoundland in
spring time
➢ Over sea in a 20kts wind
➢ Of very cold air over warm sea current can cause
steam fog

Shallow fog
➢ Reaches only 2 metres above ground or 10 metres
above the sea

Hill fog
➢ Humid stable air mass, wind blowing towards the
hills

Freezing fog
➢ Consists of supercooled water droplets

Difference between radiation and advection is the vertical

movement (radiation fog) versus horizontal movement
(advection fog)

Temperature and dew point are less than one degree apart
the weather conditions are most likely to be fog or low
cloud

Mist (BR)
➢ Reduced visibility >= 1000 m but not more than
5000 m due to presence of water droplets in the
atmosphere

Haze (HZ) or smoke (FU) is reduced visibility due to the

presence of solid partição in the atmosphere to a value of
<=5000 m
PRECIPITATION

• Development of precipitation

Process and/or effect which cause cloud to release

precipitation are coalescence process and Bergeron-
Findeisen process

Bergeron-Findeisen
➢ Only takes place in clouds with supercooled water
droplets and ice crystals
➢ Presumes that at high levels in a cloud, some water
water droplets turn to ice and grow by sublimation
➢ Mainly based on the difference of maximum vapour
pressure over water and over ice of the same
temperature

Coalescence process
➢ In the mid-latitudes this process produces only
drizzle or very light rain

Hail is most likely to fall from clouds of great vertical

extent containing both ice crystals and water droplets and
is associated with CB clouds. The hail stones grow by
collision with supercooled water droplets and
sublimation
Drizzle is the least likely

Widest precipitation zone occurs usually ahead of warm

front
Upward currents enhances the growth rate of
precipitation
Most likely to encounter little or no precipitation over a
flat terrain in the centre of a high pressure area in a stable
atmosphere

Freezing rain
➢ Is developed by rain that falls through a layer where
temperature are below 0°C
➢ Warm air aloft from which rain is falling into air with
a temperature below 0°C

Maximum vapor pressure is greater over the water

surface

• Types of precipitation

Ice pellets
➢ Indicates freezing rain at some altitude above the
ground
➢ Frozen precipitation with a diameter or less than
4mm and can be used in a METAR
➢ Solid precipitation
➢ At a height of 8000 ft indicates freezing rain at
 height above 8000 ft
➢ Presence at the surface is evidence that freezing rain
occur at a higher altitude

Most common freezing precipitation is freezing rain and

freezing drizzle

Freezing rain
➢ Can be encountered ahead of a warm front in the
winter

Cirriform cloud never produce precipitation that would

reach the ground

TCU
➢ Rain showers – approach and passes the airfield,
temp drops and dew point rises
➢ Snow showers

Cumulonimbus
➢ Rain showers
➢ +TSRA
➢ Hail showers
➢ Snow showers

Stratus
➢ Drizzle fall – fall in mid-latitude
➢ Steady precipitation with little or no turbulence

Drizzle is small water droplets of 0.2 to 0.5 mm in

diameter

Precipitation in the form of showers occurs mainly from

convective clouds

Nimbostratus
➢ Steady rain or snowfall
➢ Heavy precipitation
➢ Precipitation may be snow, sleet or rain. Icing is
probable and may range between light and severe.
Turbulence is rarely more than moderate

Heavy precipitation unlikely during the summer months

on the SC, AS

Snow has the greatest impact on visibility

Large hail stones are typically associated with severe
thunderstorms, likely to be experienced below CB clouds
situated in continental regions in mid-latitude
Types of precipitations: light, moderate or heavy
Snow grains: fall from stratus or supercooled fog
Virgo is the term used to describe streamers of
precipitation trailing beneath clouds, but evaporating
before reaching the ground
Supercooled droplets can occur in clouds, fog and
precipitation

AIR MASSES AND FRONTS

• Air masses

Air mass
➢ Acquires it’s basic properties by stagnation of the
air for a long period of time over areas having
particular characteristics; Pressure system of the
source and the characteristics of the source
➢ Extensive body of air within which the temperature
and humidity in horizontal planes are practically form
➢ Stability will increase by cooling the lower and
heating the upper layers
➢ Unstable will be characterised by cumuliform
cloud and good visibility except in precipitation
➢ Cold air mass is characterised by showers and gusty
winds
➢ Being cooled from below are often characterised by
fog, poor visibility and layered cloud
➢ Warm air mass is cooled from below by the base
layer

Body of air over the ocean is referred as maritime air

Western Europe – Maritime Polar air and Maritime
tropical air
Central Europe – Equatorial air never occurs, during
summer can expect showers and good visibility
Polar maritime originated at East of Greenland
Polar continental originated at Siberian landmass
Azores is more humid and warmer than north Russian
air
Scandinavia – maritime polar air
Southern Balkan region and the Near East – source of
tropical continental that affect Europe in summer
Arctic air – originated from polar cap
Polar air mass moving south will become increasingly
unstable
Polar continental air are extremely low temperatures

Source region is an area which air mass type forms or

originates

Maritime tropical air during summer afternoon in

Western Europe has a surface visibility around 5 km – 10
km

Cumuliform clouds, turbulence and good visibility –

cold air moving over a warm surface
Stratiform clouds, smooth air and poor visibility –
warm air moving over a cold surface
Nimbostratus are most likely to occur at low levels when
a warm air overrides a cold

• Fronts

Front is a transition between two air masses, inclined

slope and often you have clouds ands precipitations

Stationary Front
➢ There is no horizontal motion perpendicular to the
front
➢ The surface wind has its directions parallel to the
front

Arctic Front is a boundary between polar air and arctic

air

The relative movement of two airmasses along a cold

front, the cold air pushes under a warm air mass
Occlusion forms when a cold front catches up with the
warm front

Warm occlusion
➢ The cold front becomes a front aloft
➢ The warm air is lifted
➢ Cold air at the rear of occlusion is less cold than the
cold air ahead, with the warm air at a higher
altitude
➢ Air behind the occlusion being warmer than the air
ahead of the occlusion
➢ The coldest air mass is ahead of the original warm
front

Cold occlusion
➢ Most frequently in Europe during summer
➢ At a polar front depression, the air ahead the
warmer front is warmer than the air behind the
cold front

WOCA: warm occlusion cold ahead

COCB: cold occlusion cold behind

2 – warm
occlusion
3 – cold
occlusion
Cold front
➢ Gusty winds
➢ When has to cross a chain of mountains, it’s activity
strengthens “upwind” of the mountain
➢ Showers at a cold front means unstable air is
present

Cold front Before During

After
Wind: Backing, increase, squally / gusty and
sudden veers / West North-West
Temp: Steady but dropping / sudden drop
/ steadily dropping
Pressure: steady decrease / lowest point, then
sharp rise / steady rise
Clouds: ST or SC or clear skies / CB CU or very
low NS / rapidly lifting, AS AC, later CU
Precipitation: drizzle, light rain / heavy rains, maybe
hail / showers, then clearing
Visibility: Fair to poor / poor followed by
improving / good, except in showers

Average slope of a cold front is in the order of 1:80

Altimeter of an aircraft parked on the ground at the
approach of a cold front will increase
Aneroid altimeter of na aircraft parked on the ground
during period following the passage of an active cold
front it will decreased, if before would increase

Warm front
➢ Situation when the warm air displaces cold air
➢ Slope and speed compared to cold front is smaller
and slower
➢ Frontal and advection fog are associated
➢ Air stable , the clouds are stratiform with uniform
precipitation
➢ Main factor that contributes for the formation of very
low clouds ahead of a warm front is saturation of
the cold air by rain falling into it and evaporating
➢ When approaching QNH and QFE decrease
➢ The velocity is 2/3 of the speed found by the
measuring the distance between the isobars along
the front itself
➢ The approximate inclined plane is 1:150

Warm front Before

During After
Wind: From S/SE, backing and increasing / variable,
decrease, sharp veers / S/SE direction
Temp: cold, cold but slowly warming / variable,
decreasing / warmer, then steady
Pressure: typically falling / lowest point,
levelling off / slowly rise followed by a fall
Clouds: CI, CS, AS and fog, CB in summer / overcast
with low bases ST,NS / SCT ST, SC, CU
Precipitation: light from AS , continuous from NS /
moderate to heavy / none or light showers
Visibility: reducing to poor / very poor,
possibility of fog / moderate, in haze
Dew point: steady rise in precipitation / steady rise
/ steady

The type of cloud that is typical of the warm sector of a

depression during winter over Central Europe is ST

The centre of a non-occluded frontal depression move in

direction of the warm sector isobars
Polar front depression moves along the front towards
the East

When humid warm air mass slowly overrides a cold one a

warm front is forming

Thunderstorms in exceptional circumstances can occur in

a warm front if the warm air is unstable

During the passage of a front in the northern

hemisphere the wind veers

During winter in Central Europe when temperatures close

to the ground are below 0°C and freezing rain starts to fall,
warm fronts, occlusions are most likely present

In Northern hemisphere advection of warm air aloft

indicates the approach of a warm occlusion

In warm sector
➢ Isolated thunderstorms are sometimes possible over
continental areas during summer
➢ A polar front is tropical air

Frontal depressions can be assumed to move in the

direction of the 200 feet wind in the warm sector

Polar front low is associated with a low pressure

The average position of the polar front is more southerly
during the winter than during the summer

Atmospheric pressure of a polar front depression is

normally lower in winter than in summer is that the
temperature contrasts between artic and equatorial
areas are much greater in winter

Upper winds blowing across the front causes movement

of a surface fronts

Reason for air mass to be forced to ascend can be lifting

at a front

Mean time interval between polar frontal waves in

Western Europe is one to two days
Mean position of the polar front during summer extends
from Newfoundland to N Scotland, during winter
extends from Florida to SW England

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

• Principal pressure areas

Northern hemisphere
➢ Subtropical high is situated near Azores
➢ Polar high is situated over Siberia and Canada
Southern Hemisphere
➢ Subtropical high is situated over South Indian
ocean and South Pacific Ocean
➢ Polar high is situated over Antarctica

Subtropical highs (warm anticyclones)

Polar high (cold anticyclones)

The formation of high and low pressure area is normally

caused by temperature differences
Average geographical latitude for subtropical high is
30°N
During summer – Azores high, Canada low
During winter the predominant mean low pressure system
at the surface is usually centred over Iceland/Greenland

• Anticyclone

Blocking anticyclone in the Northern hemisphere is a

quasi-stationary, warm anticyclone, situated between
50°N and 70°N

Cold temporary anticyclone is a pressure system

between two polar front depressions

Subsidence
➢ In an anticyclone produces dry air and an inversion
➢ Is the correct term for the descending air flow in a
large high pressure area
➢ Is a downward airflow

Cold high pressure area is a pressure system indicated in

a vertical cross section by pressure surfaces at lower
heights bulging upwards and pressure surfaces at greater
heights bulging downwards

If the pressure surfaces bulge upwards in all levels then

the pressure system is a warm high

A cold high pressure changes at altitude

➢ It weakens and may transfer into a low pressure
 ➢ It will decrease in intensity with increasing
altitude

A ridge of high pressure is generally associated with

divergence and subsidence clear skies and good
weather

A high pressure and ridge are areas of descending air

A stationary high pressure region over land in water, will

be a tendency for fog and low ST
Sinking air is the most likely cause of a lack of clouds at
upper levels in a stationary high because is heated by
compression
• Non frontal depression

Polar low it’s a depression which forms result of short-

wave disturbances along the polar front

A polar air LOW is usually formed by polar maritime air

moving SE over the sea in winter

Typical non frontal thermal depression it forms over land

in summer

Secondary depression
➢ In the northern hemisphere it tends to move round
the primary in a cyclonic sense
➢ Is most likely to appear at the cold front

Significant weather phenomena are usually associated

with a low pressure areas because of convergence with
lifting of air masses

Extensive cloud and precipitation is often associated with

a non-frontal depression because of surface convergence
and upper level divergence causing widespread ascent
of air in the depression

“Instability” low pressure means a low pressure

receiving energy from released condensation heat

Area of divergence is an area where air masses are

moving out

An intense convective LOW will indicate heavy rain, hail

and thunderstorm

A low pressure area and trough are areas of rising air

Trough are extensions of low pressure areas and generally

have large amounts of clouds

The formation of a thermal low pressure is by a

temperature rise in an area in relation to the environment

In wintertime stratus is often formed when warm maritime

air moves over cold land, they are classified as turbulence
clouds

With an intense through of low pressure over Iceland

during wintertime the weather likely to be experienced is
strong windshear, convection and snow showers

• Tropical revolving storms

Greatest number of tropical revolving storms occurs is

north-west Pacific, affecting Japan, Taiwan, Korea and
Chinese coastline

Hurricane
➢ To form the surface temperature at least +27°C, and
the formation area 5° - 15° away from the equator
➢ From the Earth’s surface up to the tropopause the
core is warmer its surroundings
➢ Most likely to appear in the North hemisphere during
summer and autumn
➢ Their eye reach up to the tropopause and extends
from surface to the top of the hurricane, can be
well observed by weather satellites
 ➢ Likely track in the Caribbean Area is west in the
early stages and later turning North east

Average of hurricanes form on average per year in the

Atlantic is 6
Average of TRS per year in Philippines is 9
Average of TRS per year from west of Darwin is 5 and
from east of Darwin is 2
Average over Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal are 12
per year

Tropical revolving storm

➢ Main energy source is latent heat released from
condensing water vapour
➢ Diameter of eye : 10 – 20 NM
➢ Diameter of the whole TRS : 270 NM
➢ Most dangerous zone is in the wall of clouds around
the eye
➢ Greatest on SE coast of North America
➢ Greatest wind speed is in the wall of cloud 50 to 100
NM outside the eye
➢ Speed of 63kts
➢ In the middle of the eye the wind speed is lower
than 63 kts and the air is descending
➢ Affects the off the coast of East Africa mainly
December - April
➢ Affects Indian Ocean, mainly April – May and
October-November
➢ Affects western Pacific and South China around
June - November referred as Typhoon
➢ Affects Australia around December to April
➢ Not formed in South Atlantic Ocean because of the
low water temperature
➢ Most frequent tropical revolving storms are
typhoons in the Pacific
➢ Develop mostly in wester parts because there is a
maximum of humidity as a result of the trade winds
along sea passage
➢ Tropical cyclones: Caribbean, gulf of Bengal,
Indian Ocean east of Madagascar
➢ Typically occur in late summer. Once formed they
then usually move west and decay on reaching a land
mass
➢ All possible stages: tropical disturbance, tropical
depression, tropical storm, severe tropical storm,
tropical revolving storm
Dense CI could indicate the presence of a tropical
revolving storm
In the tropical cyclone you can find the highest cloud top

CLIMATOLOGY

• Climatic zones

Disturbed temperature regions

➢ The weather is mainly governed by the travelling
frontal depression

Polar climates
➢ The mean temperature of all months is below plus
10°C

Snow (tundra) climate

➢ High pressure weather dominates in winter, with the
sub-soil being frozen

Mediterranean climate
➢ The annual rainfall is significantly below 700 mm
➢ Anticyclone and hot in summer, frontal depression
in winter

Savannah climate
➢ There are significantly variations in rainfall with a
wet and a dry period

Mid-latitude climate
➢ Central Europe
➢ Chilly in summer and mild winter

Average characteristics of a tropical rain climate are

relative humidity of 80%, freezing level 15000 ft and
average temperature of 28°C

Seasonal changes in climate occur because the Earth’s

spin axis is inclined to the plane of its orbit round the
Sun
At 10°N and 10°S we can expect tropical rain climate

Low pressure systems : S

and Y
SE trade winds: W
NE trade winds: U
Subtropical high pressure:
T and X

• Tropical climatology

Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

➢ Frequent and widespread thunderstorms are to be
expected within the area of the ITCZ
➢ The zone where the trade winds of the northern
hemisphere meet those of the Southern
Hemisphere
➢ It’s associated weather is characterised by strong
convergence and frequently heavy cumuliform
clouds
➢ Low pressure and instability
➢ Moves the most over land
➢ In the north, general surface winds in West Africa,
NE trade wind to the North, SW monsoon to the
South
➢ SW Monsoon affecting India blows in the summer
and brings warm and wet
➢ When at the equator: SE trade winds and NE trade
winds
➢ In the Southern Hemisphere, trade winds blow from
SE
 ➢ In the Northen Hemisphere, trade winds blow from
NE
➢ In summer – North of equator
➢ In winter – South of equator
➢ In the region of West Africa, it reaches its maximum
northerly position of 15°N – 20°N in July
➢ Furthest point north during summer is North China
➢ Freezing level between FL120 and FL160
➢ Icing zone is between FL160 and FL260
➢ The typical weather within can be characterised as
frequent CBs through strong convergence
➢ More variation over continents than over the
oceans

Between 0°N – 23°N is common for there to be SW

monsoon

South-West monsoon is the air mass which gives to the

main part of India its greatest proportion of precipitation

SW monsoon start in the month of June in the southern

Indian to reach Pakistan in July

Heights of the tropopause are not reported in the areas of

the ITCZ because it’s is more than likely to be above
your FL

Trade winds
➢ They blow between the “horse latitudes” and
“doldrums”
➢ The upper limit is approx. FL100
➢ Low level wind system between the subtropical
high pressure belt and the equatorial trough of low
pressure
➢ Winds occurring in zones situated North and South
of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
➢ Originate in a sub tropical high and move towards
the ITCZ
➢ Occur only the lower part of the troposphere and
are more pronounced over the oceans than over the
continents

Horse latitudes – dry and clear due to the influence of the

Azores high pressure system
Doldrums – are weak inter-tropical convergence zones
Summer monsoon in India: thunderstorms, showers of
heavy rain

In Nairobi – there are two wet seasons (Rainy seasons in

equatorial Africa are March to May and October to
November

In India – the humid monsoon starts in June

Easterly waves
➢ thunderstorms and rain
➢ A wave in a trade wind belt, moving from east to
west, with severe convective activity in rear of its
trough
➢ Most likely to form in the trade wind zone
➢ Waves traveling East to West
➢ Found between subtropical high pressure cells and
ITCZ

Equatorial region: rainshowers, hail showers and

thunderstorms occur the whole year, but frequency is
highest during two periods: April – May and October –
December

Pamperos – a marked advance of cold air in South

America

Water vapour distribution in the layer between the surface

and the 500hPa pressure in the trade wind belt, the lower
part is relative moist and the upper part is relatively
dry

Sweet summer
Never winter
 • Typical weather situations in the mid-latitudes

Polar frontal depression

➢ Between the latitudes of approx.35°N and 65°N
➢ In the summer the front is situated closer the Pole
(40° - 70°
➢ In the winter situated near the Equator

Frontal depression passes through an airport, you can

expect continuous rain or snow during 6 hours until the
warm front arrives

In the North Atlantic you can often see a series of

depression located in a row and travelling from west to
east, these depressions are normally generated at the
polar front

In a cold-air pool
➢ At surface we can experience low visibility
➢ Has low pressure characteristics
➢ Is greatest in the afternoon
➢ Direction and speed of movements of cold pools are
difficult to forecast
➢ In summer – precipitation is predominant, over land
showers and thunderstorms
➢ Can be best identified by means of the isohypes on
an upper air chart
➢ Are most evident in the temperature and wind
fields of the upper levels (16000 ft – 30000 ft)
➢ An aircraft climbing away from one cold-air pool we
can expect a aircraft performance reduce
Roaring forties located at 40°- 50°S, in the Southern
Hemisphere are usually stronger than the westerlies in
the Northern Hemisphere

In a flat pressure pattern in summer the weather

conditions are generally fine weather, possibly
thunderstorms in the afternoon or evening

Subtropical high-pressure belt are most likely to find at

25° - 35°

Tropopause is generally colder overhead the equator,

compared to the temperature of the tropopause
overhead the North Pole

Westerlies are to be expected in the mid-latitudes and are

very changeable.
Surface wind usually westerly in a Northern Hemisphere
polar front depression is in front of the cold front

FLIGHT HAZARD

• Icing

Most dangerous icing conditions are encountered in

supercooled precipitation
Greatest effect on the formation of the various types of
ice on an aircraft is cloud temperature and droplet size

Ice accretion
➢ Heaviest to occur in a CB is between -2°C and -15°C
➢ Most hazardous between 0°C and -23°C in large CU
Super-cooled droplets
➢ Are always at a temperature below freezing
➢ Can be encountered at any time of the year
➢ Raindrops most frequently occur in a warm front
Clouds will mainly consist of supercooled water droplets
when the temperature is between 0°C and -15°C

A small supercooled cloud droplet that collides with an

airfoil will most likely freeze immediately and create
rime ice

You can expect significant icing at altitude when on

ground you observe ice pellets
Aircraft is most susceptible to icing when level flight
below a rain producing cloud when OAT is below 0°C

One of the most severe consequences of icing on the

wings of an aircraft is the stalling speed increasing
substantially

“No change of course and altitude necessary” when ice is

light
Light or moderate hoar frost is likely to occur when
descending from FL320 to FL60 in warm clear air

If you fly into rain which freezes on impact, temperatures

are above freezing at some higher altitude

When encountered +FZRA, icing will most probably

occur, can cause airframe icing

Airframe icing can occur outside cloud or precipitation,

produced by a cloud consisting of both supercooled water
droplets and ice crystals
Airframe at -15°C you can expect the worst icing effects

Severe icing
➢ Moderate to severe airframe icing, it will not occur
in clear-sky conditions and most likely to be
encountered in nimbostratus cloud
➢ When encountered, according to ICAO you should
divert
➢ Can be indicated by a vertical temperature when
intersects the 0°C isotherm twice

Mixed ice
 ➢ Most commonly occur in NS clouds between -7°C to
-13°C
➢ Consists of clear ice and rime and can be found in
NS clouds

At FL100 in a thunderstorm, with the freezing level at

7000ft likely to occur moderate to severe icing due to
clear ice

When moderate icing, according to ICAO, a change of

course and/or altitude is desirable

CLEAR ice
➢ Most commonly occur in NS clouds between 0°C to
-10°C
➢ Formed by large supercooled water drops, which
freeze on impact on an airplane
➢ Forms as a result of supercooled water drops
spreading during the freezing process
➢ Relatively slow freezing of large supercooled
water droplets
➢ Airframe icing can occur in clear air
➢ The stalling angle will be lower
➢ Is dangerous mainly because it is heavy and is
difficult to remove from the aircraft surfaces

Hoar frost
➢ Encountered when climbing through an inversion
➢ To form, the temperature of the surface is lower than
the dew point of the air and this dew point is lower
than 0°C
➢ Forms as a result of water vapour turning directly
into ice crystals on the aircraft surface
➢ A thin coating has significant effects on the lift of
the wing
➢ Likely to form when an aircraft is parked outside on
an airfield with a significant ground inversion and
clear sky
➢ Prolonged descent in VMC in very cold air, you
penetrate a humid air mass

Freezing rain
➢ Ice in freezing rain, the clear ice forms when large
water drops freeze
➢ Gives the most severe icing
➢ One of the possible actions to minimize the ice
 accretion would be to climb to the warmer air
above
➢ Where the structural ice have the highest rate of
accretion

Carburettor icing
➢ May be expected to occur in clear air when relative
humidity 30%, OAT +30 and descent power set
➢ Temperature: 2°C and relative humidity: 90%
➢ OAT +10° and Dew point +7°

Rime ice
➢ When descending a small amount of a white and
rough powder like contamination is detected along
the edge of the wing
➢ One condition necessary for the in-flight information
of structural icing is visible moisture
➢ Most commonly occur in NS clouds between -10°C
and -30°C
➢ Forms through the freezing onto aircraft surface of
small supercooled water drops
➢ Occur in a layer of Stratus cloud of a limited depth at
a temperature of -5°C from light to moderate
➢ Water droplets freeze rapidly and do not spread out

Frost
➢ Increase weight requires a greater take-off distance
➢ Frost causes early airflow separation resulting in a
loss of lift
➢ Frost decreases control effectiveness

With CI and CS, icing can be virtually ruled out

Altocumulus and altostratus are most likely to produce
light to moderate icing when they are not subject to
orographic lifting and consist of supercooled cloud
droplets

Area where rain ice is likely to be encountered must be

avoided. Example of such area would be when flying
ahead of a warm front with the OAT gauge reading
-5°C

Flying for some time in dense layered cloud, OAT is

-25°C, severe airframe icing is unlikely under these
conditions
Sharp wing profiles experiences more icing than Thick
wing profile

Winter day in Northern Europe with a thick layer of

stratocumulus clouds and temperature close to 0° at
ground level, you can expect a high possibility for icing
in clouds. Severe icing in the upper part due to
accumulation of large droplets

The icing which forms over hills is likely to be more

severe than in the same type of cloud over level terrain
because enforced ascent of air releases more water,
which is retained in the cloud by the increased upward
components

When unable to de-ice, nor land, a pilot has to turn back

before aircraft loses manoeuvrability

Freezing fog exists if fog droplets are supercooled

• Turbulence

Light turbulence: changes in accelerometer readings less

than 0.5g at the aircraft CG
Moderate: readings of 1.0g. Difficulty in walking.
Occupants feel strain against seat belts. Loose objects
move about
Severe: readings greater than 1.0g. Occupants forced to
violently against seat belts. Loose objects tossed about

On a moderate you can code to continue the flight, the

precaution to have are decrease the speed / try to climb
above the zone of convective currents if aircraft
performance parameters allow

When CAT are anticipated we should maintain wings

level and control pitch attitude smoothly, the most
effective measure to avoid CAT effects is change of flight
level

• Wind shear

Wind shear
➢ Vertical or horizontal wind velocity and/or wind
direction variation over a short distance
➢ Can occur at any latitude
➢ Associated with low level temperature inversions
➢ Units used are kt / 100 ft
➢ Associated with low level temperature inversion, jet
stream or a frontal zone

Low level vertical windshear

➢ Can be expected during the night in association with
radiation inversions
➢ Most dangerous when strong ground inversions are
present or near thunderstorms
➢ Indicated by altocumulus castellanus
➢ Greatest at the top of a marked surfaced-based
inversion

Vertical windshear
➢ change of horizontal wind direction and / or speed
with height
➢ Vertical variation in the horizontal wind

A change in horizontal tailwind will cause a descent or

climb depending upon the strength and type of the gust

Headwind increase
 ➢ Flight path above
➢ Increase in TAS
Tailwind increase
➢ Flight path below
➢ Decrease in TAS

Before a planned take-off, wind shear is forecast. Most

advisable corse of action is to delay the take-off

The degree of Clear Air Turbulence experienced is

proportional to the intensity of vertical and horizontal
wind shear

• Thunderstorms

Thunderstorm
➢ Conditions that most likely lead to the formation is
instability, convective uplift and high absolute
humidity
➢ High temperature is NOT essential for
development
➢ Expectionally occur at a warm front
➢ Best area to penetrate a thunderstorm is by the
sides
➢ Highest frequency to encounter in tropical areas
➢ Windshear associated with thunderstorms can be
found on all sides of the thunderstorm cell and
directly under the cell
➢ For develop of thunderstorms and CBs, moist air
must be present and a trigger action
➢ For the formation, high relative humidity and
conditional instability throughout a deep layer
➢ Often preceded by altocumulus castellanus clouds
➢ 2 principal types of origin: air mass and frontal
thunderstorm
➢ Advection fog will NOT cause the formation
➢ Can occur on a warm front if the warm air is moist
and the ELR exceeds SALR
➢ A pilot should be on alert for hail when radar echoes
are well defined
➢ Severe thunderstorm is the highest in advection of
maritime cold air over a warm sea surface
➢ In Central Europe the greatest likelihood for
thunderstorms due to warm updrafts is mid-
afternoon
 ➢ Cells are moving according to the 700hPa winds
➢ Super cell thunderstorm requires for its formation a
lot of moisture and a wind vector change aloft

Frontal thunderstorm
➢ Move forward the fastest
➢ Triggered off by rising air due to falling pressure at
air mass boundaries
➢ Most difficult to avoid
➢ Associated with cold fronts

Isolated thunderstorm
➢ Of a local nature are generally caused by convection

Air mass thunderstorm

➢ Develops in summer over land in moderate
latitudes
➢ More difficult to forecast and detect
➢ Triggered off by convection and/or orographic
uplift
➢ The most likely trigger is intense insolation of a
land surface in the area of a col or weak low
➢ Advection of cold air over warm sea provide initial
lifting leading to it

Squall line thunderstorm

➢ To be expected in front (ahead) of an active cold
front
➢ Produce the most severe conditions, such as heavy
hail and destructive winds
➢ Bands of intensive thunderstorms

Orographic thunderstorms
➢ May occur at any time during day and night

Isolated thunderstorm of a local nature are generally

caused by thermal triggering

Heavy thunderstorm
➢ A cold front approaching a mountain range in the
evening

Initial stage
➢ 15-20 min
➢ No precipitation
➢ “Growth”, “Developing” or “Cumulus”
 ➢ Continuous and strong updraughts present

Mature stage
➢ 20 – 30 min
➢ CU has reached CB/TS stage
➢ Heavy precipitation starts falling
➢ Both updraughts and downdraughts are present
➢ TS has greater intensity – lightening, hail can occur

Dissipating stage
➢ 30 min up to 3 hours
➢ Precipitation continues
➢ Downdraughts present
➢ Appearance of the anvil at the top of the CB

From the beginning of the initial stage to the end of the

dissipation stage is 2hours

Stormscope: an instrument on board an aircraft to detect

electrical discharge

Gust front
➢ Formed by the cold air outflow from a
thunderstorm
➢ Descending cold air from under a TS, undercutting
warmer inflowing air

Encountering a CB cloud, should be avoided by 5000 ft

vertical and 10 NM horizontal
Hail may be expected in connection with a CB at a
latitude from the ground up to a maximum of FL450

Macroburst
➢ A great change over large area
➢ Has a diameter of more than 4km

Microburst
➢ Diameter up to 4km and 1-5min
➢ Can arise in the downdraught of a cumulonimbus at
the mature stage
➢ Concentrated dowdraught with high speeds and a
lower temperature than the surrounding air
➢ Cumulonimbus are associated
➢ Normal wind : 50 and the maximum recorded :
100
Convective
➢ Weather phenomena include thunderstorms, hail,
tornadoes, wind gust, heavy showers and lighting
strikes.
➢ Is greatest during summer in the afternoon

St.Elmo fire is a permanent electrical discharge in the

air

Between the external appearance of a severe thunderstorm

and the turbulence and hail that are contained within it,
there is apparently no correlation

Lighting
➢ Formed through na electrical discharge between the
ground and thunderstorm cloud
➢ The aircraft is temporarily part of the lighting
trajectory
➢ While flying through air that is electrically charged
the aircraft is likely to become a charge carrier itself
and can initiate a lighting discharge

Aircraft made by composite material may get severe

damage, the crew may be blinded and temporarily lose
the hearing

• Tornadoes

Tornados
➢ Most of them have a life span that lasts for a few
minutes up to 30 min
➢ Max core diameter can reach a few hundred metres
and wind speeds of over 200 kts have been recorded
➢ Have speed of movement that usually ranges from 20
to 40 knots
➢ Diameter is 100 to 150 metres
➢ Associated to cumulonimbus
➢ Time of the year they are most likely to occur in
North America is Spring, Summer

West African tornado is a line squall caused by

atmospheric waves

• Inversions

Low level inversion

 ➢ Above and below, the wind is likely to change
significantly in speed and direction
➢ Has an effect that promotes vertical windshear

Aircraft rate of climb drops to zero after take-of due to a

very strong temperature inversion

Flying through an inversion caused by subsidence, during

climb, the reduced air density above the inversion layer
will cause a certain decrease in aircraft performance

• Hazards in mountainous areas

Mountain waves
➢ Strong winds and turbulence in the mountains
➢ Flight with headwind towards high ground is likely
to be more hazardous than flight with tailwind
towards high ground
➢ A 10000 ft high mountain range aligned North-
South, greatest potential danger exists towards the
ridge from the lee side at FL140, if wind blowing
from west the most hazardous zone would be
mountain waves to the east of the mountains
➢ When severe waves are present , most severe
turbulence will be in the rotor zone
➢ Possible turbulence should be anticipated in stable
air wind speeds 25kts or greater, blowing across a
mountain ridge
➢ When flying upwind, aircraft is liable to be at its
maximum height, when over high ground
➢ When activity is present, roll or rotor clouds
signifies the most turbulent conditions
Rotor circulation: we can say that it is a low level
phenomenon

CAP clouds: appear to be harmless and downdraughts

as great as 5000 ft/min can be expected on the leeward
side

Valley inversions: often are a result of a radiation

cooling in combination with gravity, both affecting the air
at the surface of a mountain slope

A mountain ridge where a marked mountain wave has

been reported, ragged altocumulus lenticularis is an
indication for the presence of moderate/severe turbulence
at the level of these clouds

Rotors below the crest of a mountain wave, the wind

direction at the lower side of the rotors is opposite to
the prevailing direction

• Visibility

Visibility
➢ In heavy snow showers: 100 m
➢ Blowing snow can reduce to 1 m
➢ Reduced by haze when dust particles are trapped
below an inversion
➢ From cockpit during approach in a tropical
downpour can decrease to tens of meters
➢ Runways provide the worst visibility in a coastal
airfield during sunrise are 09
➢ Smoke is likely to affect when there is a low level
inversion
➢ Below a low level inversion visibility is often
moderate or poor because there is no vertical
exchange
➢ Is greater in RAINFALL compared during
DRIZZLE
➢ In unstable air, surface visibility is restricted by
showers of rain or snow
➢ When reduced by water droplets to less than 1000
metres is classified as fog
➢ Reduction due to precipitation depends on
precipitation intensity and type
➢ Solid particles which reduce visibility are
atmospheric pollution, dust, sand and volcanic ash
Forms of visible water which reduce visibility are: cloud,
fog, mist, spray or precipitation

METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION

• Observation

Runway visual range (RVR)

➢ Calculated from values derived from
transmissometer and forward-scatter meters
➢ R23L/P1200 means RVR is more than 1200 m
➢ Usually better than visibility
➢ Is reported when the visibility decrease below 1500
m
➢ RVR RW 23: 400 m means that the length of
runway which a pilot in an aircraft on the ground
would see, on the threshold of runway 23

Transmissometer: determine the visibility, runway

visual range

Surface air temperature is recorded at a height of 2 m

Flight visibility – average visibility as seen from cockpit

in flight
Meteorological visibility – determined by the observer by
means of marks and/or lights at know distances
Vertical visibility
➢ Are reported whenever the sky is obscured by fog
or heavy precipitation and the height of the cloud
base cannot be measured

“Weather hut” records four temperatures: dry bulb, wet

bulb, maximum, minimum

Ceiling
➢ Is the height above ground or water of the lowest
layer of cloud below 20000 ft covering more than
half of the sky

Cloud base reported in METAR is in steps of 100 ft up to

10000 ft and in steps of 1000 ft above 10000 ft
SKC – 0 oktas cloud cover
FEW - 1-2 oktas
SCT – 3-4 oktas
BKN – 5-7 oktas
OVC – 8 oktas

Atmospheric humidity is measured by hygrometer,

psychrometer, a pair of wet and dry bulb thermometers

Atmospheric pressure is measured by aneroid

barometer and mercury barometer

Radiosonde: instrument intended to be carried by a ballon

up through the atmosphere, measure atmospheric
pressure, air temperature and humidity, used to perform
periodical daily measurement of temperature and humidity
aloft

A cup anemometer and remote transmitting vane form the

transmitting head of the electrical anemograph which
enables a continuous record of wind direction and speed to
be made on a moving chart

Anemometer is placed on a mast 10m above the runway

elevation

Barometric tendency is measured on a aneroid

barometer and recorded on a barograph

Fog is reported, the visibility is below 1km

2 – ground fog 3–
low stratus/OVC010

Hail causes echoes on meteorological radar screens

Cumulonimbus and towering cumulus are mentioned

specially in MET reports and forecasts intended for
aviation

If wind deviates more than 10kts from the value obtained

in METAR is considered a gust
A GUST is a rapid increase in wind speed lasting less
than 1 minute and spread over a short distance.
A SQUALL is a sudden increase of wind speed of at least
16kts and lasting at least 1 minute

Airborne weather radar

➢ Makes possible to detect the location of zones of
precipitation, particularly liquid-state precipitation
and also their intensity
➢ It shows on a plan position indicator the areas of
precipitation of rain, snow and/or hail
➢ The meaning of different coloured area are different
ranges of intensities of precipitation
➢ When it shows a hook shape, the image is a hint to
the presence of a severe storm
➢ The radar scope is clear between heavy echoes, the
clear area indicates an area from which no echoes
are received. However, this radar scope provides no
assurance of being in VMC while flying in this
area
➢ In the vicinity of thunderstorms, accurate
assessment of the weather ahead of the aircraft
might be hampered due to the attenuation of the
radar echoes by heavy rain

Polar orbiting satellites

➢ Have a higher resolution
➢ Are closer to the Earth than geostationary satellites

Humidity is measured by means of psychrometer, this

compares dry bulb temperature with the lowest
temperature to which air is cooled by the evaporation
of water

The images of satellites provided daily by the weather

service are used to locate fronts in areas with a few
observation station

Best way of dealing with thunderstorms associated with a

cold front is avoidance of embedded CBs by using
airborne weather radar

Best way to identify the position of embedded CBs is the

weather radar
Weather phenomena to be stated in a special air report is
thunderstorms, without hail that are obscured,
embedded, widespread and volcanic ash cloud

All air-reports shall be reported as soon as is

practicable
AIREP – routine air report
PIREP – special air report

Special air report, in section 1 the pilot provides a

position report, including aircraft identification,
height, position and time

Horizontal visibility given for VFR flight planning by a

MET Office is meteorological visibility on ground

• Weather charts

Isotherm – a line connecting places that have the same

temperature
Isobars closely spaced together on a surface chart, strong
winds are present
Isotachs – lines joining the points of equal wind speed
Lines on a contour chart join points of equal height

On an upper wind and temperature chart the pressure

is constant all over the chart

Units used for the wind forecasts at upper levels are

direction relative to True North and speed in knots

Significant Weather Charts

➢ Information about CAT regions, icing, a pilot most
easily find a jet stream and significant weather
forecast for the time given on the chart
➢ Well separated CB clouds described as OCNL CB
➢ Purpose for consulting prior to flight is to avoid
areas with turbulence
➢ Thunderstorm symbol signifies moderate / severe
turbulence and moderate / severe icing
➢ Widespread fog is indicated by three horizontal
lines
➢ Easterly wave is identified as a weak trough

Frontal systems, each having standard color

 ➢ Cold front – blue
➢ Warm front – red
➢ Occluded front – violet
➢ Stationary front – red for warm part / blue for the
cold part

CHARTS

• Information for flight planning

METAR
➢ Signifies the actual weather report at an
aerodrome and is generally issued in half-hourly
intervals
➢ Is valid at the time of observation
➢ With TREND is a landing forecast
➢ Gives icing conditions on the runways
➢ NOSIG = no significant changes
➢ BR = mist
➢ BECMG = within next 2 hours
➢ HZ = haze
➢ DU = dust
➢ DZ = Drizzle
➢ DS = dust storm
➢ SQ = sudden increase in wind speed lasting for at
least one minute
➢ RERA = there has been moderate or heavy rain since
the last issue METAR
➢ MIFG = shallow fog (a layer of 5 feet deep)
➢ PL = ice pellets
➢ VC = present weather within a range of between
approximately 8 and 16 km of the aerodrome
reference point
➢ SHSN = moderate precipitation, consisting of snow
flakes
➢ VCBLDU = blowing dust in vicinity
➢ Present group represents QNH rounded down to
the nearest hPa
➢ Cloud base is the height above airfield level
➢ VV /// = vertical visibility is missing or not
measurable
➢ Wind measured relative to True North and based on
the average speed of the previous 10 minutes
➢ Visibility is the greatest value, which is reached
 within at least half horizon circle of the aerodrome
➢ +RA can produce a risk of aquaplaning
➢ R24R/P1500 means RVR RWY 24 – right is above
1500 m
➢ RVR is always the value representative of the
Touchdown Zone (TDZ)
➢ Wind shear updated every minute

Surface wind in a METAR will record a gust factor when

gusts are at least 10 knots above the mean wind speed

TAF
➢ TAF AMD = revised TAF
➢ Validity is stated in the TAF, (in terms of time) is
typically 9 hours
➢ Airports forecast
➢ Height of cloud bases are reported as being AAL

Trend forecast is a landing forecast appended to

METAR/SPECI, valid for 2 hours
TREND is a brief landing forecast added to the actual
weather report

ATIS
➢ Contains meteorological and operational
information
➢ Transmits MET REPORT / SPECIAL

VOLMET
➢ Broadcast is a provision, as appropriate, of current
METAR, SPECI, TAF and SIGMET by means of
continuous and repetitive voice broadcast
➢ A recorded broadcast of METARs for about 10
airports

SIGMET
➢ Issued when severe mountain waves
➢ Prepared by a meteorological watch office
➢ Is a message about observed or forecast weather
phenomena of special importance to aviation, is a
warning of dangerous meteorological conditions
that could be potentially hazardous to aircraft in
flight
➢ Information is issued as warning to all aircraft
➢ Heavy dust storm must be mentioned
 ➢ Together with SW warn the pilot of severe icing
➢ Volcanic ash has to be mentioned
➢ Filed a pilot report, it leads to an issuance of a
SIGMET

For severe squall lines a SIGMET is used

SPECI
➢ A special aerodrome weather report, issued when a
significant change of the weather conditions have
been observed
➢ An aviation special weather report

VHF-VOLMET is used for regional coverage whereas

HF-VOLMET is used for international coverage

An aerodrome warning message gives information,

amount other things, about TS; SN including the expected
or observed snow accumulation; hoar frost

With severe turbulence requires a crew to transmit a

special air-report

Meteorological briefing is an oral commentary on

existing and expected metereological conditions

Aerodrome warning is a message issued by a

meteorological office concerning the meteorological
conditions which could adversely affect aircraft on
ground, including parked aircraft, and the aerodrome
facilities and services, should be cancelled when the
conditions are no longer occurring or no longer
expected to occur

LLWAS – a North American System for detection and

warning provision of low level windshear

All categories of pilots are obliged to transmit a special

air-report if they encounter severe aircraft icing

Infrared (IR), polar orbiting are the best to locate the

clouds and the exact position of a cold front forecast for
night over Western Europe

The kind of meteorological messages normally transmitted

in a VHF VOLMET broadcast within Europe are METAR
/ SPECI

ACARS provides means of transmitting operational

messages including TAFs and METARs from ground to
air

• Meteorological services

Chief of WMO- establish and implement, together with

ICAO, a global framework for the national meteorological
services

The duties of a meteorological watch office: generate

SIGMETs

Main objective of an Aeronautical Meteorological

Station is to provide METARs and MET report; making
actual weather observations at aerodrome and offshore
platform

Normal and official sources for aircraft in flight:

VOLMET broadcast; ATIS; all ATS-units

Special air-report may trigger a SIGMET message

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