Key:

Yellow highlight = of importance.

Red Text = Formulae
Other highlights = significant points.
GNAV
Formula section:

Distance we can see in NM = 1.06height in feet

Departure Distance = DLong x Cos Latitude

EC = CHLong x Sin (Mean Latitude)

CA = ½ X CHlong x SinMeanLat

Point of highest Lat = Rhumbline distance x CA / 230

TA = IA + (4 x Thickness of Atmosphere / 1000 X ISA DEV) + 30 (QNH – Subscale)

Density altitude = PA + (118.8 x ISA Dev)

% = Vertical distance / Horizontal distance X 100

Scale of a chart = Chart Length / Earth Distance.

Scale at any latitude = Scale at the equator x 1/CosLatitude

DenominatorA. CosA/New. Earth Distance A

-------------------- = -------------- = ------------------------
DenominatorB. CosB/Old. Earth Distance B

Scale of a chart = Chart Length / Earth Distance.

Calculation of Glide path height = Glidepath Angle X Distance to go in ft / 60

Earth convergance = Chlong x sine parallel of origin

CA = ½ x Chlong x sine parallel of origin

CRP help
If given Heading and wants you to find track go away from the side of the dot on the CRP.

Key Aspects
Form of the Earth
Distance we can see in NM = 1.06height in feet
Or given NM calculate how high you must be to see objects base.
Distance/1.06 =ANS2

EAST WEST = Major Axis

NORTH SOUTH = Minor Axis
Ratio 1:298
Diameter of earth pole to pole is 7924. So 7924/298 = 27NM so 7924+27NM = Major axis
semi.

WGS 84 Ellipsoid world Geodetic shape.

Geodetic line is Vertical and the correct way

Geocentric is to the centre of the earth.
No error at equator or poles but max error at 45N/S
Max error is between geodetic and geocentric error of 11nm only at 45N/S
Change of Latitude = CHLAT
Change of Longitude = CHLONG

Longitude lines all great circles

Latitude at equator is only great circle line
Great circle by definition is the circle where the centre is the centre of the earth.
A Small circle is smaller and centre not centre of earth.

Line of longitude pole to pole is only a semi great circle

Shortest distance between two points the surface of a sphere is a part great circle.

A great circle track changes constantly except N/S along the equator.

At the halfway point the great circle track is parallel to the parallel of latitude.

Rhumbline/Loxodrome – imaginary line on earths surface cutting all meridians at the same
angle.

Great circle is always on the polar side of the rhumb line.

All meridians are semi great circles

Vertices are most NORTH & SOUTH points of a great circle. North & South VERTEX.
Vertices are ANTIPODAL from each other and 90o removed from the equator. Meaning they
are the exact opposite points on the earth.
Direction
Magnetic North – The direction in which a freely suspended magnetic compass needle will
align itself.

Magnetic pole makes 1 Revolution every 960 YEARS

Magnetic North moves 40 miles/YEAR

Angular difference between True & Mag is Variation.

Magnetic = True +/-Variation.

Easterly variation is +
Westerly variation is –
If the value of variation is the same, it is an ISOGONAL. AGONIC is an isogonal with 0
Variation.
Agonic line is a line joining points of zero variation. It follows several irregular paths out of
the North polar regions

Compass deviation is the angular difference between compass north and magnetic north.

CDMVT
Cadbury’s Dairy Milk Very Tasty
Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation True
CADET = C  T Add East.
e.g.
C D M V T
087 2E 089 21W 068

Magnetic Dip
Field strength Vectors:
H Component is HORIZONTAL
Z Component is VERTICAL

Combination of these 2 gives Magnetic Dip.

Equator = Lots of H little Z
Poles = Lots of Z little H

6 micro teslas worth of H, compass becomes useless.

Map showing lines of equal magnetic inclination is an isocline.
Lines of zero dip are called Aclinic lines.

Relative Bearing – Relative to A/C nose clockwise.

RBI – Fixed compass card – only for NDB
RMI – Moveable compass card

We measure True directions from our local meridian in a clockwise direction.

Distance

Conversions
1 inch = 2.54cm
1 NM = 1.15 SM/MPH
1 NM = 6080 feet
1 Metre = 3.28 feet
1 Foot = 12 inches

1 Degree = 60NM
1 Minute ARC = 1NM

Distance = DLAT (in minutes) or CHLAT (in Degrees) x 60

Departure Formula (rhumb line) for when NOT on a Great circle route.
Departure Distance = DLong x Cos Latitude
DLong is in minutes.
E.g. point A 53N 005E and point B 53N 027E
027E-005E = 22o x 60 = Dlong of 1320nm so 1320nm x Cos 53 = 794nm

If given the Distance and need to find new longitude

Distance / Cos Lat = /60
e.g 398/Cos48 = 594/60 = 9o54’ then add or subtract as necessary.

If given the Dlong and Distance and you need to work out the LAT
Distance/DLong = ANS then Cos-1ANS = Latitude.

Convergance

The bigger the CHLONG (change in longitude) the greater the convergence angle.
Higher Latitude the CA is bigger too.
CA at equator is 0

EC/CA/Convergance Angle = CHLong x Sin (Mean Latitude)

e.g. 30N 10E & 30N 56E
46 x Sin30 = 23o CA

Or given Angle work out LAT

CA/Chlong
CA 38o = Chlong (44) x ?LAT? so… 38/44 = Sin-1ANS

Or given Angle work out LONG

CA/SinLat
CA 41o = ?CHlong? x sin55 so… 41/sin55= ANS

N
W D I NH
SH I D E
S

Conversion angle is the angle between the great circle track and Rhumb line track.
CA = ½ X CHlong x SinMeanLat

Calculating the highest latitude which gives you answer in minutes.

Rhumbline distance x CA / 230
Units: 5 Box Rule Litre’s
Kilo’s
x SG x 3.8
x 2.2 US
x 4.55
GAL
Lb’s
x 1.2

Imp
x 10 SG GAL

RAT/TAT = SAT + RAM Rise

^ always warmer than SAT

Lateral navigation
D
ST
TAS 430 28kt TW
0523 FIR UK boundary is the current plan.
ETA is 0609 but asked to make 0613
G/S 458
Planned 46 minutes with a distance of 351nm
New time of 50 minutes
351/50 so new G/S is 421 so new TAS is 421 – 28TW = 398

Relative Velocity
Velocity of an object in relation to another.
Try to use the latest time if possible if not use the earlier time.

RA = 60 D
e.g. 40nm down range 3 nm off track what’s the angle?
60x3/40 = 4.5o.
Then work out closing angle / track correction by doing the same again with distance
remaining.

Drift angles
RA = 60 D
R = Speed
A = Drift angle
D = Wind velocity
Obstacles less than 300ft DO NOT have to notify the authorities of any SPOT HEIGHT pilot
must add 300ft and obviously the 1000ft clearance, 2000ft in mountainous regions.

Wind direction if you hear it its magnetic if you read it its true.
For a 3o glide slope with 1nm out, your height above the ground is 304ft.
Calculation of Glide path height = Glidepath Angle X Distane to go in ft / 60
e.g. 3o GP 4nm from touchdown = 3o x (4nm x 6080) / 60
if it says threshold, add 50ft
ROD on 3oGP = 5 x G/S
Lost procedure
5 C’s
Circle – Don’t get further lost, pick a fix to circle around
Climb – more visual cues, better comms through line of sight
Conserve – fuel check, endurance speed
Communicate – radar fix, squawk.
Calculate – clock, heading, speed.

Vertical navigation

e.g. @ FL95 need to descend to FL20 you are 40nm from VOR
G/S 140 kts ROD?
7500/17mins8seconds = ROD 438.

Climb
Wind velocity in Climb = 2/3 cruise Altitude wind
TAS in Climb = 2/3 cruise altitude

Descent
Wind = ½ cruise altitude wind
TAS = ½ cruise altitude

Gradients & Angles

% = Vertical distance / Horizontal distance X 100
e.g. you are 97ft up and 5000ft horizontal this = 1.94% gradient.

Given a ratio e.g. 35:1 this means for every 35 units along you are 1 unit up. This is done as
1/35 x 100 = 3.3%

e.g. 200ftclimbed/NM = 3.3% this is done as 200/6080 = 3.3%

KEY POINT 1% = 0.6 Degree.

e.g.
Obstacle 5.4%climb to be achieved, this = 3.2o
ROC? Whilst at a GS of 140kts
R A = 60 D
140Kts is your R but turn it into FPM = 14186fpm
A is 3.24o.
So 14186 x 3.24 / 60 = 766fpm.

Altimetry

Density altitude = PA + (118.8 x ISA Dev)

We use 30ft per mb in GNAV
Make sure you draw a diagram to make these problems simple, refer to hand written notes
for clear diagrams.
TA = IA + (4 x Thickness of Atmosphere / 1000 X ISA DEV) + 30 (QNH – Subscale) this doesn’t always work
so make sure you draw it and work it out first, then use this as a proof checker.

Scale & Projection

Scale of a chart is the ratio of a distance on a map to the corresponding distance on the
ground.
Large scale chart = Covers a small area = Closer to reality = Smaller Denominator
Small Scale Chart = Covers a large Area = Further from reality = Larger Denominator

1:250,000 if this number gets bigger it is a smaller scale.

Scale of a chart = Chart Length / Earth Distance.

e.g. scale 2 inches is 3nm real.

3 x 6080 x 12 = 218,880. So 2/218,880 = 1/109440
We always want a 1 at the top.
This is known as a representative fraction.
Numerator and denominator must be in the same units.
e.g.
1 inch = 1nm so 1 x 6080 x12 x2.54 so this = 1:1,459,200.

Or
1inch:1,000,000 what is the earth distance in nm?
1,000,000 /12 / 6080 = 13.7nm

1:175,000 express this as the number of cm on the chart represented by 9.2km

Scale chart = CL/ED = CL/ED so 9.2km/175,000=CL but turn the 9.2km into cm.
9.2 x 1000 x 100 / 175,000 = 5.2cm

Chart Projections & Accuracy

3 ways of creating charts:

1) Cylindrical Projection – Best for the equator - MERCATOR

Light in the centre of the model globe with a cylindrical piece of paper round the globe. The
paper only touches the earth in one place/line. This is called the great circle of tangency this
is where the chart is most accurate.
 2) Conic projection – best for temperate latitudes - LAMBERT

3) Plane projection – best for poles – Polar Stereographics

4 types of distortion of a 2D chart: ADDS

A – Area
D – Direction
D – Distance
S – Shape
Most important 2 are Direction & Distance
Most charts are distorted and unsuitable for aviation purposes. They are mathematically
modified so they are NON perspective charts.
Perspective Charts are NOT mathematically modified

Key area:
Conformality / ORTHOMORPHISM = Shapes are shown correctly
Earth direction & Chart direction must be correctly represented this is known as
orthomorphism.
To achieve this:
1) Meridians of parallels of latitudes must intersect at 90 o as they do on a 3D earth
model.
2) At any point on the chart, scale should be the same or change at a predictable rate in
all directions.

Mercator Charts

Mercator Chart are cylindrical projections

3 different types

Direct/Normal: Transverse: Oblique:

Scale at any latitude = Scale at the equator x 1/CosLatitude
Scale expands (number gets smalle) from the equator as the Secant (1/Cosine) of the
latitude

Perspective Charts are NOT mathematically modified: P

Non Perspective ARE mathematically modified: NON P

Direct Mercator Summary

Property Description
Orthomorphic/Conformal Yes (Mathematically modified) = NON P
Equivalence No
Scale Correct at equator expands as Secant of the
latitude
Great circles Concave to equator (polar side)
Rhumb Lines Straight lines
Meridians Parallel straight lines
Parallels of latitude Parallel straight lines
Graticule Rectangular
4 Ways Mercator questions can be asked, here they are with a few examples:

Scale at any latitude = Scale at the equator x 1/CosLatitude

Scale of another latitude away from the equator:

Scale at 60N if scale is 1:1,000,000
Answer = 1/1,000,000 x 1/Cos60 = 1:500,000
Write it as 1,000,000 x Cos 60

Scale of the equator if given scale at a latitude:

At 52S scale is 1:2,000,000 scale at equator is?
2,000,000/Cos52 = 1:3,428,538

Given scale at a latitude calculate scale at another latitude:

DenominatorA. CosA/New
-------------------- = -------
DenominatorB. CosB/Old
Re write to Denominator? = known denominator x Cos(A)/Cos(B)
Scale at 54S is 1:2,000,000 what is scale at 25N?
2,000,000 x CosA 25o / CosB 54o = Denominator 3,083,806

Given a fixed chart length between meridians, calculate Mercator scale at a specific latitude:
On Mercator chart, the chart length between two meridians 160E & 160W is 30cm at 30 oS
what is the scale of the chart at 30oS?
Scale of a chart = Chart Length / Earth Distance.
Scale = 30cm/ Earth distance which is Departure formula DLong (40x60=2400) x cos30 =
30cm:2078nm
So 2078nm x 6080 x 12 x2.54 = 385091635cm
30cm/385091635cm = 1:12,836,387

Transverse Mercator Summary

Property Description
Orthomorphic/Conformal Yes (Mathematically modified) = NON P
Equivalence No
Scale Correct along the central meridian, expands
as the secant East / West
Convergence Same as Earth Convergence at the poles
and at the equator
Great circles Straight lines along the central meridian
and 90o from it. All others are concave to
central meridian
Rhumb Lines Straight lines along the CM and 90o from it.
All others are complex curves
Meridians Curved lines concave to CM
Parallels of latitude Circular at the pole, becoming more
elliptical toward the equator
Graticule trapezoid

Oblique Mercator
Property Description
Orthomorphic/Conformal Yes (Mathematically modified) = NON P
Equivalence No
Scale Correct along the False equator, expands as
the secant away from it.
Great circles GC close to the false equator can be
considered straight lines. All others are
complex curves concave to FE
Rhumb Lines Complex curves
Meridians Complex curves
Parallels of latitude Complex curves
Graticule complex
Lamberts
The small circle of tangency touches at a latitude this latitude for example may be 50 oN so
the angle of the cone will be 50o. this is known as the cone constant angle.
Circle of tangency = parallel of origin.

Lamberts conical projection intersects the earth at 2 points. You have the 2 standard
parallels and the parallel of origin.
Inbetween the 2 standard parallels the scale contracts meaning the number increases.

Paralel of origin also known as constant of cone, convergence factor, ‘n’.

Earth convergance = Chlong x sine parallel of origin
CA = ½ x Chlong x sine parallel of origin
Given convergence factor e.g. 0.788 do sine-1 = 52o, you can then use this for calculations.
Great circles on Lamberts charts are nearly straight, these are better for radio fixes.
Rhumb lines are curves, concave towards the equator.
Lamberts Conical
Property Description
Orthomorphic/Conformal Yes (Mathematically modified) = NON P
Equivalence No
Scale Correct at the standard parallels. Contracts
inside, expands outside.
Convergance Constant across the chart as meridians are
straight lines
Great circles Meridians are straight lines, great circles
are concave to the Parallel of origin
Rhumb Lines Except meridians, they are curves concave
to the nearer pole.
Meridians Converging straight lines
Parallels of latitude Parallel curved lines
Graticule trapezoid

Plotting

VOR variation at the station

NDB variation at the aircraft

QUJ – True To
QTE – True From
QDM – Mag bearing To
QDR – Mag bearing From

Heading + Relative bearing = Bearing to

True Heading + Relative Bearing = QUJ
Mag Heading + Relative Bearing = QDM
Polar stereographic
Scale is correct at the pole and expands away from the pole
Great circles are concave to the pole but may be assumed to be straight lines
Convergency is the change of longitude and is constant as latitude varies
Meridians are shown as straight lines
Scale reaches minimum value at the north pole.
Scale expands at secant2 = 1/Cos2

Property Description
Orthomorphic/Conformal Yes however it is NON perspective
Equivalence No
Scale Correct at the poles and expands at Secant2
of Latitude. Scale correct within 1% above
78oN
Convergance Meridians are straight lines therefore
convergency = CHlong
Great circles Straight lines within 78oN but slightly
concave to the pole.
Rhumb Lines Curves concave to Point of Tangency
Meridians Diverging straight lines
Parallels of latitude Concentric circles increasing in size toward
the equator
Graticule trapezoid
When plotting Polar stereographs put 000 meridian for NH at bottom of page and for SH put
000 meridian at the top of the page.
Youre CHlong will equal the angular change from pole to locations. See notes for this. i.e.
convergency = CHlong

Grid Navigation

Grid track is constant – grid convergance is the angular difference between grid north and
true north.
Go GRID North to TRUE to get direction of grid convergence think G&T.
C stands for Convergence and G for Grid.

Grid North if it is 0 then in the Northern Hemisphere given a West longitude Add it to the
True track. If East take it away from the true track.
In southern hemisphere then Add East & minus West

Time & Space

Anything directly above our head is called our Zenith

Stars North & South of the equator are declination

Tropic of Cancer at 23.5N

Tropic of Capricorn at 23.5S
Celestial latitude is called declination
Prime celestial meridian = First point of Aries
Astronomical unit = 1AU = Earths Distance from the Sun
3rd January = Perhelion = Closest distance between Earth & sun.
3rd July = Aphelion = Furthest distance between Earth & sun.

1 – Keplers First LAW: The orbit of a planet is an elipse with the sun at the centre
focus.
2 – Keplers Second LAW: Equal Area Equal Time – the sun planet line sweeps out equal
area in equal time. as the earth moves closer to the sun it speeds up.
3 – Keplers Third LAW: The square of a planets orbital period (p) is equal to the cube of
its semi-major axis (a) = a3=P2

The eliptic – Earth Tilt 23.5o / Elipticy / Obliquity.

Spring Equinox 21st March – Line up with first point of Aries

Summer Solstice 21st June
Autumn Equinox 21st September
Winter Solstice 21st December
Equinox = Day and night are the same length.

SideReal Day = 23 hours 56 mins. 1 side real year = 366 days

Solar Day – is always a bit more than a side real day. The difference between a sidereal day
and a solar day always changes.

Apparent solar day – sun at noon till noon the sun is at its highest point.

Mean solar day – the average of apparent solar day and sidereal day which is the average of
24 Hours.
The mean sun leads or lags the apparent sun throughout the year.

When is the max time difference between mean time and apparent time? February &
November.

Local Mean time

Time based at a particular longitude based upon the passage of the mean sun.
W Relative E
Behind 000 Ahead
Earlier in the day Later in the day

ARC to Time – Mean sun is assumed to travel around earth every 24 hours. In one hour =
15oCHlong.
15o = 1 hour
1o = 4 minutes
15’ = 1 minute

e.g. a CHlong of 94o30’ / 15 = a change in time of 6 hours 18 minutes, now apply it to the
west or east rule.

ZULU Time / UTC / Universal Co=ordinated time based on 000 E/W

Standard time
This is used to describe synchronisation of clocks at a different geographical location.
Standard times are set by the government or authority of a country.

Sun rise & Sunset

These begin at the moment the limb of the sun touches the sensible horizon.

Twilight = Centre of the sun is 6o below the sensible horizon

Morning civil twilight = time interval between civil dawn & civil sunrise.

Sunrise at the Equator is 0600 +/- 15mins

Sunset at the equator is 1800 +/- 15mins

Twilight at the equator lasts 21 mins at higher latitudes twilight lasts longer.
Summary key points of different charts

POLAR STEREO GRAPHS

Great circles Straight lines within 78oN but slightly
concave to the pole.
Rhumb Lines Curves concave to Point of Tangency

Lamberts Conical
Great circles Meridians are straight lines, great circles
are concave to the Parallel of origin
Rhumb Lines Except meridians, they are curves concave
to the nearer pole.

Oblique Mercator
Great circles GC close to the false equator can be
considered straight lines. All others are
complex curves concave to FE
Rhumb Lines Complex curves

Transverse Mercator
Great circles Straight lines along the central meridian
and 90o from it. All others are concave to
central meridian
Rhumb Lines Straight lines along the CM and 90o from it.
All others are complex curves

Direct Mercator
Great circles Concave to equator (polar side)
Rhumb Lines Straight lines