CSEC Chemistry

Teacher: Ms. Kristi Mohammed

Miss Shazara Kristi Mohammed
 SECTION B

THERMAL & KINETIC ENERGY

 Thermal Energy and Temperature
Temperature describes the average kinetic energy of molecules within a material or system and is measured in Celsius

(°C) or Kelvin(K).

Heat, on the other hand, describes the transfer of thermal energy between molecules within a system and is measured in

Joules. Heat measures how energy moves or flows.

The equation below shows the relationship between heat and temperature:
 Units of Temperature
The Celsius Scale

Celsius, also called centigrade, scale based on 0° for the freezing point of water and 100° for the boiling point of water.

The Celsius Scale is sometimes called the centigrade scale because of the 100-degree interval between the defined points.
 Units of Temperature
The Kelvin Scale

In the Kelvin scale, absolute zero, or 0°K, is the temperature at which molecular energy is at zero, and it corresponds to

a temperature of −273° on the Celsius temperature scale. The Kelvin degree is the same size as the Celsius degree; hence

the two reference temperatures for Celsius, the freezing point of water (0°C), and the boiling point of water (100°C),

correspond to 273°K and 373°K, respectively.

Methods of Heat Transfer
 Methods of Heat Transfer

There are three methods of heat transfer:

1) Conduction

2) Convection

3) Radiation
 Conduction
Conduction is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through collisions between neighboring atoms or

molecules. Metals are good conductors of electricity as a result of the mobile electrons within its atomic structure.

Non-metals, on the other hand, are insulators and do no conduct electricity.

Conduction
Conduction
 Convection
Convection currents are a flow of liquid or gas caused by a change in density, in which the whole medium moves

and carries the heat energy with it.

 Radiation
Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a

material medium. This includes electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light,

ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma radiation.

Important Points on Radiation:

I. Radiant heat energy is absorbed by all objects and surfaces, this results in a temperature rise.

II. Black surfaces absorb radiant heat energy more quickly than shiny or white surfaces.

III. Dull black or matte surfaces emit more radiant heat than shiny surfaces.

IV. Radiant heat energy is part of the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation. This is a family of various types of

radiation which exhibits common characteristics. Radiant heat energy is called infra-red radiation.
 Heat Transfer in a Vacuum Flask
A thermos flask has double walls, which are evacuated, and the vacuum bottle is silvered on the inside. The vacuum

between the two walls prevents heat being transferred from the inside to the outside by conduction and convection.

With very little air between the walls, there is almost no transfer of heat from the inner wall to the outer wall by

convection. Conduction can only occur at the points where the two walls meet, at the top of the bottle and through an

insulated support at the bottom. The silvered walls reflect radiated heat back to the inside the flask.
 Expansion
The increase in size of objects when they get hotter is called expansion. This expansion can be the cause of problems

in the construction of machines and buildings.

Demonstrating Expansion in a Solid

A metal ball and a metal ring are both cold. Initially, the ball can pass through the ring. The ball is then heated.

Immediately after the ball is heated, it will be observed that the ball can no longer pass through the ring. With the rise

in temperature of the ball comes an increase in the size, an expansion. The ring shows that the diameter of the ball has

increased in all directions.

 Expansion in a Bimetallic Strip

A bimetallic strip consists of two strips of different metals, e.g. brass and iron, welded or riveted together. When

cold, the bimetallic strip is straight as shown above. As it is heated, however, the brass expands more than the iron

and so the brass forms the outside of a curve and the iron inside as shown in the diagram below.
Ideal Gas Laws
 Kinetic Theory of Matter
The Caloric Theory was later replaced by the Kinetic Theory of Matter which states:

I. All matter consists of very small particles that are in continual motion.

II. When a substance is heated, the heat energy supplied results in an increase in the kinetic energy of the particles of the

substance, and hence in its thermal energy, causing the temperature to rise.

III. Friction facilitates the conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy.
 Kinetic Theory of Matter
For a fixed quantity of gas:

This looks at the behavior of a fixed quantity of gas under varying pressure, volume and temperature.
Factors that can affect the Pressure of a Gas:
An increase in temperature increases the pressure of a gas.
An increase in concentration increases the pressure of a gas.
A decrease in volume increases the pressure of a gas.
 The Ideal Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s law states that for or a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure is inversely proportional

to its volume.

1
𝑃𝛼
𝑉

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘 (𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
 The Ideal Gas Laws
Charles’ Law

Charles’ law states that for a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its

absolute temperature.

𝑉𝛼𝑇

𝑉
= 𝑘 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
 The Ideal Gas Laws
The Pressure Law

Pressure law states that for or a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to its

absolute temperature.

𝑃𝛼𝑇

𝑃
= 𝑘(𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑇

𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
The Combined Gas Law
Thermal Calculations
 Internal energy
When a material is heated or cooled, two changes may happen to the particles within the material:

I. Chemical bonds between the particles may form, break or stretch. There is a change in the chemical potential store of

energy in the material.

II. The material will heat up or cool down as the particles within it gain or lose speed. There is a change in the thermal

store of energy within the material.

 Energy and Temperature
Changes in a material's temperature or state of matter are caused by changes to the internal energy. The energy required

by different materials depends on their 'heat capacity' and 'latent heat'.

Internal energy is linked to the temperature of matter but the two are very different things:

❑ Internal energy is a measure of the total energy of all the particles in the object or substance. This includes the

kinetic energy of the particles and chemical potential energy of the bonds between them.

❑ Temperature is a measure of the average speed of the particles. This is based on the kinetic energy of individual

particles.

Heating water causes the water molecules to gain kinetic energy and speed up. It takes more energy to raise the

temperature of a large amount of water because more molecules need to have their speed changed.
 Specific Heat Capacity & Heat Capacity
❑ The Specific Heat Capacity (c) of a substance is the is the energy required to raise one kilogram (kg) of the material by

one degree Celsius (°C).

❑ The Heat Capacity (C) of a body is the heat needed to change the body by one degree Celsius (°C).

The Specific Heat Capacity, c, of water is 4,200 J/kg°C. This means that it takes 4,200 J to raise the temperature of one kg

of water by 1 °C.

Some other examples of specific heat capacities are:

Because it has a low specific heat capacity, lead will warm up and cool down quickly as it doesn't take much energy to

change its temperature. Brick will take much longer to heat up and cool down, its specific heat capacity is higher than that

of lead so more energy is needed for the same mass to change the same temperature.
 Calculating Heat Energy
When heat energy is supplied to a body its temperature may rise. The increase in temperature is the result of an increase

in the KINETIC ENERGY of the particles of the substance. The following relationship then applies:
 Latent Heat
❑ Energy is required to change the state of substance.

❑ When a substance changes state, there is no temperature change.

❑ The energy supplied to change the state is called the latent heat and is defined as:

The thermal energy required to change the state of 1 kg of mass of a substance without any change of temperature
 Latent Heat
There are two types of latent heat: I. Specific Latent Heat of Fusion (Melting

II. Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization (Boiling)

❑ The Specific Latent Heat of Fusion, lf, is defined as:

The thermal energy required to convert 1 kg of solid to liquid with no change in temperature.

This is used when melting a solid or freezing a liquid

❑ The Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization, lv, is defined as:

The thermal energy required to convert 1 kg of liquid to gas with no change in temperature.

This is used when vaporising a liquid or condensing a gas

 Calculating Latent Heat
The amount of energy. E, required to melt or vaporize a mass, m, with latent heat, L is:
 SECTION C

LENS & OPTICS

Reflection & Refraction
 Reflection
The Laws of Reflection

When light reaches a mirror, it reflects off the surface of the mirror:

i. the incident ray is the light going towards the mirror.

ii. the reflected ray is the light coming away from the mirror.

The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence equals the

angle of reflection, i = r. It works for any angle.

For example:

the angle of reflection is 30° if the angle of incidence is 30°

the angle of reflection is 90° if the angle of incidence is 90°

 Refraction
Light waves change speed when they pass across the boundary between two substances with a different density, such

as air and glass. This causes them to change direction, an effect called refraction.

At the boundary between two transparent substances:

➢ the light slows down going into a denser substance, and the ray bends towards the normal

➢ the light speeds up going into a less dense substance, and the ray bends away from the normal
 Refraction
The density of a material affects the speed that a wave will be transmitted through it. In general, the denser the

transparent material, the more slowly light travels through it.

❑ Glass is denser than air, so a light ray passing from air into glass slows down. If the ray meets the boundary at an

angle to the normal, it bends towards the normal.

❑ The reverse is also true. A light ray speeds up as it passes from glass into air, and bends away from the normal by

the same angle.

 Wave Speed, Frequency and Wavelength in Refraction
For a given frequency of light, the wavelength is proportional to the wave speed:

𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

So if a wave slows down, its wavelength will decrease. The effect of this can be shown using wave front diagrams

like the one below. The diagram shows that as a wave travels into a denser medium, such as water, it slows down and

the wavelength decreases. Although the wave slows down, its frequency remains the same, due to the fact that its

wavelength is shorter.
 Refraction
Refraction explains why an object appears to bend when it goes through water.
 Refractive Index, η
The speed of light is determined by the material (or medium) through which it travels. As it leaves one medium and

enters another, it changes speed and so refracts. The refractive index is the extent to which light is refracted when it

enters a medium. It is calculated as:

η1 sin 𝑖
=
η2 sin 𝑟

Where: η – The refractive index of the material.

i – the angle of incidence

r – the angle of refraction

A refractive index has no units. Air has an index of 1.0, water is 1.3 and many types of glass are around 1.5. This

means that light travels 1.3 times as fast in air than it does in water, and 1.5 times as fast in air than in glass.
 Refractive Index, η
Worked Example

A beam of light hits a glass block. The angle of incidence is 55°. The angle of refraction inside the block is 33°.

Calculate the refractive index.

sin 𝑖
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
sin 𝑟

sin 55
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
sin 33

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = 1.50

 Total Internal Reflection & Critical Angle

❑ When a light ray reaches the boundary between two transparent materials it may be refracted. If it is leaving the

denser medium, this refraction would be expected to bend the ray away from the normal as it emerges.

❑ However, if this would bend the ray at more than 90° from the normal, the refraction is not possible. In this

situation, the ray is reflected inside the denser medium, following the law of reflection. This is called Total

Internal Reflection.

❑ The angle of incidence when the angle of refraction is 90 degrees, and the ray changes from just refracting to

total internal reflection, is called the Critical Angle.

 Total Internal Reflection
Total internal reflection only occurs when:

❑ light travels from a dense medium to a less dense medium e.g. from glass to air;
 Total Internal Reflection
Total internal reflection only occurs when:

❑ if the angle of refraction in the air becomes 90°, the angle of incidence in the glass is called the critical angle.

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 =
η
 Total Internal Reflection
❑ If the angle of incidence in the dense medium is greater than the critical angle, total internal reflection occurs.
 Wave Interference and Diffraction
Light behaves as both particles and waves at the same time. Light exhibits wave behavior in phenomena such as

interference and diffraction but particle behavior in the photoelectric effect.

Lens
 Type of Lens
When light is refracted it changes direction due to the change in density as it moves from air into glass or plastic.

A lens is a piece of specially shaped transparent material that can form focused images of objects.

Lenses are used in cameras, telescopes, binoculars, microscopes and corrective glasses.

There are two types of lens:

I. Convex Lenses

II. Concave Lenses

 Converging (or Convex) Lenses
A converging lens is thicker in the middle than it is at the edges.

❑ Parallel light rays that enter the lens converge.

❑ They come together at a point on the principal axis called the principal focus F.

❑ The centre of the lens is called the optical centre C.

❑ A ray of light incident at the optical centre passes straight through without being bent.

In a ray diagram, a converging lens is drawn as a

vertical line with outward facing arrows to
indicate the shape of the lens.
 Ray Diagram for Convex Lens
Key Points:

o The focal length, f, of a converging lens is the distance between the optical centre, C, of the lens and the

principal focus, F.

o Focal length is measured in m, cm or mm.

Ray Diagram for Convex Lens
 Diverging (or Concave) Lenses
A diverging lens is thinner in the middle than it is at the edges.

❑ This causes parallel rays to diverge.

❑ They separate but appear to come from a principle focus F on the other side of the lens.

In a ray diagram, a diverging lens is drawn as a

vertical line with inward facing arrows to indicate
the shape of the lens.
Ray Diagram for Convex Lens
Ray Diagram for Concave Lens
 Magnification

Magnification, m, is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object.

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠

𝑣
𝑚=
𝑢
 Lens Formula
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

Where: f – focal length: + for convex, – for concave

v – distance of image from lens: + if real, – if virtual

u – distance of object from lens: + if real, – if virtual

Determine the distance of the image from the lens, if the focal length is 10 cm and the object was placed a distance of

12 cm in front of the lens.

1 1 1
= + 1 1
10 𝑣 12 =
Where: f = 10 cm 𝑣 60

u = 12 cm 1 1 1 𝑣 = 60 𝑐𝑚
= −
𝑣 10 12
Electromagnetic Waves
 Types of Waves

Waves are one of the ways in which energy may be transferred. Waves can be described as oscillations, or vibrations

about a rest position. For example:

❑ sound waves cause air particles to vibrate back and forth

❑ ripples cause water particles to vibrate up and down

The direction of these oscillations is the difference between longitudinal or transverse waves.

❑ In longitudinal waves, the vibrations are parallel to the direction of wave travel.

❑ In transverse waves, the vibrations are at right angles to the direction of wave travel.
 Demonstrating Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves are often demonstrated by pushing and pulling a stretched slinky spring.

In longitudinal waves, the vibrations are parallel to the direction of wave travel.
Demonstrating Longitudinal Waves
In the diagram, the compressions

move from left to right and energy

is transferred from left to right.

However, none of the particles are

transported along a longitudinal

wave.

Instead, they move backwards and

forwards between compressions as

the wave is transmitted through the

medium.
 Transverse Waves
In transverse waves, the vibrations are at right angles to the direction of wave travel.

Examples of transverse waves include:

❑ vibrations in a guitar string

❑ electromagnetic waves - eg light waves, microwaves, radio waves.

Demonstrating longitudinal waves

Transverse waves are often demonstrated by moving a rope rapidly up and down.
Demonstrating Transverse Waves

In the diagram the rope moves up

and down, producing peaks and

troughs. Energy is transferred from

left to right. However, none of the

particles are transported along a

transverse wave. The particles

move up and down as the wave is

transmitted through the medium.

 Components of a Wave
The components of a wave can be seen on the diagram below:
 Wave Period
𝟏
𝑻=
𝒇

Where: T – Period of the Wave (s)

f – Frequency of the Wave (Hz)

Question: Calculate the Time Period of a wave with a frequency of 50 Hz.

Equation: Solution: 1
𝑇=
1 𝑓
𝑇=
𝑓
1
𝑇=
50
Data: f = 50 Hz
𝑇 = 0.02 s
 Wave Speed
𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 × 𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

𝒗 = 𝒇λ

Where: v – Wave Speed measured in metres per second (m/s)

f – Frequency of the Wave (Hz)

λ – Wavelength measured in metres (m)

 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.

Their vibrations or oscillations are changes in electrical and magnetic fields at right angles to the direction

of wave travel.

All electromagnetic waves:

❑ transfer energy as radiation from the source of the waves to an absorber.

❑ can travel through a vacuum such as in space

❑ travel at the same speed through a vacuum or the air

Electromagnetic waves travel at 300 million metres per second (m/s) through a vacuum.
 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum of waves. This includes:

❑ waves with a very short wavelength, high frequency and high energy.

❑ waves with a very long wavelength, low frequency and low energy.

Electromagnetic waves can be separated into seven distinct groups in the spectrum.
 Radio Waves
The behavior of an electromagnetic wave in a substance depends on its frequency. The differing behaviors

of different groups in the electromagnetic spectrum make them suitable for a range of uses. Radio waves

are used for communication such as television and radio.

 Radio Waves
Radio waves are transmitted easily through air. They do not cause damage if absorbed by the human body,

and they can be reflected to change their direction. These properties make them ideal for communications.

Radio waves can be produced by oscillations in electrical circuits. When radio waves are absorbed by a

conductor, they create an alternating current. This electrical current has the same frequency as the radio

waves. Information is coded into the wave before transmission, which can then be decoded when the wave

is received. Television and radio systems use this principle to broadcast information.
 Microwaves & Infrared Waves

Microwaves are used for cooking food and for satellite communications. Infrared light is used by electrical

heaters, cookers for cooking food, and by infrared cameras which detect people in the dark.

High frequency microwaves have frequencies which are easily absorbed by molecules in food. The internal

energy of the molecules increases when they absorb microwaves, which causes heating. Microwaves pass

easily through the atmosphere, so they can pass between stations on Earth and satellites in orbit.
Infrared light has frequencies which are absorbed by some chemical bonds. The internal energy of the

bonds increases when they absorb infrared light, which causes heating. This makes infrared light useful for

electrical heaters and for cooking food. All objects emit infrared light. The human eye cannot see this light

but infrared cameras can detect it. This 'thermal imaging' is useful for detecting people in the dark.
 Visible Light
Visible light is the light we can see. It is used in fibre optic communications, where coded pulses of light

travel through glass fibres from a source to a receiver.

CSEC Physics
End of Section B & C